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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point do dislocations
cause permanent deformation? What materials are
most resistant to permanent deformation?
• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?
Chapter 6- 1
Chapter 6- 2
6.1 Introduction
• Mechanical properties:
strength,hardness,ductility,stiffness.
• ASTM: American society for testing and
materials
Chapter 6- 3
Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
Chapter 6- 4
Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared
plastic
elastic + plastic
F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
plastic displacement
Chapter 6- 5
6.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain
Chapter 6- 6
Chapter 6- 7
Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile
machine specimen
Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister 7e.
gauge
length
Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 7e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1965.) Chapter 6- 8
Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, : • Shear stress, :
Ft Ft F
Area, A Area, A Fs
Fs
Ft
Fs Ft
Ft lb f N = F
= = 2 or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area
before loading
Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf/in2
Chapter 6- 9
Common States of Stress
• Simple tension: cable
F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
Ao
Ski lift(photo courtesy
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)
M Fs Ao
Ac
Fs
Ao
M
2R Note: = M/AcR here.
Chapter 6- 10
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (1)
• Simple compression:
Ao
F
Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao ( < 0 here).
Chapter 6- 11
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (2)
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:
z > 0 h< 0
Chapter 6- 12
Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
/2
L
L
Lo Lo wo
wo
L /2
• Shear strain:
x = x/y = tan
y 90º -
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 6.1 (a) and (c), Callister 7e. Chapter 6- 13
Shear and Torsional Tests
1 cos 2
' cos 2 (6.4a )
2
sin 2
' sin cos (6.4b)
2
Adapted from Fig.
7.9, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 7.9 is from
C.F. Elam, The
Distortion of
Metal Crystals,
Oxford University
Press, London, Chapter 6- 14
1935.)
6.3 Stress-Strain Behavior
1.σ = Eε (6.5)
E:modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus(GPa)
2.Elastic deformation:stress and strain are proportional
3.The greater the modulus, the stiffer the material.
Chapter 6- 15
Chapter 6- 16
Chapter 6- 17
Chapter 6- 18
Mechanical Properties
• Slope of stress strain plot (which is
proportional to the elastic modulus)
depends on bond strength of metal
E
dF
dr r0
Chapter 6- 19
Chapter 6- 20
6.5 ELASTIC PROPERTIES of
Materials
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus) E F
• Hooke's Law: 1
=E Linear-
elastic
L
Units: F
E: [GPa] or [psi] - simple
1 tension
test
Chapter 6- 21
Chapter 6- 22
y
• Poisson’s ratio
x
z z
metals: ~ 0.33
ceramics: ~0.25 ν : dimensionless
polymers: ~0.40
Chapter 6- 23
YOUNG’S MODULI: COMPARISON
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
1200
Semicond
Eceramics
1000 Diamond
800
600
400 Tungsten
Si carbide
Al oxide Carbon fibers only
> Emetals
Molybdenum
>> Epolymers
Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
Si crystal
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold Glass-soda AFRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
40
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister 6e.
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers)*
6 AFRE( fibers)*
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4
Chapter 6- 27
Chapter 6- 28
YIELD STRENGTH: COMPARISON Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140)qt
y(ceramics)
>>y(metals)
Hard to measure,
Al (6061)ag
Steel (1020)hr
Hard to measure, Room T values
200 ¨
Ti (pure)a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500)hr Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 6e.
100 a = annealed
dry
70 PC hr = hot rolled
60 Al (6061)a Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 PET
humid cd = cold drawn
40 PVC
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered
20
LDPE
Tin (pure) Chapter 6- 29
10
Tensile Strength, TS
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister 7e.
TS
F = fracture or
y
ultimate
engineering
strength
stress
150
Chapter 6- 32
Chapter 6- 33
Ductility(延性)
l f l0
(percent elongation) % EL 100
l
0
% RA
A A
0 f
100
(percent reduction in area)
A 0
Chapter 6- 34
DUCTILITY, %EL
L f Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL x100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering (brittle if %EL<5%)
tensile
stress,
Ao
larger %EL Lo Af Lf
(ductile if
%EL>5%)
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister 6e.
Chapter 6- 38
Resilience:彈性能
The capacity of a material to absorb energy when
it is deformed elastically and then, unloading, to
have this energy recovered.
y
U r
d
0
1
Linear elastic region: U y y
r
2
Chapter 6- 39
Toughness(韌性)
Chapter 6- 40
Chapter 6- 41
Chapter 6- 42
LOADING RATE
• Increased loading rate... TS
--increases y and TS y larger
--decreases %EL TS
• Why? An increased rate y
gives less time for disl. to smaller
move past obstacles.
• Impact loading: sample (Charpy)
--severe testing case
--more brittle
--smaller toughness
Adapted from Fig. 8.11(a) and
(b), Callister 6e. (Fig. 8.11(b)
is adapted from H.W. Hayden,
W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The
Structure and Properties of final height initial height
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical
Behavior, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc. (1965) p. 13.)
Chapter 6- 43
TOUGHNESS
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve. (Figure 6.13)
Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)
tensile larger toughness
stress, (metals, PMCs)
smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers
Chapter 6- 44
6.7 True Stress and Strain
true stress
F
T
A i
true strain ln l i
T
l 0
Al Al
i i 0 0 No Volume change
T
1
T
ln1
Chapter 6- 45
KT
n
T n: strain hardening exponent
Chapter 6- 46
HARDENING
• An increase in y due to plastic deformation.
large hardening
y
1
y small hardening
0
d
reload
unloa
• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:
T C T n n=0.15 (some steels)
to n=0.5 (some copper)
rue?stress (F/A) rue?strain: ln(L/Lo)
Chapter 6- 47
Table 6.4
Chapter 6- 48
Chapter 6- 49
6.8 Elastic Recovery after Plastic Deformation
Chapter 6- 50
6.10 Hardness
•Hardness is a measure of a material’s resistance to localized
plastic deformation.硬度是材料對局部塑性變形(如小凹痕刮痕)
抵抗能力之一種量測。
Chapter 6- 51
HARDNESS
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., (1 to 1000g) of indent after
10mm sphere removing load
Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.
increasing hardness
Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering Properties
and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.)
Chapter 6- 52
Hardness: Measurement
• Rockwell
– No major sample damage
– Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range 20-
100.
– Minor load 10 kg
– Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
• A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond
• HB = Brinell Hardness
– TS (psia) = 500 x HB
– TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
Chapter 6- 53
Table 6.5
Chapter 6- 54
Table 6.6a
Chapter 6- 55
Table 6.6b
Chapter 6- 56
Hardness Conversion
Chapter 6- 57
Chapter 6- 58
Correlation between hardness and
tensile strength
TS(MPa) = 3.45 × HB
Fig 6.19 steels alloys
TS(psi) = 500 × HB
Chapter 6- 59
SUMMARY
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches y.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.