PHYSIOLOGY NOTES

Ali Rashdi
Physiology
By Ma’am Nousheen
Hormones The nervous and endocrine systems work together to regulate the activities of the
other organs. Both systems use chemical signals when they respond to changes that might
threaten homeostasis.
The Endocrine system
The endocrine system is largely composed of glands. These glands secrete hormones, such as
insulin, which are carried by the bloodstream to target cells throughout the body. It takes time to
deliver hormones, and it takes time for cells to respond, but the effect is longer-lasting. In other
words, the endocrine system is organized for a slower but prolonged response.
Endocrine glands can be contrasted with exocrine glands. Exocrine glands secrete their products
into ducts, which take them to the lumens of other organs or outside the body. For example, the
salivary glands send saliva into the mouth by way of the salivary ducts. Endocrine glands, as
stated, secrete their products into the bloodstream, which delivers them throughout the body.
Hormones influence almost every basic homeostatic function of an organism, including
metabolism, growth, reproduction, osmoregulation, and digestion. Therefore, it is not surprising
that hormones are produced by invertebrates as well as vertebrates. For example, the hormone
insulin is a key regulator of metabolism in vertebrates, and insulin-related peptides have been
identified in insects and molluscs, suggesting an early evolutionary origin of this hormone.
Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
The hypothalamus helps regulate the body’s internal environment in two ways. Through the
autonomic nervous system, it influences the heartbeat, blood pressure, appetite, body
temperature, and water balance. It also controls the glandular secretions of the pituitary gland
(hypophysis), a small gland about 1 cm in diameter connected to the hypothalamus by a stalklike
structure. The pituitary has two portions: the posterior pituitary and the anterior pituitary.
Posterior Pituitary
Neurons in the hypothalamus, called neurosecretory cells, produce the hormones antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) (Gk. anti, “against”; ouresis, “urination”) and oxytocin. These hormones pass
through axons into the posterior pituitary, where they are stored in axon terminals. Certain
neurons in the hypothalamus are sensitive to the water-salt balance of the blood. When these cells
determine that the blood is too concentrated, ADH is released from the posterior pituitary. Upon
reaching the kidneys, ADH causes water to be reabsorbed. As the blood becomes dilute, ADH is
no longer released. This is an example of control by negative feedback— the effect of the
hormone (to dilute blood) shuts down the release of the hormone. Negative feedback maintains
stable conditions and homeostasis. If too little ADH is secreted, or if the kidneys become
unresponsive to ADH, a condition known as diabetes insipidus results. Patients with this condition
are usually very thirsty; they produce copious amounts of urine and can become severely
dehydrated if the condition is untreated. The consumption of alcohol inhibits ADH release. This
effect helps explain the frequent urination associated with drinking alcohol.
Oxytocin (Gk. oxys, “quick”; tokos, “birth”), the other hormone made in the hypothalamus, causes
uterine contractions during childbirth and milk letdown when a baby is nursing. The more the
uterus contracts during labor, the more nerve impulses reach the hypothalamus, causing oxytocin
to be released. Similarly, the more a baby suckles, the more oxytocin is released. In both
instances, the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary is controlled by positive feedback—
that is, the stimulus continues to bring about an effect that ever increases in intensity. Oxytocin
may also play a role in the propulsion of semen through the male reproductive tract and may affect
feelings of sexual satisfaction and emotional bonding.
Anterior Pituitary
A portal system, which consists of two capillary networks connected by a vein, lies between the
hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary (Fig. 40.6, right). The hypothalamus controls the anterior
pituitary by producing hypothalamic-releasing hormones and in some instances hypothalamic-
inhibiting hormones. For example, one hypothalamic-releasing hormone stimulates the anterior

Physiology by Ma’am Nousheen notes by Ali Rashdi

pituitary to secrete a thyroid-stimulating hormone, and a particular hypothalamic-inhibiting
hormone prevents the anterior pituitary from secreting prolactin.
Anterior Pituitary Hormones Affecting Other Glands
Some of the hormones produced by the anterior pituitary affect other glands.
Gonadotropic hormones stimulate the gonads—the testes in males and the ovaries in females—
to produce gametes and sex hormones.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce cortisol.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroxine (T4) and tri-
iodothyronine (T3).
In each instance, the blood level of the last hormone in the sequence exerts negative feedback
control over the secretion of the first two horm
Anterior Pituitary Hormones Not Affecting Other Glands
Three hormones produced by the anterior pituitary do not affect other endocrine glands.
Prolactin (PRL) (L. pro, “before”; lactis,“milk”) is produced in quantity only after childbirth. It
causes the mammary glands in the breasts to develop and produce milk. It also plays a role in
carbohydrate and fat metabolism.
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) (Gk. melanos, “black”; kytos, “cell”) causes skin-color
changes in many fishes, amphibians, and reptiles having melanophores, skin produce color
variations. The concentration of this hormone in humans is very low.
Growth hormone (GH), or somatotropic hormone, promotes skeletal and muscular growth (Fig.
40.6, right). It increases the rate at which amino acids enter cells and protein synthesis occurs.
It also promotes fat metabolism, as opposed to glucose metabolism.
The amount of GH produced is greatest during childhood and adolescence.
If too little GH is produced during childhood, the individual has pituitary dwarfism, characterized by
normal proportions but small stature. Such children also have problems with low blood sugar
(hypoglycemia), because GH normally helps oppose the effect of insulin on glucose uptake.
Through the administration of GH, growth patterns can be restored and blood sugar problems
alleviated. If too much GH is secreted during childhood, the person may become a giant (Fig.
40.7b). Giants usually have poor health, primarily because elevated GH cancels out the effects of
insulin, promoting diabetes mellitus. On occasion, GH is overproduced in the adult, and a
condition called acromegaly results. Because long bone growth is no longer possible in adults,
only the feet, hands, and face (particularly the chin, nose, and eyebrow ridges) can respond, and
these portions of the body become overly large
Other Endocrine Glands and Hormones
In this section, we discuss the thyroid and parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, pineal
gland, thymus, and other tissues that produce hormones secondarily. All the hormone products of
these glands and tissues play a role in health and homeostasis.
Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands
The thyroid gland is attached to the trachea just below the larynx (see Fig. 40.2). Weighing
approximately 20 grams, the thyroid gland is composed of a large number of follicles, each a
small, spherical structure made of thyroid cells that produce the hormones triiodothyronine (T3),
which contains three iodine atoms, and thyroxine (T4), which contains four iodine atoms. Cells
that reside outside the follicles of the thyroid gland produce the hormone calcitonin. The
parathyroid glands, which produce parathyroid hormone, are embedded in the posterior surface of
the thyroid gland.

The blood calcium level is regulated in part by calcitonin, a hormone secreted by the thyroid
gland when the blood calcium level rises. The primary effect of calcitonin is to bring about the
deposit of calcium in the bones (Fig. 40.10, top). It does this by temporarily reducing the activity
and number of osteoclasts. When the blood calcium lowers to normal, the thyroid’s release of
calcitonin is inhibited

Parathyroid Glands
Parathyroid hormone (PTH), produced by the parathyroid glands, causes the blood calcium
level to increase and the blood phosphate (HPO4 2–) level to decrease. Low blood calcium

Physiology by Ma’am Nousheen notes by Ali Rashdi

stimulates the release of PTH, which promotes the activity of osteoclasts, releasing calcium from
the bones. PTH also promotes the kidneys’ reabsorption of calcium, lessening its excretion. In the
kidneys, PTH also brings about activation of vitamin D. Vitamin D, in turn, stimulates the
absorption of calcium from the small intestine These effects bring the blood calcium level back to
the normal range, and PTH secretion stops. Calcitonin and PTH are therefore considered to be
antagonistic hormones, because their action is opposite one another and both hormones work
together to regulate the blood calcium level.
Adrenal Glands
The adrenal glands is about 5 cm long and 3 cm wide, weighs about 5 g, and consists of an inner
portion called the adrenal medulla and an outer portion called the adrenal cortex. These
portions, like the anterior and posterior pituitary, are two functionally distinct endocrine glands.
Stress of all types, including both emotional and physical trauma, prompts the hypothalamus to
stimulate both portions of the adrenal glands. The adrenal cortex is also involved in regulating the
salt and water balance, as well as secreting a small amount of male and female sex hormones.
Adrenal Medulla
During emergency situations this call for a “fight-or-flight” reaction, the hypothalamus sends nerve
impulses by way of sympathetic nerve fibers to many organs, including the adrenal medulla. This
neurological response to danger quickly dilates the pupils, speeds the heart, dilates the air
passages, and inhibits many nonessential bodily functions. Meanwhile, the adrenal medulla
secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) into the blood stream.
These hormones continue the response to stress throughout the body—for example, by
accelerating the breakdown of glucose to form ATP, triggering the mobilization of glycogen
reserves in skeletal muscle, and increasing the cardiac rate and force of contraction. These effects
are usually short-lived however, as these two hormones are rapidly metabolized by the liver.
Adrenal Cortex
In contrast to the rapid response of the sympathetic nervous system and adrenal medulla, the
hypothalamus produces a longer term response to stress by stimulating the anterior pituitary to
produce ACTH, which in turn causes the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids.
Glucocorticoids. Cortisol is the most important glucocorticoid produced by the human adrenal
cortex. Cortisol raises the blood glucose level in at least two ways:
1. It promotes the breakdown of muscle proteins to amino acids, which are taken up by the liver
from the bloodstream and converted into glucose.
2. It promotes the catabolism of fatty acids rather than carbohydrates, and this spares glucose.
The rise in blood glucose is beneficial to an animal under stress, because glucose is the preferred
energy source for neurons.
Glucocorticoids also counteract the inflammatory response, including the type of reaction that
leads to the pain and swelling of joints in arthritis and bursitis
Mineralocorticoids produced by the adrenal cortex regulate salt and water balance, leading to
increases in blood volume and blood pressure. Aldosterone is the most important of the
mineralocorticoids. Aldosterone primarily targets the kidneys, where it promotes the renal
absorption of sodium (Na+) and renal excretion of potassium (K+), thereby helping regulate blood
volume and blood pressure.
Pancreas
The pancreas is a slender, fish-shaped organ that stretches across the abdomen behind the
stomach and near the duodenum of the small intestine. Approximately 6 inches long and weighing
about 80 grams, the pancreas is composed of two types of tissue: Exocrine tissue produces and
secretes digestive juices that go by way of ducts to the small intestine; endocrine tissue, called the
pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans), produces and secretes the hormones insulin and
glucagon directly into the blood.
Insulin is secreted when there is a high blood glucose level, which usually occurs just after
eating. Insulin stimulates the uptake of glucose by cells, especially liver cells, muscle cells, and
adipose tissue cells. In liver and muscle cells, glucose is then stored as glycogen, and in fat cells
the breakdown of glucose supplies glycerol for the formation of fat. In these ways, insulin lowers
the blood glucose level.

Physiology by Ma’am Nousheen notes by Ali Rashdi

Glucagon is secreted from the pancreas, usually between meals, when blood glucose is low.
The major target tissues of glucagon are the liver and adipose tissue. Glucagon stimulates the
liver to break down glycogen to glucose and to use fat and protein in preference to glucose as
energy sources. Adipose tissue cells break down fat to glycerol and fatty acids. The liver takes
these up and uses them as substrates for glucose formation. In these ways, glucagon raises the
blood glucose level. Insulin and glucagon are another example of antagonistic hormones, which
work together to maintain the blood glucose level
Testes and Ovaries
The activity of the testes and ovaries is controlled by the hypothalamus and pituitary. The testes
are located in the scrotum, and the ovaries are located in the pelvic cavity. The testes produce
androgens (e.g testosterone), the male sex hormones. The ovaries produce estrogens and
progesterone, the female sex hormones.
Testosterone also brings about and maintains the male secondary sex characteristics that
develop during puberty. Testosterone also stimulates the activity of oil and sweat glands in the
skin.
Estrogen and progesterone, have many effects on the body they bring the secondary female
characteristics

Pineal Gland
The pineal gland (epiphysis), located deep in the human brain produces the hormone melatonin,
primarily at night.
Melatonin is involved in our daily sleep-wake cycle and circadian rhythms are controlled by an
internal timing mechanism called a biological clock.
Thymus
The lobular thymus lies just beneath the sternum. This organ reaches its largest size and is most
active during childhood.
With aging, the thymus gets smaller and becomes fatty. Lymphocytes that originate in the bone
marrow and then pass through the thymus become T lymphocytes. The lobules of the thymus are
lined by epithelial cells that secrete hormones called thymosins. These hormones aid in the
differentiation of T lymphocytes packed inside the lobules.

Sense organs
They have receptors which detect the change which is either external or internal
The sensory receptors responsible for taste and smell are termed chemoreceptors because they
are sensitive to certain chemical substances in food, including liquids, and air. Chemoreception is
found almost universally in animals and is, therefore, believed to be the most primitive sense
Chemoreceptors are present throughout the body of planarians, they are concentrated in the
auricles located on the sides of the head. Insects, crustaceans, and other arthropods possess a
number of chemoreceptors. In the housefly, chemoreceptors are located primarily on the feet. A fly
literally tastes with its feet instead of its mouth. Insects also detect airborne pheromones, which
are chemical messages passed between individuals. In crustaceans such as lobsters and crabs,
chemoreceptors are widely distributed in their appendages and antennae. In vertebrates such as
amphibians, chemoreceptors are located in the nose, mouth, and skin. Snakes possess
Jacobsen’s organs, a pair of sensory pitlike organs located in the roof of the mouth. When a
snake flicks its forked tongue, scent molecules are carried to the Jacobsen’s organs and sensory
information is transmitted to the brain for interpretation.
In mammals, the receptors for taste are located in the mouth, and the receptors for smell are
located in the nose.
Sense of Taste
In adult humans, approximately 3,000 taste buds are located primarily on the tongue. Taste buds
are the pocket of cells that extend through the tongue epithelial and operant at taste pore Taste
buds have supporting cells and a number of elongated taste cells that end in microvilli, it carry
message.

Physiology by Ma’am Nousheen notes by Ali Rashdi

It has a plasma receptors portion or a glycoprotein that project from the surface of the cell and
binds to a particular molecule, they are four types of taste receptors on the tongue, bitter, sour,
sweet and salty
All the present in high concentration in a particular region
Sweet are present on the tip of the tongue
Sour receptors are present o the margin of the tongue
Salty are present on the tip and upper front pour of the tongue
Bitter are located towards the back of the tongue these buds have a different sensory fibers
Micro villi bear plasma membrane receptors for certain chemicals they bind a Molecule to the
plasma membrane receptors cause electro-chemical changes that leads to the generation of nerve
impulse in sensory nerve fibres
These nerve impulse goes to the parental lobe of the cereberam which detect the change Also to
the brain stem
Sense of smell
In humans, the sense of smell, or olfaction, is dependent on between 10 and 20 million olfactory
cells.
These structures are located within olfactory epithelium high in the roof of the nasal cavity, each
olfactory cell is in the tuft of about five cilia
These cilia bear plasma membrane receptors these receptors are for various chemicals
When odorous molecules binds with plasma membrane receotors, olfactory nerve impulse
generates they estimulate olfactory bulb they passes through the nerve fibres to olfactory bulb
located in front of the brain some sensations are produced
Some process occurs before olfactory information is send to the brain
Temporal lobe is the for the smell control/smell sensations
Recently scientists have determined that there are thousands of odor receptors present in the
nasal cavity, many olfactory cells have some specific type of receptors
Usually, the sense of taste and the sense of smell work together to create a combined effect when
interpreted by the cerebral cortex.
For example, when you have a cold, you may think food has lost its taste, but most likely you have
lost the ability to detect its smell.
This method works in reverse also. When you smell something, some of the molecules move from
the nose down into the mouth region and stimulate the taste buds there. Therefore, part of what
we refer to as smell may, in fact, be taste.

Sense of Vision in invertebrates and vertebrates

Some animals lack photoreceptors and instead depend on senses such as smell and hearing;
other animals have photoreceptors but live in environments that do not require them. For example,
moles live underground and use their senses of smell and touch rather than eyesight.
Not all photoreceptors form images. The “eyespots” of planarians allow these animals to sense
and move away from light.
Image-forming eyes are found among four invertebrate groups: cnidarians, annelids, molluscs,
and arthropods. Arthropods have compound eyes composed of many independent visual units
called ommatidia (Gk. ommation, dim. of omma, “eye”), each possessing all the elements needed
for light reception
Ommatidia
Function as lenses to direct light rays toward the photoreceptors. The photoreceptors generate
nerve impulses, which pass to the brain by way of optic nerve fibers. The outer pigment cells
absorb stray light rays, so that the rays do not pass from one visual unit to the other
Color visions
Insects, some fishes, all reptiles, and most birds are believed to have color vision, but among
mammals, only humans and other primates have color vision

The Eye

Physiology by Ma’am Nousheen notes by Ali Rashdi

Eye detect light and convert it into electrochemical implus in neuron, eye collect light from
surroundings. It regulates its intensity through a diaphragm focus it through an adjustable
assembly of lenses to form image convert this image into a set of electrical signals to the brain.,
through complex neuron pathways that connect eye, where the optic nerve to the visual cortex and
other areas of brain
Cornea
Front part of tough outer coat, its function is to reflect light paints as it enter in eyes
Sclera
Its transparent and convex part, its function is to reflect light paint
Lens
It is transparent bi-convex flexible disc, behind eye lid and is attached by the
ligaments to the inner muscles
Its function is focus light on to the sclera
Eye iris
It is pigmented and decide the color of your eyes, and regulates light entrance. Its
muscles contract and relax to alter size of central pole
Function is to control how much light enter in pupil
Retina
It contain receptors for sight. It’s the inner layer of the eye containing two type of
photo receptor cells
Rods
The rods are very sensitive to light, but they do not respond to colors
Cones
This part is sensitive to color light

The eye of fishes

The eyes of fishes are similar in most aspects of structure and function to those in other
vertebrates. However, fish eyes are lidless, and the lens is rounded and close to the cornea.
Focusing requires moving the lens forward or backward.
Eye of Reptiles
Vision is the dominant sense in most reptiles, and their eyes are similar to those of amphibians.
Upper and lower eyelids, a nictitating membrane, and a blood sinus protect and cleanse the
surface of the eye. In snakes and some lizards, the upper and lower eyelids fuse in the embryo to
form a protective window of clear skin called the spectacle. Some reptiles possess a median
(parietal) eye that develops from outgrowths of the roof of the optic tectum (midbrain). In the
tuatara, the median eye is complete with a lens, nerve, and retina. In other reptiles, the median
eye is less developed. Skin covers median eyes, which probably cannot form images. They can,
however, differentiate light and dark periods and are used in orientation to the sun.
Eye of amphibians
Vision is one of the most important senses in amphibians because they are primarily sight feeders.
A number of adaptations allow the eyes of amphibians to function in terrestrial environments. For
example, the eyes of some amphibians (e.g., anurans, salamanders) are close together on the
front of the head and provide the binocular vision and well-developed depth perception necessary
for capturing prey. Other amphibians with smaller and more lateral eyes (e.g., some salamanders)
lack binocular vision. However, their more laterally placed eyes permit these animals to see well
off to their sides. The transparent nictitating membrane (an “inner eyelid”) is movable and cleans
and protects the eye.
Eye of vertebrates
Vertebrates can adjust their vision for light that light coming from either close up or distant objects
so this process of focusing light ranges on the ratina is called accommodation

Physiology by Ma’am Nousheen notes by Ali Rashdi

Starching & relaxation of eyes depands on eye muscles & fibres (cilia and suspensory ligaments)
these muscles attach to the lance for accommodation. A fluid aqueous humor that fills the anterior
and posterior chamber. The lens is behind the iris, and a jellylike vitreous body fills the vitreous
chamber behind the lens. The moist mucous membrane that covers the eyeball is the conjunctiva.
In all vertebrates, the retina is well developed. Its basement layer is composed of pigmented
epithelium that covers the choroid layer. Nervous tissue that contains photoreceptors lies on this
basement layer. The photoreceptors are called rod and cone cells because of their shape. Rods
are sensitive to dim light, whereas cones respond to high-intensity light and are involved in color
perception.
When a pigment (rhodopsin) in a rod cell absorbs light energy, the energy that this reaction
releases triggers the generator potential in an axon and then an action potential that leaves the
eyeball via the optic nerve. When the photoreceptor cells are not being stimulated (i.e., in the
dark), vitamin A and energy from ATP convert rhodopsin back to its light-sensitive for

Human skin
It is also an organ, it perform different functions it covers body, protecting from microbial and
water loss Skin cells manufacture precursor molecules that are converted to vitamin D after
exposure to sunlight, keratin protein is simple protein with no functional group and indigestible
It has 3 layers, epidermis dermis and subcutaneous layer, subcutaneous binds the skin to the
underlying organs. In both types of skin,
Epidermis
The epidermis (Gk. Epi=over; derma =skin) is made up of stratified squamous epithelium.
new cells derived from stem (basal) cells and undergoes continuous cells division, and these new
cells pushes out body old cells and blood supply, eventually the old cells becomes dead, first they
get hard and then in the last are sheded out.
Hardening takes place because the cells produce keratin, a waterproof protein. A thick layer of
dead, keratinized cells, arranged in spiral and concentric patterns, forms fingerprints (and toe
prints), which are thought to increase friction and aid in gripping objects.
Specialized cells in the epidermis called melanocytes produce melanin, the pigment responsible
for skin color
Nails are a protective covering of the distal part of fingers and toes, collectively called digits. Nails
grow from epithelial cells at the base of the nail in the portion called the nail root. The cuticle is a
fold of skin that hides the nail root. The cells of a nail become keratinized as they grow out over
the nail bed. The whitish color of the halfmoon-shaped base, or lunula, results from the thick
layer of cells in this area
The visible portion of the nail is called nail body colored pink due to the vascular dermal tissue.
Normally a nail can grow about one millimeter in a week.
Dermis
The dermis is a region of dense fibrous connective tissue beneath the epidermis. The dermis
Contain collagen and elastic fibers also contain hair root and hair follicles
Each hair follicle has one or more oil glands (sebaceous glands), which secrete sebum, an oily
substance that lubricates the hair within the follicle and the skin itself, dermis of the skin contain
erector muscles that attaches to the hair follicles, when these contact causes the hair to stand or
when you feel frightened or cold. Also contain sweat glands present in most of the skin regions,
these open on the surface of the skin but some of the sweat glands opens into the hair follicles
Dermis contain sensory receptors for touch, pressure, pain, and temperature.
Pressure receptors are present around the joints and tendon and these provide information about
how and where we move
Touch receptors are also present at the finger tips and arm
Also contain nerve fibers branches present throughout the skin and thermo receptors detect heat
and cold are capsulated by the sheath of the connective tissue
While the receptors for pain have free nerve ending
Dermis also contain blood vessels
Beneath the dermis there is sub subcutaneous layer contain adipose tissue.
It is an insulate layer because it help to insulate body by minimizing both heat gain and loss

Physiology by Ma’am Nousheen notes by Ali Rashdi

Pancreas
Glandular organ in the digestive system & endocrine system of the vertebrates, in human it’s
located in abdominal cavity behind the stomach
The gland produce several important hormones and these include
Insulin, glycogen, pancreatic polypeptides and sometostatin which is an inhibitory hormone in the
anterior pitutory gland
Effects of sometostatin
It promotes the release of growth hormones and thyroid stimulatory hormone and suppress the
release of gastro intertory hormone that is gastrin
It suppress the exocrine secretion of pancreas. it inhibite the release of glycogen and it inhibite the
release of insulin by beta cells
Insulin (peptide hormone) Produced by the beta cells of the pancreas, pancreas contain 200,000
to 2000,000 cells which are of three types Alpha beta and gamma and f-cells
Alpha secretes glycogen, beta secretes insulin,gamma secretes sonatotash (unknown function),
and f-cells secretes pancreatic polypeptides in the bloodstream after the meal, fasting, exercise
Its level is decreased by sometostatin
Insulin
It regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins by promoting the absorption of
especially glucose from the blood and convert t into fat by liver and skeletal muscle cell, absorbed
glucose is converted glycogon by the process of glyogensis or fats tryglyceride by the process pf
lipogenesis
Glycogon
Is a hormone produced by alpha cells of pancreas, its function is to raise the concentration of
glucose in the blood stream
Pancreas is also a digestive organ and it secretes pancreatic juices containing digestive enzymes
and these assist digestion and absorption of nutrients in the small intestine
It help in further breakdown of carbohydrates proteins, lipids in chyme so also known as mixed
gland
Pancreas is involved in blood sugar control and metabolism in the body, also concerned with the
secreation of substance with help in digestion
The pancreatic glands
It has two parts endocrine and exocrine
Exocrine secretion inside the duct and duct is known as pancreatic duct, this duct carry exocrine
pancreatic secretion to the small intestine and duodeneum
Another is liver it produce bile which carry to the deudonium, these two ducts merge to form a
single common duct it carry bile and pancreatic secretions
Pancreatic secretions are known as digestive enzymes and they complete the digestion of
carbohydrates proteins and initiates the digestion of lipids
The enzymes released by pancreas are trypsin, amylase, lipase, nuclease and chemotropsin
Amylase digest starch into maltose, chemotropsin digest proteins into polypeptides and amino
acid and peptides
Trypsin convert protein polypeptides into amino acids Glucose is easily absorbed by the cells
Lipase digest fats into acids (it require bile salts) & glycerols
Nuclease acts upon nucleic acid and convert into mononucleotides
Duct cells carry bicarbonate ions (HCO3) this neutralize the acidity of the acidity of the stomach,
this raise the pH for 2 to 7and convert the pH of stomach into the optimal pH. Due to this optical
digestion takes place without such nutrilization, pancreatic enzymes couldn’t function

Physiology by Ma’am Nousheen notes by Ali Rashdi