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English Translated Version Printed in India in association with China Communication Press, No. 3 Waiguan Xiejie
Street, Andingmenwai, Chao Yang District, Beijing (100011)
ISBN: 978-93-5014-583-8
First Indian Edition: 2015
Published by:
S.K. Kataria & Sons
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Printed at Repro India Ltd., New Delhi (INDIA)
FOREWORD
After the 1952 adjustment, China’s Higher Education in Science and Technology basically
inherited the former Soviet system, namely, establishing universities corresponding to
industrial sections. Engineering Colleges were grouped into civil engineering, electrical
and mechanical engineering, hydraulic engineering, chemicals, mining, aviation, geology,
transportation and other colleges to meet the industrial needs for engineers and
technicians. Arts and Sciences were combined into general university, resulting in the
separation of engineering and Arts and Sciences, an unfavorable situation for engineering
education.
In the 1950s and 1960s, most engineering textbooks translated from the former Soviet
Union. Those were teaching materials with practicality in mind, i.e., students were taught
to design according to design specifications. Since the reform and opening up, department
setup started to follow the discipline line and became to follow the international system,
but the industry’s influence remained. In the new textbook “Bridge Project” published in
2004, all articles, chapters, sections arranged basically inherited the former Soviet Union
old textbooks except some necessary changes under the new requirements.
In the 2006 annual meeting of the International Bridge Engineering in Budapest,
Professor M. Schlaich of the Department of Civil Engineering of the Technical University
of Berlin published a report entitled “The challenge of education — conceptual and
structural design,” at the General Assembly. He introduced ongoing civil engineering
education reform at Berlin University, i.e. combining the steel materials department and
concrete structures department into a new “conceptual and structural design” department,
and the three full professors no longer taught “Steel Design”, “Design of Concrete
Structures” according to the standard methods of analysis and design methods, instead,
they taught conceptual design and structural design methods about all types of building
materials according to the structure (bridges, tall buildings and space structures) to
strengthen the cultivation of students’ innovative ideas and ability, not only the basic
design skills.
2007 onwards, Bridge Engineering at Tongji University decided to open a new course
“Concept Bridge Design” for graduate students in order to bring forward a new generation
of bridge engineers with conceptual design capabilities to overcome the shortcoming in
innovative ideas quality and aesthetic considerations in China’s bridge engineering.
The course started in the Spring of 2008, first in the form of lectures given by several
young professor in the division. 2008 summer, Professor Hoi Fan also joined the ranks of
the course construction, participated in determining the teaching guideline, and co-
authored with Professor Xiao Rucheng Chapter 1 Introduction; Chapter 2 Bridge
Aesthetics and Design; Chief Engineer and Senior Engineer Professor Xu Liping and
Professor Wei Hongyi at Bridge Design institute co-authored; Chapter 3 Basic Factors to
be Considered in the Conceptual Design and Conceptual Design; Chapter 4 Analyzes
Innovative Ideas; Professor Ge Yaojun Wrote; Chapter 5 Bridge Structural Disaster
Prevention and Durability, and Part of; Chapters 2 and 3; Professor Xiao Rucheng Wrote;
Chapter 6 Bridge Structural System and its Key Mechanical Problems; Professor Shi
Xuefei Wrote; Chapter 7 New Problems in Conceptual Design and Solutions; and Finally
Conceptual Design Chapter 8 was rewitten by Tongji Urban Bridge Alumni, Tianjin
Urban Construction Group Chief Engineer Professor Han Zhenyong, Senior Engineer. The
book was validated by Professor Xiang Haifan before finalization.
Recently, in the midst of the “Question of Qian,” we feel the urgency and the necessity
of reform in engineering education in China. We hope that the publication of “the concept
of bridge design” can bring inspiration and encouragement to Chinese students majoring
in bridges sector as well as colleagues to overcome the deficiencies in China’s bridge
design, to come out of misunderstanding, and to help the education of bridge engineering
in Chinese Universities rid of the shackles of traditional materials and methods and to
keep up with the international engineering education reform. We welcome all feedbacks,
especially to the errors in the book, from colleagues bridge engineering for future
amendment in the second edition in order to further improve this “Conceptual Bridge
Design” and make it a compulsory textbooks for 21st century bridge engineers.
Xiang Haifan
February 2010
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview of the Development of Modern Bridge (1660 to 1945)
1.1.1 Preliminary Period (1660-1765)
1.1.2 Progressive Era
1.1.3 Development Period I—The Born of Steel (1874-1945)
1.1.4 Development Period II—Steel Suspension Bridge (1883-1945)
1.1.5 Development Period III—Reinforced Concrete Bridge (1875-1945)
1.1.6 Summary
1.2 A Brief History of Modern Bridge (1945-2008)
1.2.1 Bridge Type and System Innovation
1.2.2 New Materials and Connection Technology
1.2.3 Innovative Structure Construction and Ancillary Equipment
1.2.4 Innovative Engineering Methods and Equipment
1.2.5 Innovation Theory and Analytical Methods
1.2.6 Summary
1.3 Achievements and Shortcomings of China Bridge Construction (1978 to 2008)
1.3.1 Introduction
1.3.2 Bridges the Rise of China in the 1980s
1.3.3 1990s China Bridge Takeoff
1.3.4 China Bridge at the Beginning of the 21st Century
1.3.5 Problems in Bridge Construction in China
1.4 Modern Bridge Engineering
1.4.1 Bridge Engineer’s Mission and Mandate
1.4.2 Research and Development of Bridge Project
1.4.3 Bridge-building in the Era of Knowledge Economy
1.5 Conceptual Design and Innovative Ideas
1.5.1 Conceptual Design Significance
1.5.2 Basic Principles of Conceptual Design
1.5.3 Definition of Innovation
1.5.4 Create Innovative Ideas
1.5.5 Tasks and Content of Conceptual Design
1.6 Chapter Summary
Review Questions
References
2. AESTHETIC BRIDGE DESIGN
2.1 Philosophical Foundation of Aesthetics
2.1.1 Philosophical Foundation of the West
2.1.2 Philosophical Foundation of the East
2.2 The Principles of Bridge Aesthetics
2.2.1 Diversity and Unity (Change and Unity)
2.2.2 Ratio and Symmetry
2.2.3 Balance and Harmony
2.2.4 Rhythm and Coordination
2.2.5 Innovations and Aesthetic Considerations in Conceptual Bridge Design
2.3 Success Stories in the World of Bridge Aesthetic Design—World’s Most Beautiful
Bridges of the 20th Century
2.4 Success Stories in Chinese Aesthetic Design of Bridges
2.4.1 Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge (1968)
2.4.2 Fuzhou Wulongjiang Bridge (1971)
2.4.3 Nanpu Bridge (1991), Shanghai
2.4.4 Qiantang Bridge (1996)
2.4.5 Wanxian Chongqing Yangtze River Bridge (1997)
2.4.6 Jiangyin Yangtze River Bridge (1997)
2.4.7 Lupu Bridge (2003)
2.4.8 Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge (2004)
2.4.9 Su Tong Yangtze River Bridge (2008)
2.4.10 Zhoushan Island Project Xihoumen Bridge (2009)
2.5 China Bridge Aesthetics Design Problem Analysis
2.5.1 On the Rationality of Bridge Main Hole Span
2.5.2 Facade Layout Symmetry
2.5.3 The Side Holes Scales in Cable-stayed Bridge
2.5.4 The Arrangement of the Auxiliary Pier in Cable-stayed Bridge Side Span
2.5.5 Pyramid Select and Proportion
2.5.6 Asymmetric Single Tower Cable-stayed Bridge and Collaboration System
2.5.7 Arrangement of Side Span in Suspension
2.5.8 Proper Height of Main Beam Girder
2.6 Chapter Summary
Review Questions
References
3. BASIC FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE CONCEPTUAL
DESIGN
3.1 A Variety of Natural Conditions and Functional Requirements
3.1.1 Natural Conditions
3.1.2 Functionality
3.1.3 Landscape Requirements
3.2 Horizontal and Vertical Alignment and Hole Layouts
3.2.1 Layout of Bridge-axis and the Horizontal Alignment
3.2.2 Main Navigation Span Setting
3.2.3 Hole Layout
3.3 Applicability of Various Bridge Types and Bases
3.3.1 Bridge Type Evolution
3.3.2 The Type of Scope and Limits
3.3.3 Application Scope of the Basic Forms
3.4 Technical Factors Affecting Economic Indicators
3.4.1 Material and Economic Indicators of Bridge Types
3.4.2 General Layout of 2 Impact on Economic Indicators
3.4.3 General Layout of 3 Impact on Economic Indicators
3.4.4 Impact of General layout on Economic Indicators
Review Questions
References
4. CASE ANALYSIS OF INNOVATIVE IDEAS IN THE CONCEPTUAL
DESIGN
4.1 The Bridge Scheme and General Layout Ideas
4.1.1 Tsing Ma Bridge in Hong Kong
4.1.2 Tsing Ma Bridge in Hong Kong
4.1.3 The Tsurumi Channel Bridge
4.2 Technical Innovation in the Bridge Program
4.2.1 Denmark Oresund Bridge-steel Truss Composite Girder
4.2.2 United States East Bridge of the San Francisco Bay Bridge Earthquake-
resistant Tower
4.2.3 Chongqing New Shibanpo Bridge of Steel-concrete Composite Beams
4.2.4 Hangzhou Jiubao Bridge, Composite Arch Bridge
4.2.5 Uses of High Performance Steel and Concrete Composite Beam Bridge
4.3 Bridge Program Consideration of Landscape Requirement
4.3.1 Tsing Ma Bridge in Hong Kong
4.3.2 Shanghai Lupu Bridge
4.3.3 Chongqing Caiyuanba Bridge
4.4 Records Span the Right Concept
4.4.1 Denmark Great Belt Bridge
4.4.2 Japan Akashi Kaikyo Bridge
4.4.3 Luo River Bridge
4.4.4 Su Tong Yangtze River Bridge
4.5 Outstanding Structure Award-winning Bridge Profile
4.5.1 Switzerland Sunniberg Bridge
4.5.2 The Miho Museum Bridge
4.5.3 United Kingdom Gateshead Millennium Bridge
4.5.4 France Darius Milhaud Bridge
Review Questions
References
5. DISASTER PREVENTION AND DURABILITY OF BRIDGE
STRUCTURES
5.1 Bridge Wind Resistant Design Philosophy
5.1.1 Wind and Bridge Wind-Resistance
5.1.2 Reduce the Static Wind Load
5.1.3 Reduce Wind-induced Vibration
5.1.4 Additional Control Measures
5.2 Bridge Wind Resistant Design Philosophy
5.2.1 Earthquake and Anti-seismic
5.2.2 Bridge Anti-Seismic Principles
5.2.3 Anti-seismic Design Success Stories
5.2.4 Common Seismic Mitigation and Isolation Measures
5.3 Bridge Wind-resistant Design Philosophy
5.3.1 Fortification Standard and Design Principles
5.3.2 Rational Selection of Bridge Site and Bridge Axis
5.3.3 Anti-ship Collision Design Success Stories
5.3.4 A Variety of Ship Collision Prevention Measures
5.4 Bridge Wind-resistant Design Philosophy
5.4.1 Structural Durability
5.4.2 Durability Design Principles
5.4.3 Structural Durability
5.4.4 Structural Durability Measures
Review Questions
References
6. BRIDGE STRUCTURE SYSTEM AND KEY MECHANICS
QUESTIONS
6.1 Bridge Structural System
6.1.1 Bridge Structure System and its Classification
6.1.2 Evaluation Standards for Bridge System Quality
6.1.3 Mechanical Properties of Various Systems
6.1.4 System Innovation
6.2 Important Design Parameter Optimisation and Adjustment
6.2.1 Classification of Design Parameters of Bridge Structures
6.2.2 Effects of Design Parameters on Structure Loading
6.2.3 Design Parameter Optimization and Adjustment
6.3 Construction Method Selection and Safety Identification
6.3.1 The Construction Method of Bridge Structures
6.3.2 Relations between Construction Method and Structure Bearing
6.3.3 Selection of Construction Method
6.3.4 Construction Safety Identification
6.4 Estimation of Bridge Structure and Recognition of Advance
6.4.1 The Estimation Method of Bridge Structures
6.4.2 The Rational Scale of Conventional Bridge
6.4.3 Conventional Bridge Materials Index
6.4.4 Identifying Advances
6.5 Important Mechanical Calculation in Concept Design Phase
6.5.1 General Method for Structure Analysis
6.5.2 Strength Calculation
6.5.3 Rigidity and Stability Calculation
6.5.4 Dynamic Characteristics Calculation
6.6 Modeling Method
6.6.1 Method for Model Selection
6.6.2 Geometric Description
6.6.3 Materials and Sectional Properties
6.6.4 Boundary Conditions
6.6.5 Quality
6.6.6 Loads
Review Questions
References
7. SOLVING NEW PROBLEM IN THE CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
7.1 Technical Support of Realization of Innovative Design Ideas
7.2 Improvement of Structure and Properties of Structural Details
7.2.1 Innovation of Structural Details
7.2.2 Boundary Conditions Structure Meeting the Requirement of Different Force
Requirements
7.2.3 Innovative Construction Composition
7.2.4 Structural Connections between Different Interface
7.2.5 Structural Measures to Mitigate Failure
7.2.6 Structural Measures Ensuring Structure Durability
7.3 Innovative Construction Method and Corresponding Equipment
7.3.1 Driving Force Behind Method of Innovation
7.3.2 New Technology of Bridge Erection Adapted to Special Requirements
7.3.3 Equipment of New Bridge Erection Technology
7.3.4 Detection Equipment for Bridge Erection
7.4 Applications of Advanced Materials and High-Tech
7.4.1 Application Requirements of New Materials and High-Tech
7.4.2 High Performance Steel (HPS)
7.4.3 High-performance Concrete (HPC)
7.4.4 Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP)
7.4.5 Role of IT Technology in Promoting Bridge-building
7.5 Choosing Research Topics in Complex Bridge Construction Work
7.5.1 The Purpose and Necessity of Research Project
7.5.2 Choosing Research Contents
7.5.3 Research Technique and Method
Review Questions
References
8. CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF URBAN BRIDGE
8.1 The Concepts of Urban Bridges
8.1.1 The Definition of Urban Bridges
8.1.2 Historical Evolution of Urban Bridge
8.2 Conceptual Design of Urban Bridge—General Description
8.3 Conceptual Design of Urban Bridge—Structure and Engineering
8.3.1 Choice of Urban Bridge Style
8.3.3 Urban Bridge Structure Characteristics
8.4 Conceptual Design of Urban Bridge—Structure and Engineering—The
Architectural Aesthetics
8.4.1 In Harmony with the Environment
8.4.2 Construction Techniques
8.4.3 Bridge Decoration
8.5 Conceptual Design of Urban Bridge—Structure Engineering in Combination with
Architectural Aesthetics
References
INTRODUCTION
Advantages of the deflection theory is that the use of gravity suspension stiffness
reduced the bending stiffness of the bridge deck allows design engineers gradually
abandoned bulky truss stiffening girder and used more economical plate girder bridge.
With the reduced plate girder height and corresponding reduction of assumed bending
moment, the safety of the bridge structure is ensured.
1.1.6 Summary
Throughout the course of 300 year development of modern bridges: from the first phase
(1660 to 1765), the theoretical foundation, to the second stage (1765~1874), cast iron
bridge, (wrought) iron truss bridge and eye rod suspension, and the third phase
(1874~1945), of steel (steel truss bridge, steel arch bridge and steel suspension bridge) and
the subsequent emergence of reinforced concrete bridge. It can be said that the mainstream
of modern bridge is steel bridge, including many railway bridges and urban bridge, with
the representing landmark bridges being the Coalbrookdale iron bridge, Scotland Forth
steel truss bridge, steel suspension bridge built in Brooklyn, New York, in the 1930s, and
the representing modern bridges of the highest achievements being the George
Washington Bridge, the Sydney bridge, the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco and
Sweden Sandor bridge.
The span of cast iron arch bridge increased from the initial 30.65 m in steel truss
bridge to more than 500 m in steel truss cantilever bridge, and suspension bridge from less
than 100 ft (30.48 m) of wrought iron rod suspension eye to the Brooklyn bridge of 468 m,
and to Washington bridge which exceeds one kilometer, and the golden Gate bridge set a
striking record of 1,280 m, all are remarkable achievement, results of the combination of
wisdom and hard work of many bridges pioneers. The fifteen most outstanding modern
bridge engineers (16th to 18th century birth) are:
1. Jean R. Perronet (1708~1794), (Fig. 1.11), Stone Arch Pressure Line; France.
2. Abraham Darby III (1750~1790), (Fig. 1.12), Cast Iron Arch Bridge; United
Kingdom.
3. Thomas Telford (1757~1834), (Fig. 1.13), Cast Iron Arch and Eye Rod Suspension
Bridge; United Kingdom.
4. John A. Roebling (1806~1869), (Fig. 1.14), the Brooklyn Bridge; Germany.
5. Gustave A. Eiffel (1832~1923), (Fig. 1.16), Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, Steel Arch
Bridge; France.
6. Benjamin Baker (1840~1907), (Fig. 1.17), Forth Railway Bridge Truss; United
Kingdom.
Fig. 1.11 J. R. Perronet
5. The secret cable system cable-stayed bridge, Homberg, Friedrich Ebert bridge,
Germany (1967) (Fig. 1.30).
6. No wind bracing arch and cable-stayed bridge, using the stabilisation theory of
non-orientedly conservative loadings effect, the Knie Rhine bridge, Germany
(1969) (Fig. 1.31).
Fig. 1.30 Friedrich Ebert bridge, Germany.
11. Single Cable Plane Concrete Cable-stayed bridge, Müller, Brottone bridge,
France 1977, (Fig. 1.36).
12. Continuous Rigid Frame Bridge, Menn, Feigire Bridge, Switzerland 1979,
(Fig. 1.37).
Fig. 1.36 Brottone bridge, France.
13. Extradossed Bridge, Menn, Ganter Bridge, Switzerland 1980, (Fig. 1.38).
14. Cable-Rigid Cooperative System, the German company Leonhardt Svensson,
E. Huntington Bridge, 1985, (Fig. 1.39).
15. Combined Girder bridge using Twists and turns steel as web plates, Maupre
bridge, France 1987, (Fig. 1.40).
16. Cable-stayed bridge without Spine Girder, Calatrava, Alamillo bridge, Spain
1992, (Fig. 1.41).
9. PE sheath parallel finished steel wire rope, Nippon Steel Corporation, Meiko
West Bridge, 1983, (Fig. 1.49).
10. FRP composites, 1970s to 1990s, (Fig. 1.50); Switzerland, Germany, the
United States, Japan.
Fig. 1.49 Japan Meiko West Bridge.
11. Long stroke joints, Akashi Strait Bridge, 1970s to 1990s, (Fig. 1.51);
Switzerland, Germany, Japan.
12. Carbon fiber reinforced plastic cables, in the 1990s, (Fig. 1.52); Switzerland,
Japan.
13. Combined structure of new shear device (PBL), Leonhardt, Germany Tsurumi
Channel Bridge, 1994, (Fig. 1.53); Japan.
14. Ultra high strength steel, 1860~2000, MPa (China 1600~1770 MPa), Nippon
Steel Corporation, Akashi Strait Bridge, 1998, (Fig. 1.54).
3. Soft soil ground friction Anchorage, Small Kelp bridge, 1970, (Fig. 1.57);
Denmark.
4. Split box deck wind-proof structure, Brown, 1980s (Fig. 1.58); England.
Fig. 1.58 Split box deck wind-proof structure (dimensions in m).
5. Bridge longitudinal buffer device, 1990s, (Fig. 1.59); the United States,
Britain.
6. The main cable de-humidification unit, Akashi Strait bridge, 1998. (Fig. 1.60);
Japan.
7. Fully assembled three-way pre-stressed bridge, Müller, France JMI
International, Thailand Bangkok Airport Viaduct, 1999, (Fig. 1.61).
8. Shock-isolation Foundation with Reinforced Soil, Combault, France Rion-
Antirion Bridge, 2003, (Fig. 1.62); (Greece).
9. Shear Key Anti-seismic Tower, TY Lin International, Wendi Deng, the New
San Francisco Bay bridge, 2007, (Fig. 1.63); US.
8. Front Light Cantilever casting method, Dames Point bridge, 1988 (Fig. 1.71);
the United States.
9. The main cable PPWS method, South Bisan bridge, 1988 (Fig. 1.72); Japan.
10. The integrated installation using large-scale floating crane, 9000t Big Swan
floating cranes, Ele Song Strait Bridge, 2000, (Fig. 1.73); Denmark and
Sweden joint construction.
11. Continuous cable-stayed bridge incremental launching construction,
Virlogeux, Millau Bridges, 2004, (Fig. 1.74); France.
1.2.6 Summary
Reviewing the 60 years of modern engineering development, many new bridge systems,
new structures, new materials, new construction methods as well as the creation and
invention of new theories and methods of analysis have made modern engineering
completely different from the early modern engineering: the value of modern bridge
engineering resides in the spirit of innovation. With the continuous upgrading of the
emergence of new labour law and the corresponding construction equipment, bridge
construction is also increasingly accurate, lightweight, automatic control, less reliance on
manual operations, and the quality of the project better and more durable, continuously
pushing the development of high performance materials. It can be said that the quality and
durability of modern bridge engineering come from equipment innovation. Bridge
engineer must strengthen quality concept, utilising advanced equipment to control and
guarantee the quality, greatly reducing the reliance on manpower.
Bridge engineer should also be continue to improve the aesthetic attainment, master
the method of aesthetics design, promote cooperation with architects, design and create
beautiful bridges to meet people’s aesthetic requirements of the bridge. Beautiful bridges
do not rely on more money, but on balance and harmony of the most reasonable
performance, most economical and most convenient structure construction.
25 internationally renowned modern bridge scholars and engineers are:
1. Guangdong Nanhai Jiujiang Bridge (1988), the main span 160 m, using floating
cranes assembled piecemeal cantilever construction.
2. Chongqing Shimen Bridge (1988), the main span 230 m, was the longest cable-
stayed bridge cantilever construction.
3. Guangzhou Haiyin Bridge (1988), the main span 175 m, the bridge width of 35 m,
was the widest single cable plane cable-stayed bridge.
4. Long Xiangjiang Jiangbei Bridge (1980), the main span 210 m, the first time the use
of light hanging basket full section once before fulcrum suspended casting
construction technology.
1. Hubei Yun County Hanjiang River Bridge, the main span of 414 m, 1993.
2. The Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge, the main span of 400 m, 1995.
3. Tongling Yangtze River Bridge, the main span of 432 m, 1995.
4. Chongqing Yangtze River Bridge, the main span of 444 m, 1995.
5. Shanghai Xuputaiqiao main span of 590 m, 1997.
6. Queshi Bridge, the main span of 518 m, 1998.
The successful construction of cable-stayed bridges encouraged China to build a
bridge of modern suspension bridge. The 452 m of Shantou Bay Bridge is the first
attempt, due to the more serious local air-sea corrosion, pre-stressed coagulation soil
stiffening beams were used. Each main cable contains 110 shares of steel wires of 91 root
5 mm, with outside diameter up to 56 cm. The bridge was built in 1994.
Guangdong Province in the construction of the Pearl River Expressway (Guangzhou-
Shenzhen, Guangzhou-Zhuhai) had also begun planning the construction of Humen
Bridge across the Pearl River. Several British experts were invited to help in bridge
construction. When Professor Li Guohao lettered to the governor of Guangdong Province,
Comrade Ye, strongly appealing for independent construction, and in return of Hong Kong
on the eve of victory in 1997, built a Humen Pearl River Bridge with a main span of 888
m. This suspension bridge, Auxiliary Channel 270 m pre-stressed concrete continuous
rigid frame bridge is another bridge in Chinese Milestone.
In 1990s construction of the bridge has also made important progress. Since the steel
supply has gradually abundant, application of steel concrete arch was introduced in China.
This composite structure with easy installation and construction, the materials used by the
reasonable economy, the ability to carry a big advantage. In 1990 Sichuan wangcang built
the first 115 m main span concrete arch pipe. Later, in the decade built dozens of such
bridge, such as Guangdong three main span of 200 m main span of 270 m Shanxi Bridge
and three in Guangxi Shore Bridge.
At the same time, bridge using the strength of the skeleton of reinforced concrete box
arch has made development. Built in the late 1980s, the 200 m of Chongqing Fuling
Wujiang River Bridge and the 240 m Sichuan Yibin Jinsha River bridge marched into a
new type of steel pipe mixed Concrete arch skeleton, alike the 313 m Yongning Yongjiang
Bridge. Using this technology the world’s longest span concrete arch with main span of
420 m, the Wanxian Chongqing Yangtze River Bridge, was built, another Monumental.
In 1994, preparations for the long Jiangyin Yangtze River Bridge was started, cohesion
of the Chinese people’s dream of several generations of the bridge, the first Chinese long
span suspension bridge over 1000 m designed by the Chinese people. The North Shore has
a huge caisson foundation anchorage and coagulation Dobashi tower construction
company independently by China, the upper structure construction due to funding
problems by the British company’s total contracting actually subcontract completed by
Chinese companies. The 1385 m main span of Jiangyin Yangtze River Bridge opened to
traffic in 1999, marking China with its bridge construction scale and speed of development
as well as a variety of bridge-span charts at the forefront of the outstanding achievements
in the world.
It should be noted that before the reform and opening up, China bridge construction,
particularly the large steel bridge construction was carried out by the Ministry of Railways
Bridge Engineering Bureau. Chinese road level is not high, many major rivers still rely
ferry connections. After 20 years of efforts, the Chinese public road transportation
construction team has to grow up quickly, designed and built a bridge across the Yangtze
river and its many deep water foundation. It can be said, in China’s contribution to the
bridge construction, the provincial Ministry of Transportation and Communications
Department of the design and construction team have occupied a very important position.
1.3.4 China Bridge at the Beginning of the 21st Century
Chinese modern bridge made the last 20 years of the 20th century has made progress and
achievement, and ready to build more ambitious Cross River Bridge Project. After the
1980s, “to learn and catch up” and 1990’s “track and improve the” two stages of
development, China bridge community should enter a “innovative and go beyond” the
new era in the early 2000s, through innovative design and construction achieve
development in order to improve international competitiveness of Chinese bridge.
1. Large-span Cable-stayed Bridge and a Suspension Bridge Construction
In 2000, China has built a main span of 618 m Wuhan white sandbar and the 312 m main
span rail-cum cable-stayed bridge — Wuhu Yangtze River Bridge, the end of the bridge
construction in the 20th century. Cable-stayed bridge has become the preferred bridge type
for Yangtze River Bridge in Hubei, Anhui and Jiangsu provinces. Many cable-stayed
bridge built simultaneously, on the Yangtze River. In planning Run Yang Yangtze River
Highway Bridge, there are concerns among bridge engineers for China’s large span cable-
stayed bridge over 800 m. On the completion of the main span of 1385 m Jiangyin
Yangtze River Bridge in 1999, on the decision to adopt a main span of 1490 m and greater
span suspension bridge. In the 21st century, requires the construction of Stonecutters
Bridge in Hong Kong, the ultra-km cable-stayed bridge, inspired by Chinese community
participation in the design of bridge competition in the process also improves the impact
of ultra-km cable-stayed bridge in confidence. Thus, in previous work Su Tong Bridge,
tried using 1088 m main span cable-stayed bridge program, in order to avoid the
difficulties suspension deep-water anchorage foundation construction.
(a) Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge (Fig. 1.101)
Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge is the longest span cable-stayed bridge in China. Maximum
span of the high tower, the longest cable and maximum width of the bridge is considered
to be a huge challenge. If breaking scale did not meet applicable limits of existing
technology, overcoming the obstacles set by technological innovation can be achieved
through careful construction practice can obtain high-quality results.
Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge Tower Pier using “composite foundation”, that the
double-wall steel cofferdam, caps and bored pile group consisting of whole resistance ship
collision force, in fact, the use of excessively large span has greatly reduced the chances of
ship collision. Since the bridge’s small navigational clearance, compared with the first
parallel Japanese Tatara Bridge tower, tower above the bridge deck height and total height
ratio is too small, resulting in “Short leg” effect, the impact of the tower’s appearance.
Long cables in full bridge closure after the emergence of a strong rain vibration, plus
an interim decision on the cable after the suppression of the spiral wound vibration, this
experience later provided an important basis for direct production of finished cable with
spiral strips (Fig. 1.102).
Fig. 1.101 Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge.
Fig. 1.104 Runyang Yangtze River Highway Bridge underground continuous wall. North
Anchorage (Elevation units: m; size unit: cm)
Similarly, south anchorage freezing method technique is the traditional construction
technique for mine shaft, but on the basis of the large size of bridges its use is a bold
initiative with a huge risk. Construction by eliminating the danger, and finally succeeded.
Bridge Tower Construction employed foreign template technology, which greatly
improves the appearance and internal quality concrete progress has been made. As the The
deck height is small, although the lateral wind loads can be reduced, also reduced the
torsional rigidity and thus cannot meet the stability requirements. Construction of the first
time the central buckle and central stabilising plate measures to solve this problem (Fig.
1.105).
Bridge main cable corrosion was first introduced in Japan in dry air de-humidification,
as a new technologies. In addition, the anchorage, foundation, tower, piers and and other
concrete box girder bridge approach works have adopted the technique of fly ash added to
improve the durability of the bridge is expected to ensure a lifespan of 100 years.
(c) Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge (Fig. 1.106)
Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge has a chevron-shaped arc of the new tower. It should be
acknowledged that this is inspired from the Stonecutters Bridge, the second top design in
the Hong Kong international bridge competition. In order to speed up the construction
speed, the bridge over the tower with steel was pre-manufactured, and brought down
tower junction structure puzzle for steel-concrete segments. Eventually, opening on the the
steel tower was opted and in-situ concrete and reinforced through the formation of PBL
shear key was used as the main component load transfer (Fig. 1.107). After wind tunnel
tests, rectangular-section steel tower cutaway was the best possible treatment to suppress
the vibration of galloping and vortex. We can say that the south Beijing Tower Bridge is a
creative design in steel bridge.
Tower located at the depth of more than 40 m, imposing a greater risk to the traditional
steel boxed construction, through careful organisation of the construction unit the
foundation construction was completed successfully. High steel tower 215 m, it’s the
introduction of a highly efficient air installation crane France, the smooth realisation of the
seal top. Although the steel tower costs more than the average cost of the concrete tower,
but won the construction speed in return.
Fig. 1.105 Runyang Yangtze River Highway Bridge in central stabilising plate.
1. Bridge engineers are not only planners, designers and builders of the project, they
should also be the lifetime operators and maintainers.
2. Bridge engineers should have the concept of sustainable development has become a
protector of the natural environment and conservation of resources and energy
advocates.
3. Bridge engineers should be involved in decision-making infrastructure, and
construction of high quality and durable construction through continuous innovation,
improve the quality of people’s lives become an active promoter.
4. Bridge engineer should become the project guardian against natural disasters,
emergencies, accidents and other risks.
5. Finally, bridge engineers should also have team spirit and work ethic to become a
model to resist all kinds of corruption performer.
1.4.2 Research and Development of Bridge Project
To achieve the above mission and mandate, bridge engineering must rely on the latest
achievements of science and technology development, and through ongoing research and
development work, and constantly improving existing technologies to create and invent
more advanced technology to overcome shortcomings and resolve new issues to meet the
greater challenges of the 21st century. Research focused on the following five areas:
1. In the planning and design phase of the bridge, people will use a highly developed
computer-aided tools for effective rapid optimisation and simulation analysis, virtual
reality application of technology so that the owners can be very realistic in advance
to see the completion of the bridge after the appearance, function, and then simulate
performance under earthquakes and typhoons, the impact on the environment and
landscape day and night in order to decisions.
2. In the stage of manufacturing and erection of the bridge, people will use intelligent
manufacturing systems complete the processing components in the plant, and then
use the Global Positioning System (GPS) and remote control technology, thousands
of miles away from the site outside the headquarters of the management and control
of the bridge construction.
3. After the bridge is completed and delivered, by automatically monitoring and
management system to ensure safe and proper operation of the bridge. Once a fault or
damage, health diagnosis and expert system will automatically report the injury site
and conservation countermeasures.
In short, in the knowledge economy era bridge engineering and other industries will
have the intelligence, information and remote automatic control features. A variety of
intelligent building robots managed by computer software under the control of the
commanding officers at headquarters, the completion of underwater and aerial work under
field conditions, precisely as planned bridge construction, it will be a 21st century bridge
engineering magnificent sight.
By the end of 2007, the US National Academy of Engineering announced the approval
by more than 50 experts in the “21st century 14 major engineering challenge project”,
belonging to sustainable development, health, disaster prevention and improving the
quality of life in four areas. Which in addition to the health sector, and the remaining three
are related and future bridge projects.
Looking into the modern engineering in the next 20 years, we should be fully
understand the mission of bridge engineers and tasks in materials, software, hardware
(construction equipment and monitoring equipment), disaster prevention and re-double
their efforts to a new generation of standardised five aspects, greet challenges across the
sea and island project for building and sustainable development in line with the concept of
the whole life of the 21st century, modern bridge engineering our contribution.
Finally, it should be noted that the invention of plastic in 1907, one hundred years has
gradually developed into a new family of materials. Metal and mineral products have been
a large number of high performance fiber reinforced plastic composites and replaced in the
field of electrical appliances, medical equipment, automotive, aviation, agriculture,
machinery and equipment, etc., and has been infiltrated with cement and steel as the basic
material of the modern civil construction. After the near future (probably in 20 to 30 years
later), engineering plastics and composite materials instead of cement and steel will
gradually become the protagonist of building materials, playing the role of a landmark,
which will be modern civil engineering (engineering) into modern new era, and caused
revolutionary changes in design theory, system configuration, connection technology and
construction method and the like.
1.5 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN AND INNOVATIVE IDEAS
Conceptual design is responsible for each project engineer given a mandate in the initial
stages of brewing in the hearts of design ideas, but also the starting point for creative
designers. In the past, civil engineering education in most countries in the world university
professor of materials according to specifications at the different structural design. In the
21st century, many European countries have begun to recognise the need to train students’
innovative ideas, you must set up “concept design” new course.
In order to catch up with this new trend, Tongji Bridge Engineering decided to open a
“concept bridge design” course, hope that through this engineering education reform,
strengthen innovation consciousness of young engineers from the bridge for China to
bridge power.
1. Safety: In addition to the structure with excellent mechanical properties, but also
contains withstand natural disasters, ship collision, anti-fire and other man-made
disasters, other sporadic anti-risk capability and extreme (small probability events) as
well as the case.
2. Function: Refers to satisfy the deck transportation, bridge navigation, and other
basic requirements for aviation bounding functions.
3. Economics: Refers to the cost in the whole life philosophy, conservation and
management of the economy, as well as in the design of structures for durability,
constructability, you can check, can take full account of the conservation of nature.
4. Esthetics: Conceptual design aesthetic considerations should include a variety of
aesthetic requirements of the bridge structure as well as the coordination of the
landscape and the surrounding environment (see Chapter 2).
5. Durability: Non-durable structures will be cause great waste and damage the
reputation of Chinese bridge. Among them, promoting the use of high performance
materials and the development of higher durability design standards will be China’s
bridge in the future must focus on solving the issue.
6. Environment Protection: Core conserve natural resources and protect the
environment, reduce CO2 emissions and the sustainable development of scientific
concept of development, but also important challenges of the 21st century, the world
faces. Infrastructure in resource consumption and CO2 emissions and energy are high
proportion, must draw the attention of bridge engineering.
The above six are important factors in decision-making and the right bridge design
concept is the core mission, which must be fully demonstrated, in order to avoid a lack of
creativity, mediocre, plagiarism, and grandiose, the blind pursuit of large span, weird the
difficult construction, not durable, non-economic and unreasonable solutions by not
rigorous “review” and is implemented, which greatly affect the progress of China’s bridge.
Finally, the conceptual design of the content is generally divided into the following
four steps:
1. Conceiving: Imagination, conceived plan, compare the selected creative process, but
also the conceptual design is the most important step.
2. Modeling: On the idea of a structural program abstraction for analysis and
calculations. But the conceptual design phase of analysis and calculation accuracy
and technical design requirements are different, not the pursuit of precision, mainly to
relatively program between, and for the next step to determine the size of the service,
so approximate methods and means of empirical coefficients, etc., may be used.
3. Dimensioning: Is an estimate of the number of the main engineering and cost,
including the application of high-performance materials and combinations of
different materials used.
4. Detailing: For innovative systems, construction and improvement of traditional
technologies meaningful, we must consider the relevant details of construction, so
persuasive and creative programs, feasibility and security implementation.
Chapter I to V of the book will be focus on the conceptual stage and Chapter VI on the
key size selection and mechanical accounting, Chapter VII on the details from design
through construction, application of innovative equipment and high-performance materials
and advanced technology, sound conceptual design to solve new problems arise, that is, to
solve Mr. Deng Wenzhong presented “What if” the third question, so that creativity can be
achieved.
1.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY
According to the seventh volume, the statistics, of Dr. Joseph Needham’s “Chinese
History of Science and Technology”, China since about 4500 years BC to the 15th century,
the year 3000 has contributed nearly 300 inventions, in many ways ahead of the world,
including four great inventions and 26 are arranged in alphabetical important invention of
the world-famous, there are pontoon (4th century BC) in bridge engineering, outrigger
beam bridge (4th century AD), rope bridge (6th century AD), open shoulder Arch (610
AD Sui) and consistent wooden bridge (AD 1032 Song), etc.
However, unfortunately, since the 16th century European Renaissance, China’s
creative activity began to decline until the demise became the famous “Needham
Question”: Why does not China modern science and technology to produce advanced why
China cannot maintain the advantage and take the lead in creating? Industrial revolution
happened and why China in the 19th century, the country was actually reduced bullying
powers suffer ignorance and backwardness?
Some with insight pointed out: China’s centralised authoritarian system of feudal
society stifled the spirit of freedom of the Chinese people and the elite intellectuals had
been attracted to a career via the imperial examination system and advocating obey the
will of the emperor of a unified, thus weakening the inventions enthusiasm. Coupled with
the complacency and lack of motivation to compete, eventually leading to a decline of
nearly three hundred years of Chinese science and technology. We can say that this idea
legacy still affects our younger generation of creativity.
In commemoration of the founding of new China 60 years ago, we are at the historical
turning point. After 30 years of reform and opening up efforts, Chinese bridge in the world
community has kept up with the pace of modern bridge and entered into the international
advanced level.
However, we cannot be complacent, but to acknowledge gaps and weaknesses, our
way in innovation. Only truly master the advanced core technology innovation in order to
get rid of containment and control of the developed countries, in order to achieve the great
re-juvenation of the Chinese nation. Premier Wen Jiabao’s recent speech at the University
of Cambridge, said: “China to catch up with developed countries, there is a long-long way
to go.”
Articles of technical summaries are mostly straightforward but are lack description of
the concepts like design and creative from foreign counterparts, instead emphasise more
on size, such as the number of “difficult” and how “most” used words. In addition, many
bridges are very similar, the lack of features and ideas, which is common in Chinese
culture advocates, imitation and consistent, not to encourage negative reflecting the
“maverick” consciousness, but also the technical progress of the taboo.
The Chinese nation is nation of wisdom, China’s five thousand years of history and
cultural heritage will be help us achieve revival. As long as we do not complacency, face
inadequate and prudent, and through education reform, renewed the younger generation’s
imagination and creativity, we will be able in the near future through innovation efforts,
from bridge to bridge solidly Liang Daguo power.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. In 60 years of the development of modern bridges, unlike in developed countries has
created many new bridges of modern technology, is widely used around the world,
what do you think are the ten most influential technology? And compared these
advanced technologies, China reform and opening up 30 years built a major bridge
project, there are several technologies which have originality?
2. China’s achievements and progress in modern bridge is huge, compared to developed
countries, but there are still gaps and weaknesses, what do you think the main
reason? How to overcome these problems?
3. “Innovation” There are many different interpretations and positioning, which view
you agree? Media propaganda in the “completely independent intellectual property
rights” was, how should evaluate?
4. Are you on the “conceptual design,” meaning, principles, tasks and content of a new
understanding? In the future design work in practice, how would you go to
implement it?
REFERENCES
[1] Yin Delan Wendi with Bridge — Chinese articles Beijing: Tsinghua University
Press, 1988.
[2] Brandon China Bridge Shanghai: Tongji University Press; Hong Kong: Hong Kong
Building and City Press, 1993.
[3] Square Mingkun Bridge Essay Beijing: China Railway Publishing House, 1997.
[4] Modern Highway Bridges. Twentieth Century Blend of Major Scientific
Achievements, 1998.
[5] Meng Hoi Fan Bridges Twenty-first Century, Shanghai CAST: Shanghai Branch of
the Altar, 1998.
[6] Troitsky M.S. Conceptual Bridge Design//Bridge Engineering Handbook. CRC
Press, 1999.
[7] Of the Twentieth Century’s Greatest Engineering Achievements of Science and
Technology Highway Articles. Chinese Academy of Engineering, 2001.
[8] Klaus H Ostenfeld. Major Bridge Projects—A Multi Disciplinary Approach. IABSE
Workshop Shanghai 2009-Recent Major Bridges, IABSE Reports, 2009 (95).
[9] Hoi Fan, Hong Xuan Pan, Zhang History of the Holy City of China Bridge
Shanghai: Tongji University Press, 2009.
AESTHETIC BRIDGE DESIGN
Efficiency, economy and elegance are considered to be the three elements of design
guidelines since ancient Greece and its followed by the world engineers. China’s reform
and opening up previously, due to the limited economic conditions, the only mention of
the “practical, economic, possible conditions under proper care and beautiful”
construction principles. In the 1990s, with the national strength, this principle has been
changed to “safe, suitable, economic, aesthetic,” the eight-character principle, to secure a
prominent position. Especially in urban bridge construction, bridge aesthetic requirements
continue to increase, reflecting the demand for functional and aesthetic value of the
landscape in the future to improve the lives of the bridge. Therefore, the aesthetic design
of the bridge should be an important part of the concept of bridge design. As a bridge
engineer, one has the responsibility to strengthen the aesthetic ideas in the initial stages of
the design concept, engaging with beautiful ornamental bridges to meet people’s
aspirations.
Of course, aesthetic considerations should not violate the basic principles of technical
safety, application and economy. Similarly, when according to technical and economical
criteria options, nor should deviate from the target aesthetics.
2.1 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION OF AESTHETICS
Unlike animals, humans are capable of thinking and manufacturing tools. In the tools era
in the progress of human civilisation (from 2.5 million years ago to 50,000 years ago,
Paleolithic and Neolithic from 50,000 years ago to 6,000 years ago), humans in order to
survive and gradually get rid of the nascent, gregarious nest to acquisition-based primitive
life, entered a hunting and fishing, animal husbandry, cooked and farming era, and the
transition from a matriarchal society to a patriarchal society, the formation of association
and the national society. In the course of evolution, humans are bound to ponder the nature
of the moon and stars, thunder and lightning storm, biological growth, and reproductive
senescence phenomena and human individual and social Relationships between groups,
gradually gave birth to the original philosophy, which also includes Reflections on the
United States.
Mr. Tang Huancheng stated in his book “bridge philosophy of beauty,” a book
mentioned in the introduction: “Bridge is a bridge aesthetic philosophy of beauty”, “height
is not raised to understand philosophical aesthetics.” Therefore, learning bridge aesthetics
will be certainly talk about the philosophical basis from aesthetics.
1. Salginatobel Bridge (Fig. 2.20) designed by Swiss engineer Maillart R. in 1930. This
is a cross-valley sickle deck arch bridge. Architects said: “Walking on the bridge is a
real spiritual enjoyment you and mountains, white clouds, blue sky so close, it
constitutes a beautiful Alpine landscape.”, “All parts of the bridge are just right,
impeccable. This is truly a combination of fine art and bridges.”
2. Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco (Fig. 2.21) designed by American engineer J.B.
Strauss in 1937, with Swiss engineer Amman (Fig. 2.23) as consultants. It’s
comment: “It’s sleek, proportion, is the jewel in the bridge project, so that the
designers of this century has been unable to go beyond.”
6. First Bosporus Strait Bridge (Fig. 2.25), Turkey designed by the Freeman
Foxand Partners Brown (William Brown), United Kingdom 1974. This design
by the British Eurasian Bridge is an impressive building.
7. Sunniberg Bridge (Fig. 2.26), Switzerland designed by C. Mann in 1997. This
is a beautiful rainbow, a boutique bridge building.
Fig. 2.25 First Bosporus Strait Bridge, Turkey.
12. Ganter Bridge (Fig. 2.31), Switzerland designed by Mann in 1980. This is a
real art surgical products, an innovative system.
13. Harbour Bridge (Fig. 2.32), Sydney designed by Brad Freeman and Fuerth in
1932. It brings the beauty of Arch from any angle.
14. Fehmarnsund Bridge (1963) (Fig. 2.33), Germany designed by F. Leonhardt.
Beautiful basket arch bridge and cross the ramp boom gives the space a sense
of stability.
15. Danish Great Belt Bridge (Fig. 2.34), COWI company Ostenfeld K Design
(1997),
This is not the longest span suspension bridge in the 20th century, but the unique
design of the bridge towers and anchorages gives a deep impression.
Among the above 15 are suspension bridges, Golden Gate bridge, Booz Poros Bridge,
and Great Belt Bridge; 5 Stayed Bridges: Severin Bridge, Brooklyn Bridge, East Carolina,
Normandy Bridge, Tatara Bridge and Ting Kau Bridge; 3 Arch Bridges; Sarkisyan Valley
Bridge, Sydney Bridge, Fehmarn Belt Bridge; 4 plate pull bridge: Kish Beckham Bridge,
Olin Bridge, Shengniboge bridge, Gan Patel Bridge.
Fig. 2.30 Ting Kau Bridge in Hong Kong.
Fig. 2.48 Facade arrangement of a bridge (size unit: m) (a) Arranged symmetrically; (b)
Are arranged asymmetrical.
Fig. 2.49 Beam stiffness affect the relationship between la/lm and p/g of (kac = 0. 4 time).
Fig. 2.51 Arrangement of shore side span in cable-stayed bridge pier aid (size unit: m) (a)
Nommandy bridge; (b) Stonecutters bridge.
1. Gantry towers parallel to the surface of the cable and H-shaped towers (vertical
column and diagonal column).
2. A-shaped ramp tower cable plane, inverted Y-shaped towers, as well as the legs to
form a bridge following gem-shaped pylons.
3. Single column towers wit single cable plane of (Stonecutters Bridge in Hong Kong),
and after additional cable plane cable-stayed to ramp-shaped tower mixed gems (such
as the Ting Kau Bridge in Hong Kong).
High tower cable-stayed bridge deck above the main span L and economy than H2/L ≈
0.2~0.25. As most of the domestic requirements of six-lane bridge deck width, namely, B
≥ 30 m. If you wish to H2/B upto 4 or more, to make sense of the pyramid there is upright,
the main span of L must satisfy the requirements of the following formula:
Obviously, cable-stayed bridge with span less than 500 m, if the bridge width is more
than 30 m, the ratio of H2/B is not good enough, the pyramid will be look chunky and not
beautiful.
Navigation bridge deck clearance height determines the deck height H1, if they wish a
H/H1 ratio less than 4, the main span of L should satisfy the requirements of the following
formula:
The basic concept of the design factors that should be considered include other natural
conditions, function and various bridge type and basis of suitability and investment.
Natural conditions is an objective at the bridge site, not to change the will of the
designer, we have through research, collect and test analysis to fully understand and fully
grasp it. Extensive research, such as the river regime, must be at the bridge site over the
years of hydrological data, the reaction riverbed erosion and siltation, the deep channel
stability, etc., over the years bathymetry and tidal information, etc., to make sub-holes are
arranged to meet the riverbed underwater environment the laws of nature, laws of nature
without destroying hydrology, but also to ensure the structural safety of the bridge.
Conversely, if the destruction of the hydrological environment, leading to a lot of erosion
and siltation, causing riverbed changes, deep grooves change, will be affect shipping,
affect bridge safety. Therefore, through full study, understanding and digesting the results
of the rational use of the thematic biography bridge natural conditions, the concept can be
scientifically designed to meet these natural conditions, a basic safety requirement for
conceptual design.
Functional orientation must be subject to the objective requirements of engineering
construction and road construction, urban construction, transportation construction and
shipping master planning regulatory documents. Determine the functions to meet the
functional requirements, including bridges flat, vertical alignment design, layout, and
other section shall meet the requirements of the traffic feature, set the main navigation and
sub-hole layout should meet the requirements of the shipping function, the applicability of
the concept design of the basic requirements.
A variety of bridge type and applicability is one of the bases of the professional
knowledge, only more learning, more accumulation, in order to ensure the creation of the
designer has a scientific basis and foundation of all kinds of bridge type has its history,
characteristics and stress the applicability of the concept is designed to meet the scientific
laws, can only local conditions and constant innovation.
Economy is a basic requirements of designers from the state, conceptual design must
comply with reasonable requests economy. Rational innovation economy is the real
technical innovation, meaningful innovation. To understand the evolution of technical
suitability, as well as the scope of the various forms of bridge-variety basis, and know how
to use economic point of concept selection. This is the conceptual design of technological
innovation and economic rationality of the basic requirements.
3.1 A VARIETY OF NATURAL CONDITIONS AND
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS
Collection of natural conditions and functional planning and other basic information are
done mostly through the professional sector or industry department in the form of research
reports and raw data for statistical analysis and inference, through a certain review or
approval procedures provided for bridge designers its use. Of course, the study of these
thematic information itself requires a certain period, so that the work is often synchronised
with the design phase, a phased approach. Such as engineering feasibility study stage, you
need to geophysical and geological data for individual drill hole data available to the
preliminary design phase requires Chukan geological reports, construction design phase of
the project requires detailed geological survey data reports.
Conceptual design must submit the appropriate depth of these basic data requirements
for the outcome, as the basis of the information or documents conceptual design, of
course, it does not need as much detail as the preliminary design and construction design,
comprehensive, but require accurate, able to seize the natural conditions or functional
orientation characteristics, difficulties and points.
Natural conditions and functions of the conceptual design is the first step, and it is an
important step.
1. Water and sediment conditions: mainly refers to the total amount and the process of
entering the water and sediment downstream.
2. River border: mainly refers to accommodate the main features and parameters and
constraints river border movement of water.
3. Project boundary: mainly refers to the case of other works by the stream length,
arranged in the form, size and spacing between the upper and lower engineering
convergence as well as engineering.
Overall, the main concern when choosing the bridge site is about how over the years in
the area of the riverbed mechanical action of the water, the main river channel, waterway
and other elements of the situation, determine the extent of the impact the stability of the
natural elements, and after the bridge on these basic conditions.
River regime also inflience the location of navigable hole layout and thus plays a
decisive role.
Example 3.1. Taizhou Yangtze River Road Bridge over election.
Reach for the comparison of Zhenjiang Yangtze river bridge site from the existing
shoreline conditions and planning, as well as the stability of river areas, identified three
possible positions, namely, Wing Chau North, South Wing Chau Bridge eight bits. Fig. 3.1
Taizhou Yangtze River Highway Bridge segment total plane.
Wing Chau Pak channel on the right bank of the water turning red top position, the
downstream heart bypass beach area, look left and right support thalweg still swing within
a certain range from years of data analysis, but the range is limited, cross-sectional area
over the water, river width, average depth change is limited. 1998 more after the changes
tend to be small, river regime basically stable. Fig. 3.2 shows a cross-sectional Wing Chau
North Bridge bits.
Wing Island South Corridor is wide and shallow riverbed, was typical W-shaped,
central to the heart of the beach, the main features of evolution: Heart on the beach above
mentioned diversion point decline occurred when the heart beach plane position is not
stable enough, about thalweg appears limited swing (over 200 meters), the river regime is
relatively stable. Fig. 3.3 shows a cross-sectional Wing Chau South Bridge bits.
Eight bridge has wide and shallow river channel, deep grooves stickers right, U-
shaped cross-section, the deep grooves on both sides of the development of this position
closely with upstream over the hearts of Boat Harbour Beach, while the confluence point
of the lateral movement of a large (500 m), 1998 years later, and have put on the right.
Beach and river regime by heart day Xingzhou greater impact. Fig. 3.4 is eight bits Bridge
cross-section.
From the run-off and sediment from the Hankou station statistics, Hankou station to
sediment run-off during the year mainly concentrated in the flood season in October,
73.3% of its accounts for the year runoff, sediment accounts for the year 84%, more
sediment than to focus on the flood water.
Wuhan river flood control standard shows, according to the Yangtze river flood control
planning, once in a century flood contained within dikes and flood diversion area
upstream of the joint use of the standard range of defense, while the water level in Wuhan
dike designed for the highest level measured in 1954, 27.64 m (Yellow Sea elevation, the
same below), therefore, the use of bridge design water level with the corresponding values
of 27.99 m, the design flow using the value of 1954 Hankou station measured maximum
flow rate 76100 m3/s minus the Hanjiang river flows into the sink after 73380 m3/s.
Highest navigable water level used is the 20-year flood peak of 26.25 m, the minimum
guaranteed rate of navigable water level of 99% using the low water level 10.21 m.
3. Weather and Climate
Meteorological refers to the atmosphere of hot and cold, wet and dry, the general term for
the wind, clouds, rain, fog, snow, frost, lightning, and other physical phenomena and
physical processes. Meteorological observation projects have air temperature, humidity,
temperature, wind direction, wind speed, precipitation, sunshine, barometric pressure,
weather phenomena.
Climate refers to a region-specific integrated weather for many years, the so-called
unique weather conditions refers to the average weather conditions in both years,
including the area in individual years the emergence of some extreme weather conditions,
is an area of cold, warm, dry wet weather conditions and other basic features of a
comprehensive reflection. Various statistics of meteorological factors (temperature,
precipitation, wind, etc.) (mean, maximum, probability, etc.) is the fundamental basis for
the expression of the climate.
Determine the parameters and design based on meteorological data directly relevant to
the study of climate.
Basic design wind speed in bridge area (m/s), is according to the Department of flat
open ground, 10 m high from the ground, the return period of 100 years 10 min, average,
maximum wind speed calculated and determined; when the lack of wind speed
observations bridge area, v10 can norms “national basic wind speed map and weather
stations across the country the basic wind speed and basic wind pressure value” of the
relevant data and the use of the field after investigation and verification.
Construction stage of the design wind speed is multiplied by the wind speed according
to different return periods return period factor, such as the return period of 5 years, the
return period is 0.84 coefficient of 0.78,10 year, when construction of the bridge over the
surface structure of less than 3 years, may be not less than 5 years return period wind;
when the construction period of more than three years or a bridge located typhoon-prone
areas, we can use a moderate increase than the actual wind conditions return period factor.
According to bridges and culverts specifications, calculate the role of bridge structures
caused due to a uniform temperature deformation or constraint applied, the structure
should be restrained when the temperature begins to consider the role of the effect of the
highest and lowest effective temperature. Maximum and minimum standard value of the
effective temperature of the structure is calculated according to the local calendar highest
or lowest average daily temperature average daily temperature, such as for steel deck
bridge, with temperatures between 20~45ºC, its effective temperature standard value = 38
+ (Tt – 20)/2.00; the temperature is between (2~50ºC), the effective temperature of the
standard value = –1.48 + Tt / 0.91. Such as the lack of actual survey data, the value
adopted by the specification table.
According to the environmental conditions in which the durability of bridge design is
performed, specification of the environmental atmosphere is grouped into four
environmental categories: (i) class is warm or cold regions, and non-aggressive contact
with water or soil; (ii) class is cold regions of the atmosphere use of de-icing salt
environments, coastal environments; (iii) class is the marine environment; (iv) class is
subject to aggressive substances affect the environment.
Example 3.3. Hangzhou Bay Bridge.
Hangzhou Bay is located in the eastern coast of China, the sub-tropical monsoon
climate zone, monsoon significantly, the annual four seasons, mild climate, humid, and
rainy. Meteorological elements characteristic bridge area values can be analysed based on
the series of Cixi weather weather stations and bridge the north shore of Pinghu south
bank from 1954 to 2000, measured data, the results shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Meteorological eigenvalues bridge area exemplar project Pinghu Cixi.
Item Pinghu Chee
creek
Extreme maximum temperature (°C) 38.4 39.1
Extreme minimum temperature (°C) –10.6 –9.3
The annual average temperature (°C) 15.8 16.2
The average temperature in the coldest month 3.7 4.1
Air temperature (January) (°C)
The average temperature in the hottest month 28.2 28.3
(July) (d)
≥ 35ºC average number of days (d) 5.4 14.7
≤ 0ºC average number of days (d) 40 28.9
Average annual precipitation (mm) 1220.3 1294.6
The maximum monthly precipitation (mm) 468.3 569.3
Precipitation (June) (June)
≥ 50 mm annual precipitation days (d) 2.7 2.7
The longest continuous precipitation days (d) 20 19
The maximum wind speed (m/s) 20.3 22.6
Maximum wind speed (m/s) 32.2 31.9
Often wind SE ESE
Wind
Strong wind NW NW
≥ 8 winds number of days (d) 16.3 11.1
Typhoon affect 5~11 5~11
The annual average number of typhoons 2.56 2.56
Years up 57 67
Fog Day (d)
The annual average 35.6 21.5
Relative humidity Annual average 82 81
(%)
Thunderstorm Years up 56 58
days (d) The annual average 32.1 36.6
Snow depth (cm) Maximum 15 17
Severe weathers affecting the Hangzhou bay area are mainly typhoons, tornadoes,
thunderstorms, strong cold air, fog, heavy rain, etc. These severe weather has some effect
on the construction and operation of the bridge, need to be considered.
4. The Topography
Topography mainly refers to the terrain and location of surface morphology, including
natural and artificial surface features, including the feature, the ups and downs of the state
of the surface. Its natural form can be divided into mountains, hills, plains and basins.
Example 3.4. Hangzhou Bay Bridge.
Hangzhou bay is located in the Yangtze river in the landscape, river plain area north of
Zhejiang plain area, is composed of coastal and lake sediment accumulation formed
environment, low and flat, the general elevation of 2~7.5 m, many in the region, Wu Tong,
dense river network. Near the bridge site can be divided into land, beaches and waters of
the three geomorphic units.
1. Land: Across the Hangzhou bay is a vast plain terrain, flat, local monadnock
distribution.
2. Beaches: Beaches across the Hangzhou bay has developed, with silty sand and silty
floodplain dominated under the tide, is a tidal flat topography. North Shore beaches
narrow to shore erosion mainly south coast beaches, said three north shallows to
silting based.
3. Sea: Under the strong trend of Hangzhou bay, the main role of the formation of the
trend and the trend of the ridge notching two landforms.
Fig. 3.5 River bed topographic maps near the South Main tower.
Geological survey results show that 1 in 4 layers of loose overburden, 5 layer of dense
— dense fine sand, 6 to dense sand layer below.
Layer-based, local folder with soft plastic clay layer. 6-1 and 8-1 large sub-sub-layer
thickness, depth of approximately 65 m, 76 m, stable distribution Fixed, is an ideal base
stratum.
The downside of the Su Tong Bridge bedrock geological conditions that are deeply
buried (on the 21st floor of weak wind flower basalt, elevation –309.59 m, that is the
bedrock depth of nearly 300 m), not directly as a substrate bearing stratum, the foundation
cannot support the underside strength. The deformation of the rock; advantageous in that a
sedimentary, stratigraphic distribution is relatively stable, relatively uniform thickness,
which base at the end deformable surface is also more evenly, reducing the likelihood of
uneven settlement.
Preliminary design studies may form the basis of a variety of uses, after a preliminary
post-election than the main caisson foundation and pile foundation for two species form
the basis of equal depth research, and various forms of pile foundation conducted a
comprehensive comparison. Holding force on the caisson foundation analysis layer as
shown in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4 Described the basement geology
Item North tower Outanane
Substrate 6-1 layer of coarse 7 layers of fine sand, dense, containing a small
bearing sand, formation amount of grit. Stratigraphic elevation –91.8~ –73.6
stratum elevation –87. 2~–80.6 m, thickness of about 18 m. Thickness, the
m, Thickness of about 7 distribution of stable foundation permit.
m, thickness,
distribution is more
stable. Foundation
allowed Carrying
capacity of 450 kPa.
Carrying 5-2 layers of fine sand 6-1 layer of gravel sand, small thickness of about 4
capacity overlying strata, m, distribution is more stable. Ground capacity Xu
of 300 saturated, dense, carrying capacity of 450 kPa.
kPa relatively homogeneous
in thickness than the
small, distributed stable
foundation allowable
bearing capacity for
240 kPa.
Lying Under the seven layers 7 layers of silt, dense and relatively homogeneous.
down of fine sand strata Small thickness, foundation permit hosts force 200
lying, dense, relatively kPa.
homogeneous. Greater
thickness distribution
Stable foundation for
allowable bearing
capacity 300 kPa.
Based on Uncorrected allowable Layers, such as elevation of the substrate disposed in
the bearing capacity of the a certain depth of the layer into the, ideal can be
analysis foundation for the 450 obtained carrying capacity. Allowable bearing
(500) kPa, the thickness capacity of the foundation uncorrected for 300 kPa,
is large, can be used as greater thickness, can be as a base caisson bearing
a base caisson holding stratum, such as setting the base elevation in the feed
force. into a certain depth of the layer can be obtained more
satisfactory bearing capacity.
Conclusions on the main tower pile bearing stratum are shown in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5 The main tower foundation pile tip bearing stratum and program and evaluation.
Project pile tip bearing stratum program a sharp bearing stratum Option II
Pile tip 6-1 layer of coarse sand, 8-1 layer of coarse sand, gravel containing
bearing dense, containing gravel, local pebbly sand, dense, roof Elevation –
stratum roof elevation –73.6~ – 94.2~–94.9 m, depth 71.5~80.4 m, thickness
78.2 m, depth of 54.5~54.7 30.9~34.9 m, average 32.9 m, thickness,
m, thick 13~18.2 m, distribution is more stable. The upper clamp 8-
average 15.6 m, thickness 2 layers of fine sand, the North Tower
and distribution of stable. dunshang clayey layer sandwiched 8-3
Overburden 5-1 layer overlying strata 7 layers of silt, dense and relatively
powder, sand, sandy loam, homogeneous. Stable distribution.
dense, relatively
homogeneous, thick
Degree, the distribution of
stable.
Under 7 layers of silt, dense and 9 stable layer sub-clay, hard plastic, with a
lying strata relatively homogeneous. small amount of calcium tuberculosis. Stable
Small thickness, distribution.
distribution.
Evaluation 6-1 layers are not suitable for the pile tip stratum. Two towers at the north
and south piers 8-1 layers stable distribution, greater thickness, is an ideal
pile tip bearing stratum; pier at North Tower uneven 8-3 Layer in 8-1 layers
of soft plastic clayey layer sandwich, nature, although the thickness of only
2~3 m, but if the pile tip close to the settlement of the larger pile tip should
be pass through the layer. Pile tip elevation –120 m around, or 9 layers for
the pile tip bearing stratum, the pile tip elevation –125 m below.
After analysis and calculation, the north tower base layer used 8-1 layer, south tower
selected nine-layer as a drilling pile bearing stratum on the basis of the pile tip, pile
bottom elevation –126 m.
6. The Seismic
Earthquakes are the Earth’s internal media locally generated seismic rupture occurs
abruptly, causing the phenomenon of ground shaking within a certain range. Earthquake
Earth’s surface is a fast shock, also known as the earth in ancient times. It and the wind,
rain, lightning is a natural phenomenon often occurs on earth. The earth shook and the
earthquake the most intuitive and general performance. Strong earthquake occurred in the
sea or coastal areas, can cause huge waves, called tsunamis. Earthquakes are very
frequent, global earthquake occurred about 5 million times a year.
Usually through seismological bureau and other departments, seismic safety
evaluation report was produced on the bridge site, such as in Jiaojiang bridge designed for
Earthquake Research Institute proposed bridge site area of ground motion parameters
study the technical requirements: The bridge site area of fault activity and fracture the
impact of the bridge project to evaluate the liqueifaction potential discrimination grounds
under shock effect and impact on the land bridge to determine the programs tower bridge
pier at the bedrock and soil in site design ground motion parameters, characteristics of
long-period ground motion.
1. According to the data collection and field geological survey, combined with
geophysical exploration carried out the preliminary design phase, the results of
exploration drilling work near the bridge site area comprehensive evaluation of fault
activity, as well as possible to evaluate the impact of the bridge.
2. Provide Pylons bit of surface drilling location venues around the 100-year base
period, three probability level of ground motion parameters were 100-year
probability of exceedance 63%, 10%, 4% (corresponding to a return period of 100
years, 950 years, 2500 years) of the horizontal and vertical acceleration response
spectrum, response spectrum should be considered long-period components, cycle
should be greater than 15s; when given design ground motion parameters, you should
be consider 3%, 5% damping ratio of the two.
3. Provide drill bits around the main tower of the location of each probability level, i.e.,
100 years beyond the 63% probability, 10%, 4% (corresponding to the return period
of 950 years & 2500 years) site under the surface of each drilling location horizontal
and vertical acceleration and horizontal displacement to process data files synthetic
seismic waves, provide at least three samples in each time course data. To provide
horizontal and vertical ground acceleration synthetic seismic wave, you should
consider the long-period component (greater than 15s), and the corresponding
reaction with spectral match.
4. Offers typical north and south bridge approach surface drilling location venues
benchmark 50-year period, the probability of three levels of ground motion
parameters were 50-year probability of exceedance 63%, 10%, 3% (corresponding to
a return period of 50 years, 475 years, a 642 years) of the horizontal and vertical
acceleration response spectrum; in the design ground motion parameters are given,
considering 3%, 5% damping ratio of the two.
5. Provide drilling north and south bridge approach typical location of each probability
level, i.e., 63% probability of exceedance in 50 years, 10%, each drilling location site
surface 3% level under the direction and vertical acceleration and horizontal
displacement of synthetic seismic wave away data files, each time history data to
provide at least three samples. To provide horizontal and vertical ground acceleration
synthetic seismic wave should be react with the corresponding spectral match.
6. Response spectra and seismic waves process data must be provided in a spreadsheet
format.
When loading length is 21~100 m (100 m over the same 100 m),
where W = load per unit area of the crowd, kPa;
L = load length, m;
B = half bridge width, m, more than 4 m by 4 m dollars.
Fig. 3.8 Three or five median clearance gauge (four) (dimensions: m).
(b) Maximum Deflection and Vibration
Flyover upper structure, the maximum vertical deflection by the crowd load calculation
should not be exceed the following values:
Liang plate girder span L/600 (L to calculate span)
Plate girder beams cantilevered end L1/300 (L1 cantilever length)
Trusses, arches L/800
Fig. 3.9 Single train static live load calculation schema (dimensions: m).
(c) Clearance
Rail gauge should be determined according to the outline of a comprehensive analysis of
the size and performance of different vehicle line features, equipment installation and
construction methods and other factors. Rail-bound and bound into a vehicle, equipment
gauge, construction clearance. Pantograph gauge is an integral part of the vehicle
bounded.
Vehicle gauge is the maximum dynamic envelope of a vehicle under normal operating
conditions.
Equipment clearance is intrusive boundaries outside a vehicle for limiting installation
Construction clearance is a bounded envelope equipment outside. Clearance between
construction clearance and equipment should be fully considered installing equipment and
pipelines on the location of the building, in the width direction should stay out of 20~50
mm safety clearance between the equipment and pipelines and equipment gauge.
According large vehicles such as (catenary power supply) vehicle contour, vehicle
gauge, gauge and plot devices, equipment gauge at its widest point is 3 530 mm, line
segments outside the cave highest pantograph gauge for 4 800 mm.
5. The Railway Bridge
(a) Train Live Load
Train vertical static live load must adopt People’s Republic of China railway standard live
loads, namely “the live load” live load calculation standard schema in Fig. 3.10. Design
used – when “in the live load” load, live load calculation standard drawings can be
arbitrarily intercepted.
(c) Clearance
According to the “standard gauge railway construction clearance” standard gauge (1435
mm) railway construction clearance limit is defined as a cross-sectional contour and line
perpendicular to the centerline. In this profile, in addition to rolling stock and locomotives
have interaction with a device (vehicle speed reducer, train staff giving and receiving, a
contact wire and other), other equipment or buildings shall not be intrusive. Bridges and
bridge restrictions limit-1A limit-B applies to new and re-built steam and diesel traction
singlet and double rail, its load of freight trains should not exceed the height of 5300 mm,
bridges and bridge limit-2B limit-2A applies to new and re-built when single-line and
double electric traction railway, using the gauge, cargo train loading height should not
exceed 5300 mm. Fig. 3.11 and Fig. 3.12 are the bridge and the bridge limit -1B limit -1A
gauge chart, bridges and bridge limit-2B limit-2A bounded diagram, figure, the solid line
for the bridge construction clearance, dashed for the basic construction clearance in the
basic building can be installed lighting, communications and signaling equipment between
the gauge and bridge construction clearance.
Fig. 3.11 Bridge and the bridge limit -1B limit -1A bounded diagram (dimensions: mm).
Fig. 3.12 Bridge and the bridge limit -2B limit -2A bounded diagram (dimensions: mm).
Understanding and being familiar with roads, city bridges, railways and rail traffic lane
width and height of the other basic requirements help designers conceived the bridge
section and its flexible structure types. In modern bridge function, since urban land
resources, major rivers Guojiangtongdao resources are increasingly scarce, and urban
development need to build more roads and municipal bridges, high-speed railway bridges
and rail bridges, so in many cases bridge will be need to share a bit of resources.
When required to meet highway bridges, rail transportation and other functions, one
should pay attention to its technical requirements, as described below.
• Design Live Load
Combined rail bridge on the existing railway bridge specification double railway live load
combinations, you can access the reduction factor of 0.9, while the live load in
combination with the road, multi-lane highway in the live load in accordance with the
specifications off road under reduced circumstances, is still on the road after the live load
reduction be discounted; Metro design specification is not specified live load reduction
when the double railway portfolio, mainly taking into account the urban rail transport
loaded with high probability, for highway and railway bridges integration whether the
reduction of live load when a combination of road and rail is not specified. Taking into
account the full rate of urban rail transit, traffic density, for not double railway live load
reduction when combined cannot live load reduction when the rail and highway live load
combinations, only the live load in accordance with its lane highway number of reduction
according to specifications.
• Vertical Deflection
Note the difference between the S-Bahn and a large railway, high-speed railway between
the bridge stiffness requirements. Railway freight train load large, vibration, bridge
stiffness requirements of the most stringent; high-speed rail load light, but the speed is
high, the train bridge, bridge will have a greater vibration of the bridge stiffness
requirements are very strict; Urban Mass Transit load, low speed across the bridge, the
bridge stiffness requirements can have a greater relaxation. In addition, in the form of road
and railway bridges with one of the plane has a larger lateral stiffness, which makes the
upper part of the lateral stiffness of the beam is no longer a controlling factor, or even the
main navigation Long Span Bridge can also be natural to meet the train running for the
bridge lateral stiffness claim.
According to domestic and international rail and metro design specifications, for beam
bridge, using stiffness standard L/1500; for such large-span cable-stayed bridge Shanghai
Yangtze river bridge, the main channel of the bridge, according to the actual construction
experience at home and abroad, using stiffness standard L/500’s .
On large-span bridges, railways states had no clear specification limits stiffness from
railway bridge has been built at home and abroad to see, flex cable-stayed bridge across
the ratio between 1/350 to 1/550, Suspension Bridge scratch span ratio between 1/200 to
1/250. These vertical stiffness of the bridge is much less than the relevant norms
prescribed value on small and medium-span railway bridge, but the operations of these
bridges are very good.
• Pier Longitudinal Stiffness
The requirement for the limit for the longitudinal stiffness of the pier are for two main
purposes: First, to meet the requirements of CWR, the second is to meet the train operator
safety requirements. As Shanghai Yangtze river bridge consecutive non-navigation bridge
over 350 m in length, temperature and more cross-linked structure long beam joints of
large deformation, the bridge is set long CWR is difficult. The bridge mostly high pile
platform, and high piers, pier stiffness by increasing CWR meet set requirements,
extremely unreasonable economically, there are also difficulties in the design, the bridge
structure to be used simply support system, is more unreasonable. To this end, the track
joints in the beam off, set the track telescopic adjustment means for controlling the basic
design is no longer off the rail force, longitudinal horizontal stiffness requirements of the
piers can also be relaxed; as for traffic safety issues, are as previously described urban rail
traffic load is small, low speed across the bridge, the bridge stiffness requirements can
have a greater relaxation, has been carrying out analysis of train running study, the
conclusion is entirely feasible.
• Beam End Corner
Different railway bridge specification standards for different trains made different
requirements on the beam end corner, depending on the circumstances, Shanghai Yangtze
River Bridge in Urban Rail Transit train, the beam end knuckle using 3% limits. In
addition to the main navigation calculations show cable-stayed bridge, the other bridges in
the road and rail transport joint action live load can be controlled within 3%, the main
channel cable-stayed bridge in the joint action of road and rail transport of live load, Liang
end knuckle can be controlled in 3%, but with neighbours across superimposed over 3%.
To this end, consider setting retractable buffer device to solve, or adopt appropriate
measures to reduce the beam end knuckle value.
Example 3.8. Shanghai Yangtze River Bridge take into account urban rail transit across
the bridge, using the same forms to build roads and railways plane is different from the
typical highway bridge, is also different from a typical rail bridge, shown in Fig. 3.13. The
bridge design has more characteristics of roads and bridges in general, and must be
consider the technical requirements of rail transportation.
Fig. 3.13 Shanghai Yangtze River Bridge cross-section layout (dimensions: m).
Example 3.9. Originally designed the Tsing Ma Bridge in Hong Kong, only road and rail
access to the airport, and on Lantau container berth will go through the Tsing Ma Bridge,
then this channel has also been retained to cope with bad weather. Capacity to achieve this
all-weather shell encased by stainless steel rail and two road lanes. Fig. 3.14 shows a cross
section of Tsing Ma Bridge arrangement.
Fig. 3.14 Tsing Ma Bridge cross-section layout (dimensions: m).
Example 3.10. Shanghai Minpu Bridge upper deck for the eight-lane highway, both sides
of the emergency strip, design speed of 120 km / h; the lower deck for six-lane urban local
road design speed of 60 km/h. I standards for highway design load level. Fig. 3.15 shows
the Shanghai Minpu Bridge cross-section layout.
1. The pathway and bridge axis angle according to the General specification for design
of highway bridges and culverts (JTG D60-2004), bridge axis angle between normals
and pathway is less than 5°.
2. The distance between axis and pier of the bridge in accordance with the general
design of river port engineering practice (JTJ 212-2006), bridge and upstream/
downstream ports the safety distance (distance), respectively, shall be not less than
4L and 2L, L to design a ship or pier for the berthing of ships and realistic length.
3. The distance between axis and pier of the bridge in accordance with the general
design of river port engineering practice (JTJ 212-2006), bridge and upstream/
downstream anchoring sites the safety distance, respectively, shall be not less than 4
L and 2L, L to design a ship or pier for the berthing of ships and realistic.
1. Scheme A a planned bridge, the bridge site is located in the North Shore rats Jiang
Tao Zha XI Island, South Bank wearing Zhejiang Jiuzhou Pharmaceutical Holdings
Limited Division Plant, Jinghai Pharmaceutical East Shugang road, Jiaojiang Bridge
a total length of 3548 m, and flight path angle 74°3′45″. The scheme bridging midline
of the normal flight path angle is too large, upto 15.9°.
2. Scheme B bridge site is located in the North Shore rats Jiang Tao Zha XI Island, from
the conch cement Terminal 465 m, South Shore line by the Zhejiang Huadee dyes
chemical plant to the South East of Tengyunshan, after the barracks through the
mountains to the west deflect shugang road. The scheme avoids rock head substations
and hisun pharmaceutical plant. Jiaojiang bridge bridge a total length of 3640 m, and
flight path angle 85°0′7″, the channel was about 5°, meet the standard angle should
not be greater than 5° requirement, but need to relocate troops barracks, shooting
range, 3.35 kV high voltage tower.
3. Scheme C the bridge site is located on the North Shore rat islet West of the Fortress
Hill, 150 m Hill, from the conch cement Terminal 221 m, South Division plant,
Jinghai Pharmaceutical East shugang road, Jiaojiang bridge bridge a total length of
3460 m, and flight path angle 74°3′45″. 85°3′27″, namely, bridge line of the angle
between the normals and waterway about 4.9°, meet the requirements specification
for angle is not more than 5°, but the premise is to remove moved to Anhui conch
cement pier, policy processing is difficult. North and south, the two sides had an “S”
bend, alignment is poor.
Comparing the above three bridge schemes, it is concluded that plan B has the basic
line with overall urban planning, the bridge centre line with pathway near orthogonal,
marina and buildings demolition have constructability, engineering cost (taking into
account the relocation of plant and equipment cost) the advantages of lower, has obvious
advantages, it is recommended to implement bridge.
Build bridges over river shipping channel needs to meet more than 5,000 DWT ships
navigation requirements, such as the lower reaches of the Yangtze river, the Pearl river
access to the sea and waterways of Shanghai’s Huangpu river.
According to the International Committee of Qiaoxie Tissue Research was proposed to
prevent accident risk reduction of ship collision with bridge piers “ship domain theory”
(Fig. 3.29), free (don’t slow down, about 30 knots ≈ 55 km/h) safety of navigation width is
3.2 L (the captain), and constraints (snare) navigation can be halved to 1.6 L, such as
seagoing vessels entering and leaving the harbour pilots dictate speed-pass span; or
waterway, only a small number of large-tonnage ships occasionally through the bridge
opening, should be also take into account slowdown, saving bridge cost.
Greece sailing Rion-Antirion bridge is to use constraint criteria of 180,000t ship to 16
knots (≈ 30 km/h) speed by bridge provides two high net 65 m, net 500 m wide holes up
and down navigation clearance, finally uses the porous 560 m cable-stayed bridge CHST,
and does not take into account kilometers or more long-span bridge program. This is
worthy of our reference examples.
Fig. 3.54 Concrete beam and steel box girder binding site.
Zhihou, Japan very much renound as Mr. bridge for Normandy bridge, became the
longest cable-stayed bridge in the world. Many Luo bridge 890 m, beam has been adopted.
Luo bridge has also been adopted for the first time, while many parallel wire hot-extruding
anti-corrosion cable bushing, concave surface finishing of construction methods.
Our main channel bridge of Su Tong Yangtze River Bridge main span of 1,088 m, is
the world’s largest long-span cable-stayed bridges, steel box girders, beams of the tower
for the first time by damping plus the limit connection system, damper for seismic and
other responses play a role; limit focuses on limiting under vertical wind plays a limited
longitudinal displacement between the beams of the tower, but also can effectively control
tower force.
4. Multi-Tower Cable-stayed Bridge
Tower cable-stayed bridge with single tower cable-stayed bridge in the process of
development, is the extent and development of multi-tower cable-stayed bridge. The
earliest tower inclined cable-stayed bridge was built-in 1963, by Italy who designed by
Ricardo Morandi Venezuela Maracaibo Bridge, as shown in Fig. 3.55. It is the first
prestressed concrete cable-stayed bridge in the world, its structural concept is clear: a
series of pre-stressed concrete truss rigidity support cantilevered sections, simply
supported beams hanging connections.
In general, each bridge has a span of its most affordable. Under or over this affordable
economical range, although it is possible to build, but is often not economical or technical
difficulties on the other indicator. Therefore, should in principle within the scope of the
economic alternative to competing programs. Main span of 200 m bridge PC continuous
girder bridges, PC continuous rigid frame bridge with continuous beam bridge, arch
bridge of concrete-filled steel tube and steel, steel box arch bridge and PC cable-stayed
bridge (Tower) options and comparisons. Main span of 500 m bridge steel box arch
bridge, a steel truss arch bridge, PC cable-stayed bridge, girder cable-stayed bridge
options and comparisons. Generally, 700 m should choose a lighter steel deck pavement of
bridge deck cable-stayed bridge cable-stayed bridge. However, due to China’s truck out of
control, durability of steel deck pavement has not been properly resolved, paving damage
cannot be repaired in a timely manner would cause fatigue crack of the orthotropic steel
bridge deck, affecting the durability of steel deck. Because this improved performance
more reliable structural steel deck and extend use of composite girder cable-stayed bridge
is worthy of consideration.
Cable-stayed bridge spanning breakthrough kilometers, its economic scope upto 1200
m, 1400 m, plus, stiffness, cable-stayed bridge cable replacement, and does not require
anchorage advantages will be an advantage in competition and suspension bridges, thus
forced back toward the larger span of suspension bridge. Can even be envisaged within the
span of 1500~2000 m, cable-stayed and suspension cable system may be able to anchor
construction easily made of low stiffness and suspension bridge and further to 2000 m
back down.
According to the development trend of seagoing vessels, the seventh generation of
container ships has reached 400,000 tons, high vertical clearance requirement is above 70
m. In order to adapt to existing port bridge navigation standard, larger seagoing vessels
would limit height, and continue to grow in width and length show vertical clearance
width will increase accordingly, but will not increase without limit. We shall continuously
improve the lower foundation in deep water technology and economic level, across the
span of a bridge linking the island and the Taiwan Strait in the future limit at the level of
around 3500 m to improve bridge competitiveness of the beams for the tunnel option.
Because as the bridge span increases, and its cost will rise rapidly, in the face of
increasingly sophisticated tunnel DAO technical and economic indicators, the bridge will
be difficult to compete and tunnel scheme.
Finally, it is to be noted that, from the perspective of the development trend of ship
navigation (see Table 3.9) and is currently navigable routes less than 300,000 tons road
hole bound navigation time, 2 holes 750 m of multi-tower cable-stayed bridge has been
able to meet the requirements, such as being designed by Germany and Denmark carries
upto 260,000t of Fei Manen Strait between ocean liners, 34 Tower cable-stayed bridge
across 780 m more economic plan would eventually overcome the large-span (5)
suspension bridge even for the future potential of a 500,000 ton lane, 2 × 1500 m
navigation requirements can also be used more competitive multi-tower cable-stayed
bridge scheme, so as to avoid deep water anchorage difficulties. Furthermore, programmes
are more likely to meet the rail cable-stayed bridge for two stiffness requirements for
bridge, especially the advantages of cable can be replaced, durability and total lifecycle
cost of the cable-stayed bridge suspension bridge better than the suspension bridge. In
short, the km over the span of bridge type selection of cable-stayed bridges should be
given priority, and caution on suspension bridge. Unless faced with water deeper than 100
m and a wide channel, which span more than 1500 m, you must use consecutive TRANS-
2000 m (5) suspension bridge At this point, such as Sham Shui Po anchorage must be
addressed through research and development, anti-sliding at the tower of the main cable,
and rigidity of customs key technical problems and also had to face the strong competition
of the tunnel option.
Denmark and Germany between instances of the Fehmarn Belt Bridge is an important
revelation: in order to meet 260,000t sea navigation ask, after thorough investigation and
analysis of ship collision risk, recommending three-span bridge program is a four tower
780 m of truss composite beam cable-stayed bridge, who gave up on large cross-(2000 m)
ICP-suspension bridge, to stay competitive on the tunnel option.
Since most of the tonnage of the ships below 300,000t, ultra large ocean liners were
just a few of the more than 300,000t. Even if you want to ask at full speed, “freedom of
navigation” porous 1~200 m have been 300,000t to meet the shipping requirements (see
previous Table 3.9), occasionally there are a few more than 300,000t of ultra large ocean
liners pass through, deceleration can be used by “constrained navigation”. In this way,
1200 m long-span cable-stayed bridge is the most competitive Cross-Sea Bridge. Cable-
stayed bridges stiffness, wind resistance performance is good, cables can be replaced, and
avoid deep water anchorage of suspension bridge and across the main cable saddles of
suspension bridge tower problems such as skid-resistance, not only economy better than
suspension bridges, but also has the competitive advantage of the tunnel option. Therefore,
in addition to 5 km-width Super Sham Shui Po (100 m) strait-tower suspension bridge
spans must be used (for example, Italy Messina Strait Bridge), the water is wide (20 km)
Strait Bridge should be give priority to the economic rational scheme of cable-stayed
bridge, rather than blindly span breakthroughs, not economical for large-span suspension
bridge scheme and loss of competitiveness in tunnels.
Compared with open caisson and caisson foundations, in most cases, the foundation
has the following advantages: needed to sink into the depth of pile sinking well, small
caisson sinking depth required; when the caisson, depths of caissons and piles are equal,
pile of material about than the caisson, caisson foundation 40%~60% less material.
Therefore, the cost than the caisson, caisson pile foundation; however, along with the
advantages and disadvantage is: pile foundation stiffness ratio of open caisson, caisson
foundation of small, especially in the case of velocity, scour depth, diameter scour depth
increases as it grows, so that its advantages are gradually reduced.
Pile the generally applicable conditions are:
1. Low strength and compressibility of the soil covering, or for other such as the ice
heaving soil or expansive soil.
2. Unstable soil, and under it in the appropriate depth when there are good supporting
layer of soil can be used as in the quake zone, soil covering is liquid.
3. Soil, under which a vibration-resistant stability of soil when Pier Foundation under
horizontal force you want about surface soil covering the punching.
4. Brushing effect of large have higher requirements for settlement of bridge
Foundation.
5. Specific site conditions and construction feasibility on pile foundation design options
need attention:
For sinking piles, RC, PC, PHC pile suitable water depth is 20~30 m, permeable
overburden thickness upto about 35 m, mass for the saturated fine sand, clay, sand and
gravel; compared to the steel pile and pile type mentioned above, as long as the
construction equipment available, which adapt to water depth, covering a wide range of
thickness but 10 cm over gravel layer, containing a lot of the strata of rocks or other
obstructions, the types of sinking piles are suitable for. Similarly, when the surrounding
pipelines or dilapidated houses, are sensitive to soil compaction effect, there is no suitable
use of soil compaction effect of sinking pile foundation.
Bored pile than sinking piles, piles can be penetrate the hard gravel, cobble and
Boulder, also available through the complex geological conditions cave, construction
equipment, simple, no squeezing effect, construction noise and vibration, suitable depth
and depth greater. Among which the rotary drill hole pile’s suitable water depth upto about
30 m, depth is more than 100 m; impact drill hole pile adjustment suitable water depth and
reach the hole is slightly decreased, but you can use a variety of ground conditions,
especially in karst areas, would be a plus application of bored pile.
Considering pile bearing capacity of end-bearing pile applied in soft soil surface is not
very thick, but for hard soil layer in the lower part of the case; brush pile applied in soft
soil surface with a thick, with moderate compressibility of the soil layer in the lower part,
and hard soil depth in a lot of situations.
For low pile foundation and high pile bearing platform of choice depends on the depth
and ease of construction, typically in the floodplain, or shallow water sets the low-pile pile
foundation. High-pile bearing platform of design should be noted for the underside and
navigable relationships to protect the pile from influence of ship collision.
In addition, from the point of use, helical pile than a vertical pile has a strong ability to
resist horizontal force, may ship impact, waves beats and seismic effects used on the
bridge. At present, some latest piling barge equipped with a plug piling upto more than 82
m.
Inclination of ±18.5° increased pile capacity; but in the bored pile construction tilt,
limited capacity of domestic equipment, generally only achieved approximately 5° of
inclination sloping pile. In contrast, foreign construction equipment more capable,
diameters can be carried out 1.5 m, 40 m length, tilt 1 : 4 bored pile construction, while
form 3 in diameter. 5 m expanded diameter.
At present, the pile foundation construction technology is very mature, large pile
foundation success stories, too many (as in bridge bored maximum diameter pile has
reached 4 m Su Tong bridge main pylon pile foundation composed of 131 diameter
2.5~2.8 m, 124 m bored pile), Has very good economic effect of piles, on many occasions
would be preferred. Pile foundation design, there are two points it is worth mentioning:
firstly, pile foundation of bridge in the country at present some bias in the application of
the project, seems to be “without piling without foundation” tendencies. However, in a
busy shipping channel, bridge with earthquake requirements, whether with high-pile
foundation bearing platform appropriate is questionable; second, the bridge pile
foundation bearing platform structures are often designed as a solid structure, under the
force of the quake, the high-pile piled foundation piles due to pile more and more bent,
resulting in not meizoseismal bridge’s pile foundation design of seismic control. Thus,
measures that could be considered reduced quality in the design, such as the design of
hollow pile cap, set at an angle to reduce small-cap area.
Example 3.17. Donghai bridge in Shanghai.
Starting Luchao port in Shanghai Nanhui Donghai bridge across Hangzhou Bay in
northern waters, and Shengsi in Zhejiang Province small rocky islands of ocean mountain
Island, is about 31 km, is the first offshore sea-crossing bridge. Main forms of continuous
beam bridge structure (construction method) and the cable-stayed bridge, sub-structure for
pile foundations (PHC pipe pile foundations, steel pipe pile foundations).
Seen from the geological conditions, typical geological layer from top to bottom to
grey-brown mud, black-gray silty clay, gray clay, four-story gray-green, sadly, 1 layer of
grass and yellow sand silt clay silt, sadly 2 layer of dust and grass-gray silty (Foundation
pile the bearing layer), hydrological conditions and average tidal range 2.75~3.20 m the
maximum velocity of 2.4 m/s, wave height of 3.45 m (NNE) and 2.15 m (SE).
Considering the tide, tide, wave, wind influence of hydrologic conditions on
construction jobs, as well as the corrosion of sea water on the pile problems in the design
of the original, non-navigable spans of all foundations set to pile in low pier area high
intensity, the compactness of concrete, Cl-penetration resistance performance is good and
relatively cheap cost of PHC pipe pile (1200 mm), by vertical piles and piles of pile
combination (Fig. 3.78 for 70 m to bridge abutment pile layout and structure). According
to the stage of the actual pile of design changes to adjust the pile, the vast majority of the
pile into a steel pipe piles. The main reasons are the following several points.
1. Bridge sea tide, tide, wave, wind, fog and hydrometeorological conditions affecting
the stability of the pile driver, resulting in the missed hammering and thus pile
crushing.
2. The bridge pile foundation bearing stratum of soil top elevation is generally high, and
layers thick, and with high sand content in the soil, for Low compression compacted
soil, and SPT blow counts, and not conducive to PHC pipe pile sinking.
3. PHC pipe pile tip large section, resulting in large amount of soil compaction and
resistance, is not conducive to the pile sunk. Although construction of the additional
the steel pile shoes, helped sink the effect is not obvious. In the PHC pipe pile
through low compressibility of compacted soil layer is not enough.
4. PHC pipe pile with low cost, good corrosion resistance advantages, but the fighting
ability of PHC pipe pile steel pipe piles is poor, and when the hammer more often,
when penetration is smaller, it tube pile easily damaged.
Fig. 3.78 Cap structure and pile layout schematic (size: m) (a) platform façade structure;
(b) pile layout.
5. Pile hammer equipment capacity and length of PHC pipe piles, pile weight and
the pile bearing capacity of an uncoordinated, can’t be “Heavy hammers
tapping” the pile requirements.
Construction of pile foundations of Donghai bridge practice experience is: the choice
of pile foundation of bridge pier foundation should be take full account of environmental
conditions the influence of high strength, torsional behavior of the pile should be chosen
well, hitting resistance capacity of steel pipe pile; offshore waters affected by seabed scour
and deposition, wave impact differs from the geological structure of the continental shelf
seabed geological structure, the design should fully analyse soils and bearing capacity
force of bridge pile foundation in offshore waters, and upon the request of both vertical
and horizontal bearing capacity; whether the waters off the coast with PHC pipe pile
foundations, should be based on comparison and selection of foundation conditions were
reasonable, to control the construction of the total number of blow and penetration, in
order to ensure piling process the pile structural integrity and durability of structures
using.
Example 3.18. United States, San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge.
United States—San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge East span bridge is a double-deck
all 10 lanes of large-span bridge, with a total 4 km, full-bridge into self-anchored
suspension bridges and viaducts on the sea, on both sides of the approach spans four parts
of wiring, substructure for the pile foundation.
Foundation design of one of the most characteristic is the use of inclined pile
foundation of high-pile, pile structures in multi-cell box shaped steel frame filled with
concrete, being a concrete-filled steel tube. From the perspective of geological condition
of the bridge, river bed under the soil distribution varies widely, on main bridge tower is
located in relatively shallow bedrock slopes. Most other foundations located deep in the
mud layer.
Oakland Bay Bridge East span bridge located in the strong earthquake, seismic risk
can cause two major geological fault lines of Sandy Bridge site 12 km and 25 km only.
Requests by two fortification level for aseismic design (normal use and safety features of
earthquake).
First piers of the viaduct by sea 50 m high bridge pier foundation (Fig. 3.79) as an
example, the pier is located deep in the slime layer shang, pile high 6.5 m, water 2 m,
constructed in the form of box-shaped steel frame filled with concrete, to fight for
concrete shrinkage, creep and deformation caused by temperature and reduce the cracks.
Foundation due to earthquake deformation and the size of the cap, and cap set of 6,
diameter 2.5 m, length about slope respectively, 1 : 8, 1 : 12100 m, pile of steel pipe piles.
Design wall thickness along the pile of steel pipe pile long range, range from 51~68 mm,
mainly based on bending bearing capacity of piles, ductile, corrosion and “scored” based
meter. Within the upper two-thirds length of steel pipe filled with concrete, in order to
ensure the transfer of load from the combination between concrete-filled steel tubular
pipe, steel pipe pile (a concrete filled area) welded onto the inner wall of shear studs,
bottom weld shear ring plate. Fig. 3.79 shows the plane and elevation of pile-raft
foundation and steel pipe pile elevations.
Construction sequence was: Mencke MHU 1700 hammer for pile foundation
construction and pre-fabricated pile floating and sinking in place, through the internal steel
frame system pile with steel pipe piles and pier reinforcement of internal connections, and
then fill high strength concrete and light-weight concrete, finally setting collision bezel
facilities.
Fig. 3.79 Elevation plan of the piled-raft foundation and steel pipe pile elevations (unit:
mm).
(b) The Open Caisson Foundation
Caisson is the underlying type of an application has a long history, the earliest
documented’s caisson at around 5 m tall wooden caisson (1738), but by the time limit of
construction technology, the caisson were unable to penetrate deep enough to resist the
erosion of soil layer in a long time not used, replaced by a pneumatic caisson foundation.
Until the early 20th century, sink well technique to large gauge die use, especially in deep
water Foundation, such as the United States Oakland Bay Bridge (1936), depth of 32 m,
covering layer thickness of 54.7 m, floating caisson, position suction sink, base depth is
73.28 m. Now, with the large hoisting, transporting construction equipment located and
seabed drilling-and-blasting and cleaning floor leveling, pre-casting and installation of
open caisson as the main deep water Foundation has been used many times in real cases of
cross-Sea Bridge project.
Characteristic of sunk shaft foundation embedded depth can be large, high integrity
and good stability, can withstand large vertical loads and water flat load; open caisson
foundation and construction of cofferdam retaining and retaining structures, the
construction process is not complicated. The open caisson foundation disadvantage is that
during a long, fine sand and silt soil in the hole pumping prone quicksand phenomenon,
caused the caisson tilt; under the open caisson sunk in the process of large boulders, rock
or the bottom surface of the trunk tilted too much, will bring to the construction of certain
difficulties. Table 3.13 lists part of the caisson classification form.
Table 3.13 Caisson classification.
Classification Types of pole
Steel open caisson
Materials Concrete, reinforced concrete caisson
Ferro-cement thin-walled open caisson
Air curtain in open caisson
Sinking support measures
Mud lubricated sleeve caisson
Cast-in situ sinking open caisson
Production methods
Floating open caisson
Fig. 3.86 Canada Northumberland Strait Bridge Bell Set the base (size: m).
Fig. 3.87
Fig. 3.88 (Size: m).
Fig. 3.90 Aomori diaphragm tower foundation of pylon pier of the bridge division of the
element and the construction sequence (size: m).
3.4 TECHNICAL FACTORS AFFECTING ECONOMIC
INDICATORS
Since entering the 21st century, due to the low carbon economy and sustainable
development, the whole-life design philosophy of attention to bridge design follow the
“safe, suitable, economical, beautiful, durable and environmentally friendly” six principles
has become a consensus among members. However, with the Chinese classics increase of
economic development and national investment, the economic principles of bridges in
China seem to get overlooked. Some economic and unreasonable large-span program,
often due to the owner’s “over-ambitious” was used and designers blind pursuit of large-
span bridge, technicians mistakenly, that span’s breakthrough was “innovation” is the
world leading level of realisation and, to that end, will take a doubled price, and even
cause serious imbalance (span/height ratio), and evil in the vastly disproportionate to the
adjacent bridge. We should encourage the adoption of innovative effort to reach the best
mechanical properties, the reasonable constructional details and the most convenient
construction technology, but also the most cost effective and aesthetically pleasing
bridges, thereby enhancing the reputation and competitiveness of China’s bridges.
Projects of product conceptual design phase the idea choice, you need to consider
many factors, economics is one of the most important factors. Different bridge-type has a
different economic and technical indicators, and indicators changes alongwith changes in
the condition of building the bridge. Therefore, for special set the conditions of bridges,
project selection to choose the economic programmes are needed; for a specific bridge,
spans of different layouts, section, tower shape, structure, and will be also demonstrate
different economics; construction will affect programme of the economy; with basis in
particular deep water foundation account for a higher proportion of the total investment,
so concept of selection is based an important task in the design stage.
Example 3.27. Su Tong bridge preliminary design phase bridge type selection.
1. Tower cable-stayed main span span is determined as 1088 m, take 500 m side spans,
two auxiliary piers, taking into account the auxiliary channel, khunj uplink channel
requirements, the span arrangement for 100 m + 100 m + 300 m + 1088 m + 300 m +
100 m + 100 m.
2. With a total length of 2088 m continues taking into account location, south anchorage
on the main channel and navigation channels between shoals, north of anchorage on
the north side of the main channel the 8 m terrain around, considering the main
channel and the secondary channel is set in the bridge main span that are required in
the span of about 1510 m, mining with a three-span suspension, integrated structure
factors, take 453 m + 1510 m + 453 m = 2416 m cloth across the way.
3. South anchorage in a dedicated channel on the South Shore levee between the shoals,
north of anchorage on the north side of the main channel is –5 m elevation close,
considering the main channel and the secondary channel is set within the main span,
dedicated lanes set up in the South Shore, and the use of three-span crane, Heald
structure factors, take 938 m + 2010 m + 938 m = 3886 m cloth across the way.
Investment estimation: full-bridge cable stayed bridge with a main span of 1088 m
programme a total investment of 59.0 Yuan, suspension bridge with a main span of 1510
m programme bridge, a total investment of 68.300 million Yuan, 2010 m programme full
bridge suspension bridge main span with a total investment of 82.200 million Yuan. Main
span of 1510 m cable bridge program investment than cable stayed bridge with a main
span of 1088 m price 9.300 million Yuan, a main span of 2010 m scheme of suspension
bridge main span 1 088 m cable-stayed bridge scheme investments increased by 23.200
million Yuan, the cable stayed bridge with a main span of 1088 m programme of
investment in the province.
Example 3.28. Qingdao Bay Bridge.
Qingdao haiwan bridge across Jiaozhou Bay connected with the main city and
Huangdao of Qingdao and auxiliary city city of large bridges, railway bridge project
surveying and designing Institute in the feasibility study report of the bridge, ferries and
two bay bridge under different conditions of bridges examined a number of long-span
suspension bridge scheme.
According to traffic under the bridge function, combined with topography and geology
and other natural conditions, respectively, on the ferry’s bridge and the bay bridge overall
layout.
(a) The ferry bridge—Bridge Program (Fig. 3.91). East side features two large holes
meet the requirements of port channel and the central fairway, Lee of non-
navigable spans of sand ridges area in central pier or contact the bridge in the
middle, with waters on the west side or edge of the cay set in shallow water anchor
pier based on cay on the west side of port channel setting in the middle of long-
span cable-stayed bridge.
Fig. 3.91 Qingdao Bay ferry bridge scheme selection (size: m).
Prepared a programme of three tower suspension bridge, spans the composition 350 m
+ 1200 m + 1200 m + 350 m, central tower of 250 m, two 160 m tower. Main cable
resulting from the unilateral load in order to overcome the huge levels of tension vertically
using a main tower-like structure, this class bridge-both at home and abroad, there is no
large instances.
Option II for suspension bridge with two hand decorate, share a bi-directional
anchoring, anchoring the main cable. Span consists of 350 m + 950 m + 350 m + 350 m +
950 m + 350 m. Similar bridge main span in the world for the first time.
Option III for a two-seat hybrid cable-stayed bridge joint layout, steel box girder of
cable-stayed main span and side spans of pre-stressed concrete box girder span constitute
330 m + 950 m + 330 m + 330 m + 950 m + 330 m. The main span of the bridge is also a
world record.
(b) The ferry bridge—Bridge Program (Fig. 3.92). Each bridge main span across the
central deep water shipping. Depth on both sides of the main tower is about 25 m,
anchor set in near-shore shallow water district.
Programme I of three tower suspension bridge, spans the composition 646 m +
1652 m + 646 m, central tower of 250 m, two RC master 255 m tower. The main
span of the bridge at the first bridge of its kind in the world.
Programme II of three-span continuous steel box girder of suspension bridge,
spans the composition 652 m + 1832 m + 652 m, RC primary 265 m tower.
Programme III is a three-span suspending cable-stayed hybrid structure, spans
the composition 592 m + 1832 m + 592 m. The bridge world the first.
(c) Number of Major Works: Corresponding to the above-mentioned scheme, number
of main bridge of the main projects as shown in tables 3.15 and 3.16.
Table 3.15 Ferry and bridge engineering quantity comparison.
Project three-tower Suspension Suspension bridge Two 950 m of cable-
bridge with two of 950 m stayed bridge
Cable wire (t) 22550 19080 11050
Steel box beams (t) 46000 49300 51000
Main tower of Tower 63700 36200 92000
concrete (m3) Foundation 117600 134200 160000
Fig. 3.92 Qingdao Bay ferry bridge scheme selection (size: m).
Table 3.16 Ferry and bridge engineering quantity comparison.
Main Span 1652 Main span 1832 Main span 1832 m
Item m suspension m suspension cable-stayed
bridge bridge suspension
Cable wire (t) 30400 36800 25400
Steel box 39900 44400 41800
beams (t)
Main tower of Tower 75600 88900 108700
concrete (m3) Foundation 126500 141300 142340
Anchorage Anchorage 151000 167300 125000
concrete (m3) Foundation 111199 99400 120560
Plan A: Two main piers are located on land, main span is 602 m;
Plan B: East main piers located onshore, west side main piers located in the original
terminal location, half water, half on the ground, the main span size is 580 m;
Plan C: East main piers located onshore, west of main piers in the water, main span 520 m.
These three scenarios, such as plan a main pier foundation construction cost for 1.0,
and the shore, the proportion of the cost of in-water pier foundations 1.0 : 2. 1 : 3.3,
directly affect the total cost of the bridge. Although cost is directly related to the size and
span of the superstructure, the greater the span the more expensive. But because the cost
of land based and water based differences, resulting in long span 602 m model a total cost
than span B, 520 m and span C, 580 m programmes were reduced to 6.4 million Yuan and
14.7 million dollars.
(b) Deep-water Foundation
Large-scale deep-water foundation of costly, risky, directly affects the economic effects.
To allow for lower construction cost comparison, from several cable-stayed bridge in
engineering, expressed in a lower construction cost and percentage of total cost. 400~600
m span cable-stayed bridges: main piers located on the shore of the Nanpu bridge and
Yangpu bridge, the geological conditions of main piers located in shallow water or in low
water level for onshore construction when the Chongqing Yangtze river, lower
construction cost of cable-stayed bridge with a total cost of 19%~22%. When pier located
in good geological and topographic conditions, lower structural costs will be lower, such
as Jialing river of Shimen bridge lower construction cost total 16.4%. When the main piers
located in the water when the sub-structure cost total cost ratio with the hydrological,
geological, topographical and change, general 30%~40%. In normal circumstances,
decreases with long span, lower structural costs as percentage of total cost goes rising
trend.
(c) Master Girder Forms and Materials
Girder bridge is a PC an intermediate form between the steel deck and the deck, its weight
is about 300 kN/m, and PC bridge (500 kN/m) and the steel bridge (150 kN/m).
Accordingly, in the cable-stayed bridge with a large scope of application (l = 200 ~1000
m), three decks have the advantage of the most economical and reasonable range
respectively.
(i) PC Bridge (for l =200~500 m)
When the length of the cantilever exceeds 250 m, the heavier deck will expose the
weaknesses of PC. To reduce weight, need thinning of box girder wall thickness, and thus
increase the stress level in the construction phase, plus required pre-load stress against the
live load of tensile stress in the future. As control construction quality problems of
improper or, Ningbo Zhaobaoshan bridge appears as “attending” the passive situation, and
even lead to crushing accidents.
(ii) The Girder Bridge (for L = 400~700 m)
Girder bridge due to covered with pre-cast concrete bridge decks, deck asphalt pavement
conditions and perhaps the PC Liang Yi achieve, especially at high temperature region of
steel deck pavement technology is still a problem case, selection of combined beam can
avoid later concerns. Composed of composite girder with steel girders and beams beam
line, manufacturing and installation is very convenient, high-strength bolt connection can
be used, the construction convenient, low cost than steel box girders. In the cable-stayed
bridge under 700 m, as long as the inclined plane of the cables, the open knot beams
already has plenty of wind resistance, such as the main cross 605 m Fuzhou Minjiang river
bridge is a successful example. Although knot deck is heavier than steel box girder deck,
cable steel and base quantity increase, but the broad economic indicator is still better than
steel box girder well and are worth considering.
(iii) Steel Box Girder Deck (for L = 700~1200 m)
700 m should select light weight cable-stayed bridge of steel deck. Suzhou-Nantong
Yangtze river bridge, studies have shown that, when used plane and six-lane closed
rectangular box girder flyover, then its critical wind velocity of more than 100 m/s, to
meet the world’s most wind in areas prone to wind-resistance requirements. If the side
span of cable-stayed bridge has landed, you can choose the side span PC bridge, main
span steel bridge deck mixed forms, rigidity and wind-resistant stability of bridges will
also be further improved.
Example 3.30. Main navigation span of Donghai bridge bridge program.
Design of main navigation span of Donghai bridge, for double tower double cable
plane, twin single-cable-plane cable-stayed bridge with steel box girder of concrete box
girder, twin and single cable plane cable-stayed bridge with box girder, double tower
double cable plane cable-stayed bridge I-girder cable-stayed bridge with four programmes
were compared, as shown in Table 3.18. Its span arrangement are as follows: 94 m + 111
m + 420 m + 111 m + 94 m, per square meter economic indicators were 23680, 19500,
20940 and 21180. 2% higher than the concrete box girder of steel box girders, both were
higher than the combined beam 13% and 12%.
Table 3.18 Donghai bridge main navigation span scheme selection.
Serial Scheme name Jian fei Relative
number (10,000 yuan) relationship
1. Double tower double cable plane cable-stayed 64849 1.13
bridge with steel box girder
2. Towers and single-cable-plane of concrete box 53411 0.93
girder of cable-stayed bridge
3. Double tower single-cable-plane combined box 57366 1.00
beam cable-stayed bridge
4. Double tower double cable plane I-girder cable- 58012 1.01
stayed bridge with
Example 3.31. Jiaojiang bridge main span 480 m girder structure of the program as a
whole process of idea generation, is in a great deal of information based on the collection,
analysis, test design based on the results of the various concepts, through the concept of
choice, eventually forming the half-closed steel box set beams, a new concept of
composite beams. During the main girder of pre-stressed concrete box girders, I-beams,
fully enclosed steel beam combination beams, box-girder beams, fully enclosed and semi-
enclosed steel box composite beam of steel box composite beam test design and
estimating the investment results are shown in Table 3.19.
Table 3.19 Cable-stayed bridge of main girder structure scheme design.
Jian fei Relative
Name of main girder structure construction
(100,000,000 yuan) relationship
Concrete Side of the main beam pre-stressed 5.80 0.88
beam concrete beam
Full steel Fully enclosed steel box girder 7.49 1.13
girder
I-shaped edge girder composite beam — —
Composite box-girder beam 6.52 0.99
Composite Fully enclosed steel box girders of 6.88 1.04
beam the steel beam
Semi-enclosed steel box girders of 6.88 1.04
the steel beam
Example 3.32. Completed in 1986, Canada Annacis bridge main span 465 m of composite
beam cable-stayed bridge, two main towers, respectively located in shallow waters on
both sides of the river channel and filling sand foundation construction connected with the
bank. According to the proposal (programme for process tuliang coagulation, option two
for composite beams) results: the economic performance of composite beams with more
advantages than the concrete beams, laminated beams has a cost about 20% lower.
Example 3.33. Completed in 1984, Spain Luna bridge main span of 440 m pre-stressed
concrete double tower, double cable plane cable-stayed bridge main span across the water
reservoir of 50 m reservoir bottom gravel overburden thickness of 17 m layer, the bedrock
is limestone. Two main tower located on the shore. In early 1980, the design, and made 22
of the ICP for main girder of steel girders, concrete beams are superimposed demonstrate
the beam, came to the conclusion that: a concrete beam construction cost.
Example 3.34. In accordance with China’s Anhui Province, preliminary design, detailed
comparisons of Anqing Yangtze river bridge: the main span of 500 m steel cost about
124% of the concrete cable-stayed bridge. Based on domestic economic conditions, 500 m
within the main span concrete cable-stayed bridge has a considerable competitive edge.
(d) The Tower Type and Material
Different tower types with the same material, and its cost is different. For the same type,
using different materials, and its cost are also different. Generally speaking, steel tower of
the most expensive, and its cost is 2.5~3 times.
Example 3.35. Su Tong bridge tower-shaped materials and different economic
comparison Fig. 3.93 for the design of each tower-shaped landscape scheme optimised
selection of landscape renderings.
Fig. 3.93 Three tower schemes (a) Inverted y-shaped tower (b) Diamond-shaped towers;
(c) A-shaped tower.
Table 3.20 comparison of different engineering and construction of the tower. Because
the one tower anchor area separation of two towers, tower space is relatively small, and
steel-anchor-box anchorage, other towers of steel anchor box and circumferential
prestressed programmes carried out analysis and comparison. As can be seen from the
table in the use of steel-anchor-box anchorage of the same mode, inverted y-shaped towers
than the diamond-shaped tower JI, Jian province about 1 of 5 million Yuan. When using
circumferential pre-stressed, diamond-shaped tower with a-shaped tower cost basically the
same, and inverted y-shaped towers the most economical.
Example 3.36. Su Tong bridge tower-shaped materials and different economic
comparison in the preliminary design stages, the tower of reinforced concrete, steel, steel-
concrete combined the three schemes are the same depth of research and compared.
Tower: The tower height is 297.7 m lower pylon column for ministers at the end of 15
m, wide 8 m, wall thickness 1.5 m chang 8 m, anchor, 8 m wide, wall thickness 1.2 m.
Cable tower: The tower height is 297.7 m lower pylon column for ministers at the end
of 15 m, 8 m wide, steel plate thickness 40 mm; head of anchor 8 m, width 8 m, plate
thickness 38 mm.
Steel-concrete composite pylon tower: The tower height is 297.7 m lower pylon
column at the base length of 15 m, width 8 m, wall thickness 1.5 m, anchorage area is
steel structure, length 8 m, width 8 m, plate thickness 38 mm.
(Note: in the selection of materials section, cross Tower Bridge to the × direction
longitudinal to size for top of tower 8 m × 8 m, bottom of tower 8 m × 15 m, and
eventually selected the top size 9 m × 8 m, 8 m × 15 m at the end of vary, and coagulation
tusuota cable uses a section of steel anchor box.
Tower project number and cost comparison of different materials are shown in Table
3.20.
Table 3.20 Tower of quantities and construction fees (all bridges).
Materials Inverted Diamond A-shaped Inverted Y-shape Diamond shape
Y-shape shape (Circumferential (Circumferential (Circumferential
(Steel (Steel prestressed) pre-stressed) pre-stressed)
box) box)
Concrete 51002 56410 57519 52321 59533
(m3)
Bars (t) 12308 13636 13821 12638 14417
Ordinary 3808 4226 4258 3914 4475
steel (A3) (t)
Anchor box 1800 1800
of steel
(Q345) (t)
Strand (t) 374 456 530 550 632
Anchors (set) 864 1008 1616 1712 1856
Construction 18338 19823 16947 15545 17732
fee (10,000
yuan)
Construction- 1 1.081 0.924 0.848 0.967
installation
ratio
Table 3.21 Tower project number and cost comparison of different materials.
Project Concrete pylon Steel tower Combined tower
Concrete (m3) 50318 3036 44032
Strand (t) 302 — 208
Bars (t) 12226 304 8146
Steel (t) 5988 32738 8638
Construction fee (RMB) 18617 58888 27553
Construction-installation ratio 1 3.163 1.480
Note: Tower engineering to scheme comparison of early value, little different from the
final design recommendations.
As can be seen, towers of concrete, steel towers, tower of steel-concrete composite
construction cost ratios of about 1 : 3.163 : 1.480.
Example 3.37. Taizhou Tabgtze River Bridge Tower of steel tower with concrete tower
concrete structure of the tower two, a steel tower of a scheme is shown in Table 3.22.
Table 3.22 Side tower plan comparison.
Tower plan Tower scheme one Tower scheme two Tower number
three
Scenarios Concrete tower: Concrete tower: a concrete light Steel towers: a
description ktype concrete beams beam crossing with a steel cross k-cross beam
Programme web portfolio scheme
Construction 9180.51 8926.76 24066.94
costs (10,000
yuan),
Cost ratio 1 0.97 2.62
Comparison Scheme Scheme Comparison Scheme
Conclusion Recommendations Comparison
Analysis according to Table 3.22, steel tower cost concrete tower 2.6 times, therefore,
finally, concrete tower scheme as a recommendation.
Example 3.38. Tower of Jiaojiang bridge scheme comparison.
Scenario comparison and selection of design after several rounds of tower, tower
concentration in bud form, on a diamond-shaped and Vase-shaped, as shown in Fig. 3.94.
According to the consultants, observations on the three towers has done to further
optimisation. Table 3.23 is a three-tower design renderings and the material quantity, cost
comparison.
Fig. 3.94 Three tower schemes (a) diamond-shaped tower; (b) bud-shaped tower; (c) a
vase-shaped tower.
Table 3.23 Comparison of three-towers-jiaojiang bridge.
Tower-shaped Diamond- Flower bud Vase-
shaped shape shaped
Quantity (m3, a single Suo Taji) about 10683 about about
13386 13101
Construction fee (10,000 yuan) (based on full 19718.6 22008.9 21848.4
bridge two meter)
Construction installation ratio 1 1.12 1.11
Recommended solutions recommendation selection selection
By comparison, diamond-shaped tower construction cost, construction technology,
vertical small frontal area, clear, and thus finally this scheme was adopted.
1. The three stage lifting scheme. To meet the requirements of navigation, the main arch
was divided into three segments, segment of each side is 70 m, the field is 204 m.
Both segments separately in bridge erection bracket assembly, middle 204 m Yaji
group after a spell on the sand, slip into barges floating transported to the bridge,
vertical lift in place closing (Fig. 3.100).
2. The whole floating programme. The programme overall float to the main arch span
of 344 m bridge installed, in order to reduce work on the water (Fig. 3.101). By
sliding the track moved to arch the whole barge, submerged barges, each 120 m long,
30 m wide, mass 15000t.
3. The kapyong turn vertical programmes. Considering the condition of bridge site open
space on both sides and reduce Spider-man, the main arch rib-installation production
kapyong turn vertical construction scheme, quality of vertical rotation 2058t,
horizontal rotation quality as 13865t, horizontal rotation quality as the largest Fig.
3.102.
Conceptual design is based on “safety, utility, economy and beauty, durability and
protection” principle in order to bridge engineering and related disciplines knowledge and
practical experience on the basis of (large bridges in particular requires a multidisciplinary
approach), with technical innovation as the goal, make suitable natural conditions, to meet
with functional design. Concept design is the soul of design.
Due to the condition of building the bridge is different, it is impossible to copy others
‘outstanding design achievements, however, we can learn people managed to design
thinking, grasp its essence, together, become a rich source of our conceptual design.
Learning, research the innovative ideas and design concepts, as well as successful
experience is learning to concept design, innovative ideas important ways.
For this reason, this chapter from the following view descriptions, analyse the
successful conception of philosophy and its distinctive design.
1. The bridge scheme and general layout ideas. Bridge scheme refers to all kinds of
bridge the conception and selection, overall including the layout and facades the span
and cross-section layout, etc., containing the main navigation span settings, side
spans, towers, piers and girders and other major structures, study on the structure and
support system, and so on. It is the overall layout considerations and decision-making
of conceptual design for structure, concept design fully reflects the basis and
guarantee of six design principles.
2. Technical innovation in the bridge program. Mr. Man-Chung Tang, a bridge
engineer said, if you do not try to in the design of each as much as possible to
improve, then it does not fulfill the obligation of the engineer. Natural conditions and
the functional requirements of each bridge vary, provided through research and ideas,
creating groundbreaking technology solutions and become a technology of
conceptual design flash points of light, is technological innovation. A bridge
program, the pursuit of 1~2 innovative ideas, worthy of our bridge technicians work
more efforts and re-double their diligence.
3. Bridge program consideration of landscape. Comparison and selection of bridge
schemes conceived and is based on the principles of economical and suitable for all
bridge programme should be accord with aesthetic principles. For the city an
important bridge to living in the city (region) demand for landscape designers will be
become an important factor in order to fully meet the needs of landscape functions.
This would need to be designed to rely on wisdom find a balance point of six design
principles and purpose.
4. Records span the right concept: Maximum span of each bridge there is a current
record, there are also bridges performance and its limitation span of the current
material properties (see Chapter 3, Section 3.3.2), and they are developing and
changing. It is very important task is to establish the overall layout of main
navigation span, a record span the overall layout of the very important task is to
identify the main navigation span, a record span of the bridge is the idea of the
outcome of the overall layout of a “special cases”, it’s “special” is made up of natural
conditions (including geology, topography and water depth, etc.) and shipping
capability request form. Conceptual breakthrough long-span bridge to record
programmes, in particular, we would like to emphasise the application of economic
principles and, establish a correct idea of philosophy.
Finally won the outstanding structure award will systematically introduce other
bridge (other award-winning bridge in this chapter, or its he is introduced in the
section), in order to facilitate the reader to fully understand and absorb their design
philosophy.
4.1 THE BRIDGE SCHEME AND GENERAL LAYOUT
IDEAS
Many factors affecting the bridge scheme and general layout, such as a river, hydrology,
meteorology, topography, geology, climate, environment, construction conditions and high
aviation limited, port terminals, landscapes, and so on. In considering how under these
restrictive conditions, structure think economy, construction convenient bridge scheme
and layout, we need to have the boldness and innovation capacity. Here are a few
conceived scheme and general layout of the bridge phase of successful experiences.
1. Tower Cable Stayed Bridge with Three Spans (Main Span of 420 m)
In order to facilitate the project bid, the Government commissioned a consultant engineer
to do a feasibility design, bridge-like facade decorated for 140 m + 420 m + 140 m tower
cable stayed bridge with three spans (Fig. 4.5), pylons as folding legs h-shaped, PC box
girder bridge is a single room, beam 6 m, a tower pier is located shore of Tsing Yi Island,
while another pylon located on an artificial island in the Strait.
Fig. 4.5 Twin towers three-span cable-stayed bridge scheme (unit: m).
2. Single-span Suspension Bridge
This design for the cross-river, the advantage is avoiding built piers in the channel,
eliminating the expensive ship collision with protective facilities built, elevation layout for
140 m + 900 m + 140 m suspension bridge (Fig. 4.6), the bridge beams with vertical bars
of pure-warren truss-free, total thickness 5 m, plus stainless steel streamlined oval
veneered on both sides, so as to reduce wind resistance. Main beam is provided by two
main truss elements, because of its resistance to torsion enormous stiffness, deck light,
construction is easy. 220 m, a-pylon could increase the torsional stability of the tower
itself, or cancellation in addition to the traditional design for main cables of suspension
bridge caused by reversing the effect, two steel cables diameter of 77 cm, near bridge
main span towers one-fourth midspan, two main cable connected form for single cable
form, thus increasing torsional stiffness and reduced the main cables of the bridge tower of
torque, would count as a new design. However, after the review believes that this is the
most expensive option.
Fig. 4.7 Twin towers three-span cable-stayed bridge scheme (unit: m).
4. Three-tower Cable-stayed Bridge
Bridge-like facade decorated for 136 m + 450 m + 450 m + 136 m a four-span cable-
stayed bridge with three towers (Fig. 4.8), on either side across a auxiliary piers. This
programme compared with the 900 m cable-stayed bridge, except in the middle of adding
a Rambler towers and cables volume is nearly cut in half. Bridge tower in the middle of
the sea-bed, happens to have a prominent landforms, natural location used to emplace
bridges pier. PC girder of 5 m high six-cell box girder, with a balance of on-site pouring
concrete in construction law, construction of main girder at speeds up to daily 1 m. All in
all, programmes in terms of aesthetic, economic, construction, construction and
construction costs than other programmes a plus. This programme and final programme is
very similar.
Fig. 4.8 Twin towers three-span cable-stayed bridge scheme (unit: m).
In January 1994, the department chose seven qualified companies to carry out the
“design and construction” methods of bidding, according to owners of existing designs,
bidders to present their design and cost. Through the commercial and technical
assessment, the lowest bidders won. Finally, successful programs at 17. HK $ 3.8 billion.
Fig. 4.11 Layout and structure of tower (size: m) (a) Main tower column cross section; (b)
Main pylon; (c) Tower.
Tower anchorage of cable-stayed, the bridge used in concrete pagoda design of lateral
anchorage of column of steel anchor box, this can be obligate omitted in the tower body,
casting anchor link, on the installation of steel anchor box for cable, stretching and
provides jobs platform, especially for four-cable-plane cable-stayed bridge of this bridge,
this design shows more advantages (Fig. 4.12), as shown in Fig. 4.13 construction photos.
Fig. 4.21 Bridge approach steel truss composite girder (unit: mm).
Manufacture of steel truss composite beams (Fig. 4.22) and pouring of the concrete
deck slab is in Spain. Beam segment length 140 m, 7,000t, contains upper concrete deck
and lower deck railway concrete channel beam, use flat-bottomed barges transported to
the bridge site, dabeiertexiqiao Swan, crane ship (lifting capacity up to 8700t, raising 70
m) lifted onto a pier (Fig. 4.23).
Fig. 4.28 Span layout of the the old and the new Shibanpo bridge (size: m)
Select steel box beam segment length the second consideration is the recommended
construction method design, entire segments of steel box girders on factory production, to
barge onto the scene, integral hoisting, such operations are limited. In addition, the factory
is located in the three Gorges dam downstream, dam ship lock length limits the size of
steel box girder. After careful study, decided to adopt the middle length of the steel box
girder 103 m. Total length of steel box beam segment also includes 2 at each end. 5 m
transition section, total length is 108 m, weighing about 1400t.
Ultimate new shibanpo bridge as shown in Fig. 4.29. In addition to the main span steel
box beam segment in the Middle, and the remaining parts are made of conventional
concrete.
Fig. 4.30 Concrete box girder and steel box girder of cross-section (unit: mm).
1. Based on construction technique of rigid frame bridge with form a triangular system
(Fig. 4.48).
2. Construction method of cable-stayed bridges, installing main arch (Fig. 4.48).
3. The introduction of cat the Tao to install extra long, heavy levels of suspension
bridge cables, 16 levels of cable for preformed parallel wire strands, long 761 m,
110t, cable diameter is 18 cm (4.49).
4. Combined with the characteristics of Lupu bridge structure, the construction units
responsible for the research and design of bridge girder erecting equipment with
independent intellectual property rights: a main arch deck crane of crane and Arch
(Fig. 4.49).
5. The successful implementation of field welding quality control of steel structure.
6. The closure measures: end bolting an end weld, closure temperature of 20ºC, cooling
closure supplemented with small amounts of incremental launching method of
external forces. Fig. 4.50 shows the hanging and closing main arch bridge
construction photos.
Fig. 4.48 Triangular systems and installing main arch construction photos.
Fig. 4.49 Installing the horizontal rope and arch crane construction photos.
Fig. 4.50 Shows the hanging and closing main arch bridge construction photos.
Fig. 4.54 A symmetrical pair of pre-stressed concrete continuous rigid frame + tie bar
arch.
Orthotropic deck truss beam integral node of the design has evolved and matured, the
basis of high-strength bolts and thick plate welding technique above, in the first
manufactured using festive design, large, hanging festive carriage, large sections of the
design idea, aimed at quality and construction units to provide more space for duration of
protection (Fig. 4.55).
Fig. 4.55 Segmentation and segment plates hanging on the deck gestured.
Orthotropic bridge decks in combination with steel truss beam efficiency of increasing
combination truss suare, hang the level of increased fertiliser speed, better ensuring the
construction quality. But also design, manufacture, construction, poses new challenges and
problems. At the level of designing new issues need to be addressed include: orthotropic
bridge deck joint role with the truss top chord; truss top chord decking and decking
construction details of the connection of the primary and secondary beams; derrick-
composite-bottom chord truss beam-tilt hanging rod-lower design and construction of
track beam design.
Making programmatic and technological design problems more, which mainly
include: modular truss beams cross-decking of the opposite sex basic unit of block-
making; composite truss beams decking manufacturing base unit connection types of the
opposite sex; composite truss beams deck deformation control technique of the opposite
sex; composite truss beam monolithic gusset for a variety of manufacturing processes
combined large segments of truss beam overall assembly solutions and precision control
technology.
4.4 RECORDS SPAN THE RIGHT CONCEPT
Records of the bridge span, because of their construction methods and equipment
problems to be solved, design theory and innovative structural problems and a series of
problem, which is an enormous challenge for bridge engineers and technicians in order to
bridge technology and contribute to the development of global attention.
With the development of transportation and technology, record bridge span and
constantly being refreshed.
First of all, span breakthroughs must be necessary and reasonable. Such as shipping
requirements, topographic and geologic conditions and the depth of need when large-span,
is necessary and reasonable, such a large span matches the height of layout and navigation,
coordinated with the terrain, which is economically reasonable, on the landscape is
beautiful. Conversely, blind pursuit of long-span breakthrough, will be only lead to the
construction of wind insurance and investment wasted. As the navigation requirements are
not high, and bridge spans golden times wider than the waterway NET, causing the span
high bridge disproportionately so that both investment and reflects the landscape.
Bridge design of six principles did not require the designer to pursue breakthroughs of
the span and number of “first” and “most”. Despite all the bridges now span the span of
the record have yet to reach a viable limit, but we cannot only for the pursuit of span first
without regard to economic principles. Therefore, bridge engineer must put their creativity
into innovation, quality and aesthetics three aspects, while also attaches great importance
to economic indicators, and strive to build a high quality, durable and beautiful bridges, to
benefit the people.
Secondly, there must be a breakthrough in the span of its scientific and technical
soundness. Span to break, there is bound to run into problems not encountered bridge,
however, whether these issues have a clear understanding of whether there is a clear
solution, it is related to this breakthrough is feasible, whether scientific, whether
conservative issues. Such as the main Japanese Tatara Bridge cross because of topography,
geology and navigation conditions set for 890 m, then Japan has been completed and the
name of the Hong Kong Central Bridge 590 m, the French 856 m Normandy Bridge began
construction on this basis, in order to grasp the main span from original level increased to
500~600 m after 890 m of cable-stayed bridge structural properties (e.g., member forces
and natural frequency, etc.), how much change, and this change is the size and span linear
or non-linear relationship, specifically on the 500 m, 890 m, 1400 m and 2000 m four
kinds of main hole span studied compared.
Thirdly, a span of breakthrough of technical progress and technical innovation is a real
“world record”, that is, with the development of new technologies, record refresh, it has its
indelible in the history of bridges “historical status”. If just span development, the size of
the cross breakthroughs do not have or lack of skill “gold content”, it’s hard to become the
technical level of “world record”.
Quoting Mr. Man-Chung Tang “Record spans (Civil Engineering, March 2010)” as
described in the article view points: construction of record-breaking bridge not only built-
in a record-breaking, additional costs it takes to break the record must be able to bring
value, if it is not, we are wasting taxpayers money.
Of course, competition is that people are born with the designed bridge record warmth
is not declining. However, in our efforts to before you record, be sure to carefully consider
the cost of the project and the resulting value. We must also take into account that records
will be maintained how long. Today, due to the bridge span records regularly being
broken, so it’s best to spend our energies and creativity on the construction quality better
rather than bigger bridges with long span. Though several years after the Golden Gate
bridge would lose record-holder status, but there is still like to visit it because it is the rare
beauty of the structure.
Fig. 4.57 Big bear special triangles anchorage of suspension bridge (size: m).
Bridges in anchorage and 2 parallel hydraulic buffers installed between beam limiting
device, as shown in Fig. 4.58, which is the driving force locked and static limit of two
functional combination of devices. Power lock function Master Liang Zongqiao by car,
wind-induced vibration the impact movement, adjust lock speed control value at 0.01~2
mm/s range, power lock power 5 mn of each device; static limit functionality limits the
main beam does not meet the temperature slowly displacement displacement occurs,
whose value is controlled within ± 900 mm and regulation section 200 mm, satisfy the
range of ±1 000 mm expansion joints, 15 mm static limit, if there is no vertical limit
device, beam displacement will be 1800 mm.
The buffer by Italy FIP Industriale s.p. In 1995~1997 year for design and production,
in autumn 1997 to install.
1A: If the bridge is not set up on the shore, the depth will increase sharply after the
more than –7 m, so changes of the mooring dolphins will be subject to limit. If 1 A
fallback, its range at best no more than 110 m, so as not to affect the 2nd route and
Maiko Park.
2P: the original terrain is perfectly flat, Akashi strata of geographical conditions and
no significant change. But beyond this point. In the Harbour a sudden drop observed.
If the superstructure of 2 P backward will be increase the cost of 2 P in both
directions therefore changes are unfavourable. Back through the coast of Awaji side
if location, depth and tidal flow rates will be eased, and bearing layer, stratum in
Kobe become slightly lighter. In addition, piers and navigation the hole edge distance
would increase, this will be increase navigation safety at construction and
completion. Thus to proper conclusion can be drawn: 3 P position back.
4A: because more close to the coast of Awaji, 4 A supporting layer of granite to go
lighter, 4 A’s design and construction Much easier, especially when 280 m is moved
from a previous location. However, moving above 300 m would be undesirable,
because the Mainland would be affected. So, in conclusion: upto 4 a backward 300
m.
Fig. 4.61 Pylon foundations (left), and the tower of general plan (right) (size: m) Note: the
3P in the underlying data.
Stiffened Truss: The choice of stiffening truss section to, respectively, of the modern
United Kingdom genre of box a streamlined cross-section and classical truss sections are
analyzed and compared. Design standards, self-excited vibration critical wind speed for 73
m/s above. Wind tunnel test knowledge box girder section self-excited vibration critical
wind speed of about 60 m/s. In the other hand, the select the main beam as shown in Fig.
4.62 section wind-resistant stability to meet the above conditions, trussed girder is
economical, convenient construction and so on.
Fig. 4.62 Stiffening truss (size: m).
Anchorage: Akashi Kaikyo Bridge line force of about 1200000 kN, because suspension
bridges on both sides of topographical and geological conditions are so Kobe side 1A (Fig.
4.63) and Awaji side 4 two anchor the shape and size of a completely different.
Fig. 4.63 Anchorage (1A) (size: m).
1-1 2-1
1-2 2-2
Fig. 4.67 Tower at the high-performance rubber bearing.
Has studied and compared four kinds of support plans: (a) suspensions department of,
(b) elastic fixed to the twin towers, (c) is completely seated in the twin towers about, (d)
fixed to one end of the beam. Suspension system in vertical wind turbines will greatly
increase the bottom under bending moment, and beam the nodal displacements ± 10.18 m
high, thus first are discarded. Secondly, give up programme is completely fixed to the twin
towers, because this programme is warming girder longitudinal forces caused by the most,
higher than those of other programmes about one-third. Fixed on one end of the main
beam programmes generally are with elastic fixation to the twin towers program similar,
but the former is rendered to a non-while the latter is superior to the former in this respect,
and therefore programme of tower elastic fixation (Fig. 4.67). Fig. 4.68 shows
construction and installation are shown in the photos.
Fig. 4.68 Construction photos (a) Talianglian; (b) Using fixed jib type cranes in the tower
to install pylons; (c) Balancing assemble the main beam; (d) Through a direct method of
the girder for the increase Extension Assembly.
1. A main span of 1088 m tower cable-stayed bridge scheme, side spans two auxiliary
piers, span arrangement for: 100 m + 100 m + 278 m + 1088 m + 278 m + 100 m +
100 m = 2044 m.
2. Main span cable-stayed bridge with three towers of 650 m programmes, set up an
auxiliary piers, span arrangement as follows: 96 m + 164 m + 2 × 650 m + 164 m +
96 m = 1820 m.
3. Suspension bridge with a main span of 1510 m of the twin towers three-span
suspension programmes span arrangement as follows: 453 m + 1510 m + 453 m =
2416 m.
4. A main span of 1510 m cable-stayed-suspension bridges programme, span
arrangement as follows: 120 m + 188 m + 1510 m + 188 m + 120 m = 2126 m Rough
layout of main bridge type is shown in Fig. 4.69.
Main span suspension bridge has been completed and the maximum span at 1385 m
and 1991 m, building 1510 m suspension bridge, its mature superstructure design and
construction experience, adaptability of the navigation better. But because of Su Tong
Yangtze River Bridge, the river width wide, deeply buried basement bearing layer of soft,
so anchor foundation not only can put in the water, and the scale is huge, a number of deep
water foundation leads construction difficulties, long duration, higher construction cost,
South anchor foundation on the local river still needs further research. In addition, its poor
wind resistance capacity and wind-resistant safety. Investment estimation shows that
suspension bridge with a main span of 1510 m project cost than main span 1088 m high-
tower cable-stayed bridge scheme of about 900 million dollars.
For main span of 1510 m cable-stayed-suspension bridges program study showed that
large-span cable-stayed-suspension bridges building is technically possible, but now spans
more than 500 m there is no engineering, due to the complex can take design and
construction experience, the technology is immature. Compare with comparable
suspension bridges, due to poor geological conditions at the bridge, anchor Ikari is still
quite large and put into construction equipment and its technical superiority not obvious.
Because the main span cable-stayed bridge with three towers of 650 m scheme in
Sham Shui Po to set up more large structure, adaptability to shipping and poor ability to
prevent ships extremely prejudicial impact, impact on the river as well. And it spans the
size of three towers cable-stayed bridge is also first in the world, also has a great deal of
difficulty in their technology.
Tower cable-stayed bridge, Japan in 1999, opened the Tatara bridge span had reached
890 m, main span built in 1995, was more than 856 m of France in Normandy bridge, a
main span in the world at that time-span the largest cable-stayed bridge, construction of a
cable stayed bridge with a main span of 1000 m international technology matures. Su
Tong bridge main span of 1088 m tower cable-stayed bridge scheme, because of the
relatively few large structures in Sham Shui Po, had met with main span two-way channel
width summation the main channel the possible range of oscillation, influence on the river
is relatively small, project cost is reasonable.
After workers stage a bridge program and the study on key technology of bridge,
consolidate the views of the experts, you can come to the conclusion that:
According to the requirements and characteristics of building of Su Tong bridge, a
main span of 1088 m tower cable-stayed bridge scheme, although the deposit certain
technical difficulties, there are lots of research on the key technologies needed to be
deepened, but according to the current level of bridges and the practice, by deepening the
study and the necessary scientific experiments and absorbing international advanced
technology, in the design, construction, materials, equipment, management of works are
feasible, technical problems can be solved.
4.5 OUTSTANDING STRUCTURE AWARD-WINNING
BRIDGE PROFILE
International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering (IABSE) since 2000 to
establish Outstanding Structure Award in recognition of the most significant (remarkable),
the most innovative, one of the most creative or both wise and exciting (stimulating) the
new structure, but does not pursue maximum span or height. Outstanding structure award
by the awards from application projects for the year, the Committee selected one to three
bridges or structures in the outstanding works of the project, from 2000 to 2009 in 10
years, has comments on 20 projects have been selected, including 11 in structural
engineering and 9 in bridge engineering 2008 Shanghai lupu as the first Chinese project
won the outstanding structure award.
Bridge conceptual design below introduces one of 4 bridges.
Fig. 4.71 Facade layout (size: mm) (a) Elevations; (b) Plans; (c) Cuts; (d) P2 Pier.
Such structure allows the main beam in longitudinal and lateral movement of the piers
is constrained, and by acting on the main beam in bridge piers load bending moment
caused by decreased from pier to pier bottom line.
Pier sizes reflect the variation of the bending moment in the pier. Taking into account
the bending sections of bridge deck clearance requirements, bridge tower slightly outward
tilt. Due to the continuous change of vehicles crossing a bridge on both sides of the
landscape, the cable is vertical routing style choices as simple as possible harp
arrangement. Deck consists of a panel, on both sides of the plate edges have a relatively
long rigid components design schemes. Cost about 14% higher than traditional cantilevers
programme costing at least. But considering the plan design enable this striking bridges
located in the sensitive landscapes of unusual beauty, is well worth the additional
investment was considered.
3. Technical Design Overview
(a) Pier
Along the vertical piers of the bridge showed a parabolic cone, its width is also changed.
The horizontal width of the pier the bottom 8.8 m to the main beam at the 13.4 m.
Therefore a solid cup-shaped piers of the silhouette. Towers, were like partitions and high
deck 15 m. Along the bridge longitudinal plate on the main girder of bridge tower from
the local effect of vehicle load caused by the bending moment. Because the line is curved
in the horizontal plane, on both sides of the cable forces of cable-stayed in different.
Horizontally, the towers on both sides due to large transverse bending moment of tension
arising from the different. Anchorage in built-in central pylon of cable-stayed steel plate.
Bridge tower tighten to get main beam set a huge beam on the lower surface, passing on
two great transverse bending moments in the tower, making the two pillars of the pier
shaft different pillars bear some 60% on the inside of the curve, approximately the outer
side of the pillars bear the 40%.
(b) Master Girder
Width of main girder section contains 12.1 m plate and two side beams. Bridge transversal
thickness 0.40~0.32 m. Lateral beam setting removable inclined cable anchorage points.
For static reasons, thickness along a bridge longitudinally to the pier increased. Due to the
method of construction, formed entirely of boundary beams using tensioned pre-stressed
components. In the main beam part due to compensate because of the tension force of
cable-stayed main welded connction axial force arising from falling, the department
imposed vertical pre-stressing increases.
(c) The Cable
Cables are wrapped with polyethylene, rigid sets of parallel wire strands form. Each cable
consists of 125~160 diameter 7 mm structure of galvanized steel wire, wire rope use stress
to meet the. σp,adm = 0.50 ftk. Because each of these is a separate anchorage of cable-
stayed, so it can be free to adjust cable-length. Cable anchorage has been specially
designed so that it can be a great deal of variation of load.
(d) Process
The bridge’s construction started in July 1996, to the end of October 1998. Nearly 2.5-year
construction period need to fine planning of the construction process. Using the balanced
cantilever construction method of bridge, the first phase of the No. 0 block, 13 m, after
continuous construction of beam length is 6 m, use a pair of specially constructed traveler
for main girder erection. At every stage of construction only current segmental beams of
concrete and pouring of concrete on the veneer of a segment. Hanging basket prior to the
move, cable-stayed cable-hanging cable and anchoring. Construction of four main towers
on both sides of the suspension arms are made of 7~9.6 m length of main girder segment
composition.
Fig. 4.72 Bridge photo.
The bridge won the 2001, international bridge and structural engineering drive
association outstanding structure award, first won the outstanding structure award the
bridge project, and is considered to be “sensitive scenic areas a refined structure of the arts
initiative”, the bridge is shown in Fig. 4.72 after the completion of the photo.
The design of concept is the early stage of project design, relying on the thorough study of
the natural conditions of the bridge site, bridge function and the surrounding landscape
and a series of basic data, concept creation and selection of work reflect the designer’s
unique understanding of design objects, design tasks, the specific control and overall grasp
of design goals. Meanwhile, conceptual design must be follow a few basic principles, such
as early 3E principles abroad, namely, efficiency, economy and elegance, the early “utility,
economy, where possible care for beauty” construction principles, China’s current “safe,
suitable, economical, beautiful” principle, the 21st century international bridge “safe,
suitable, economical, beautiful, durable and environmentally friendly” six principles.
With the rapid economic development of society, the bridge built by ever-larger,
systems become more complex with more and more functions, internationally known as
“superstructure” (super infrastructure). Common characteristics of these projects are: huge
investment, technologically complicated, severe environmental impacts, with increased
probability of disaster (including heavy winds, earthquakes, tsunami, boat crash, terrorist
attacks, etc.), and maintenance, repair and reinforcement are very difficult. Being confined
to structural features, single level seeking structural safety, as used to be, is not enough, it
must also be aimed at disaster prevention design of bridge structure and durability design
set. From the 1970s, on the basis of lessons learned at home and abroad, in addition to
continued emphasis on the structural design and construction safety durability, reliability,
component interchangeability of different bridges structure and analysis of the disaster
grade, level of risk, proposed the prevention design and durability design of new concepts.
In real terms, disaster prevention design of structures and structural durability design to
solve the problem is the economy, reasonable working life issues, namely, structural
lifetime issue.
Bridge structural durability and disaster prevention design in conceptual design has
three main objectives: first, to learn about damages disasters may impose on the bridge, as
well as the durability of bridge structures shown on the main issues so that at conceptual
design stage fully estimate the severity of these disasters and problems; secondly, master
the design of bridge structures to resist various disasters and durability basic principles of
design, methods and effective means in conceptual design phase has prepared structural
disaster prevention and durable plan and measures; third, to introduce the bridge structural
durability design of prevention and advanced concepts, practices, and successful
experience of pioneering economic, rational, comprehensive and innovative prevention
and durability of design ideas.
This chapter’s bridge structure disaster prevention focused mainly on wind-resistant,
anti-ship collision with bridge and bridge aspect, coupled with resistance of bridges
durability, and consists of four parts, focusing on bridge conceptual design stage of design
concepts and methods in these four areas, in hope that bridge engineers can, from concept
design, fully and seriously deal with prevention and durability problems bridge structure
design.
5.1 BRIDGE WIND RESISTANT DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
For bridge structures, particularly large-span bridges, flexible structure, in addition to the
necessary design and static analysis, you must also be carry out wind-resistant analysis
and design. Design and analysis of wind-resistant behaviour of long span bridges include
theory analysis and wind tunnel test and numerical simulation and field test, but in bridge
conceptual design stage, generally technology, time and money do not allow refinement of
the design and analysis of wind-resistant, so wind-resistant design of the bridge is
especially important. In order to establish a wind-resistant design of bridges, first of all,
one must master the mean and fluctuating wind characteristics and wind resistance bridges
of the basic principles, which will be introduced in the first part of the wind resistance of
bridge; secondly, you need to understand the concept of wind resistant design in reducing
wind loads of bridge, part II, mainly from the point of view of bridge structure component
—main girder and arch ribs, pylons and piers, main cables and so on—introduces briefly
reducing wind load practices set forth, and one still needs to understand the concept of
wind resistant design in reducing wind-induced vibration of bridges, the third part is about
flutter from the main beam, and galloping, vortex-induced vibration of main beam and
arch ribs, rain-wind induced vibration of stay cable, a brief introduction of engineering
practice of reducing vibration hazard and experience and methods. Finally, one also needs
to know when the wind-resistant properties of the bridge structure itself cannot meet wind
resistance requirements, which can be used to control measures applied to improve wind
resistance performance, part four introduces flutter control of main beam and main beam
or arch ribs of vortex-induced vibration control of cables wind and rain vibration control
of aerodynamic measures.
Fig. 5.1 Tacoma Narrow Bridge destroyed by strong winds (a) Wind induced torsion
vibration; (b) Deck break fall.
3. Wind-resistance Principles
When the wind encounters structures it converts some of its kinetic energy to external
forces acting on the structures of power, this force is so-called wind loads. When the wind
around generally non-streamlined (bluff) section of the bridge structure, generates vortices
and flow separation, forming the complex of the air force. When the bridge span is small
(200 m), when the stiffness, the structure is insured stationary, air acts as only the force of
static, or static wind load, which includes average wind and pulsing wind load; and when
the larger span of bridge structures (200 m), the less the stiffness makes it easier for
structural vibration excited, this static characteristics of species not only has the effect of
wind and dynamic characteristics, or dynamic wind loads.
Wind dynamics inspires bridge vibration, the vibration of the bridge, in turn, affect the
flow of air, change air force formation of wind-structure interaction mechanism. When the
vibration caused by air force small, air force as a force, leading to finite amplitude forced
vibration of bridge structures, including vortex-induced vibration of bridge buffeting and
bridge when air force under the influence of strong vibration, the air force subject to
vibration feedback structure is characterised by a self-excited force, resulting in
divergence of self-excited vibration of bridge structures, including flutter and vortex
resonance. Effects of wind loads of bridge structure and its classification can be
represented by Fig. 5.2. In addition, the cables of the cable-stayed bridge in the wind or
rain occurs in different forms under the action of vibration, vortex-induced vibration of
stay cable for example, parameters such as vibration, the vibration of wake galloping and
rain.
Fig. 5.2 Effects of wind loads of bridge structure and its classification.
According to the code for wind-resistant design of highway bridge (JTG/T D6001-
2004), and wind-resistant design of bridge structure compliance with the following
principles: may be appear in the bridge’s design life of maximum wind speed, structure
should not ruin a divergent self-excited vibration in the most adverse design wind load
combinations together with the other functions, should have the required strength and
stiffness of structures and static instability should not occur; non-destructive wind-induced
vibration of amplitude of the structure should meet safely, driving comfort and fatigue
strength requirements of structural wind-resistance by aerodynamic measures, structural
measures and measures to improve it.
Wind-resistant design principles in order to carry out, in conceptual design of bridge
structure while there is no need for a wind tunnel test method or simulation evaluation of
wind-resistance performance test results and overall, but still can be arranged through the
structure and components of fully embody the idea of wind-resistant design, chief among
them included decrease static wind loads and wind-induced vibration and additional
control measures.
Structure defined by the above three formulas three components of the static wind
load, and design wind speed, cross-sections and dimensions of the three factors. Design
basic wind speed, wind speed is determined by site conditions such as roughness and the
height from the ground. In order to reduce the static wind load, bridge site should be an
area with small base wind speed; under the same basic wind speed, the greater the surface
roughness, smaller average wind speed, wind speed/gusts greater average wind speed
increases with height above ground, but wind speed decrease with increasing height off
the ground. Section types and dimensions of static wind loads according to the main
beams and arches ribs, piers and towers, main cables and cables and other components
were also be discussed.
Fig. 5.3 Wind and body axes coordinates under static wind load.
When piers or height of the bridge towers static, wind load will be very large,
sometimes you have to take into account the pier or pylon section of buildings-shape and
static wind load. China’s largest suspension bridge spans—Shanxi Hou men bridge main
span of 1650 m boat, bridge tower section once several rounds of selection of pneumatic,
which on commonly used pair of rectangular cross-section in the first round, compared the
three chamfer forms that is, outside the circle, concave circle and rectangle, as shown in
Fig. 5.7. Four different forms of chamfers of tower column cross-section of transverse
wind resistance co-efficient static wind resistance co-efficient Cy, Cx and obey directions
as shown in Table 5.3, the maximum transverse direction to the outside wind resistance
co-efficient cabochon heshun bridge angle less chamfer of about one-fourth; concave
circular and concave rectangle two chamfers differ can also reduce some 30% of wind
drag co-efficient. Therefore, on the premise of meeting the structural requirements, should
be combined with building design, consider a rectangle chamfer cross-section as
appropriate to reduce the static wind load.
Fig. 5.7 Four different forms of chamfers of Tower column cross-section (size: m).
Table 5.3 Towers column section four different Chamfer wind drag co-efficient of static
forms.
Coefficient Angle Simple rectangle Convex round Concave circular Concave
(°) rectangular
Anterior Posterior Anterior Posterior Anterior Posterior Anterior Posterior
column column column column column column column column
0 1.45 1.88 0.37 0.34 1.06 0.49 1.03 0.50
Cross the
45 1.19 1.65 0.98 0.79 1.27 1.28 1.23 1.34
bridge
90 0.10 –0.11 –0.04 0.05 0.10 –0.15 0.10 –0.08
0 0.01 0.01 0.01 –0.01 –0.10 0.00 0.00 0.03
Along the
45 1.49 1.71 1.21 0.95 1.49 1.36 1.58 1.41
bridge
90 1.95 1.91 0.54 0.54 1.40 1.38 1.36 1.37
The largest span in the world—1088 m Suzhou-Nantong Yangtze River Bridge main
span cable-stayed bridges, bridge tower section has also be conducted the aerodynamic
shape comparison, Fig. 5.8 shows the cross-section of the four forms. Table 5.4 shows the
different sections of the static wind resistance co-efficient, cut surface form and section IV
is wind resistance co-efficient 20% per cent difference in the transverse direction, along
the bridge over 30% the difference, which is 300 m high bridge towers, the static wind
load is considerable.
Table 5.4 Four different forms of Chamfers of Tower column cross-section of transverse
wind resistance co-efficient.
Fig. 5.9 The main types of cable-stayed bridge (a) steel cable; (b) parallel wire strands; (c)
strand clue; (d) single strand.
Is used in cable-stayed bridge cable general cables must be made with high strength
reinforcing bars, steel wire or strand. Main cable type high-strength steel cables, parallel
wire rope, PC strand thread, single strand, as shown in Fig. 5.9. At present, in large-span
cable-stayed bridge parallel wire strands, and are most commonly used in steel strand
leads two parallel wire strands of smaller voids, so the outer diameter of the same intensity
less wind-resistance is relatively small; conversely, strand leads voids larger, so the large
outer diameter, wind resistance is relatively large. Due to the influence of Reynolds
number effect and cable than static wind-resistance co-efficient of main cables of
suspension bridges, and general range of 0.8~1.0.
5.1.3 Reduce Wind-induced Vibration
Bridge structure due to different bridge, span and materials, and produces various forms of
wind-induced vibration of its main components, large-span girders of cable-stayed and
suspension bridge would be flutter, galloping, buffeting, vortex-induced vibration and
wind-induced vibrations, long-span arch bridge arch rib of a bluff body truncated vortex-
induced vibration is raised, steel pylons for cable-supported bridges may be easily lead to
galloping and vortex-induced vibration and long wind-induced vibration of cables of
cable-stayed bridges and weather exciting possibilities, suspension bridges and wind
vibration of arch bridge suspenders also has problems.
Above wind-induced vibration and flutter, galloping is self-excited vibration of two
divergent, according to wind-resistant design principles must be completely avoided, and
vortex-induced vibration is a large amplitude vibrations, both a self-excited vibration and
forced vibration characteristics of bridge wind-resistance design principle calls for
stiffness requirements; rain-wind induced vibration of cables is a self-induced vibrations
of large amplitude, it should meet certain strength and stiffness requirement; else buffeting
and vibration is non-destructive forced vibration of finite amplitude, will not cause the
bridge broken bad, as long as the traffic safety and driving comfort and fatigue strength.
Bridge conceptual design stage, in order to improve wind-resistance performance
implement the concept of reduction of wind-induced vibration, mostly on the main beam
or beams flutter, galloping, vortex-induced vibration of arch ribs, cables, such as rain-wind
induced vibration of divergent or self-excited vibrations of large amplitude, and other
limited vibration non-destructive forced-vibration sites can be taken into account in the
subsequent design stages.
Table 5.5 Girder shape coefficient and angle of attack effect co-efficient.
Section types Shape co-efficientηs Angle co-efficient ηa
Damping ratio
0.005 0.01 0.02
Tablet 1 1 1 —
Blunt-shaped 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.80
With cantilever 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.70
With cantilever 0.60 0.70 0.90 0.70
With wind mouth 0.70 0.70 0.80 0.80
With splitter plates 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80
Open panel beam 0.35 0.40 0.50 0.85
Estimation formula of critical wind speed of flutter (5-4) showed that flutter critical
wind speed effect of section shape factors (including the damping ratio), angle of effect
factor, main beam and mass moment of inertia and torsional frequency, and so on. Among
them, the damping is relatively large, streamlined good section, has a higher flutter critical
wind speed; –3° or +3° attack angle flutter critical wind speed of less than 0° angle of
attack increases main beam equivalent mass or mass moment of inertia can be help
improve flutter critical wind speed, but the effect is limited, just a relationship of one-
fourth power increase reversed the fundamental frequency of bridge, flutter critical wind
speed can improve.
Bridge conceptual design phase, in addition to judging by these four factors or
improving flutter stability of bridges, you can also use bridge has been completed and the
performance of dynamic characteristics and chatter, a simple comparison to design bridges
or contrast. Tables 5.6 and 5.7 respectively 10 has built structural properties of a typical
cable-stayed and suspension bridge the natural frequency and vibration critical wind speed
of flutter, concept design for long-span bridges.
Table 5.8 The top 10 largest span suspension bridge in the world.
Order Bridge name Main Girder Wind- Control Country Year
of span span forms induced built
(m) vibration
1 Japan’s Akashi 1991 Truss Chatter Slotted/ Japan 1998
Bridge stabilizer
plate
2 Shanxi Hou Gate 1650 Girder Chatter Slotted China 2008
Bridge
3 Denmark Sea 1624 Girder Vortex Spoiler Denmark 1998
Bridge vibration
4 Runyang 1490 Girder Chatter Stabilizer China 2005
Yangtze River plate
Bridge
5 The Humber 1410 Girder No No United 1981
bridge Kingdom
6 Jiangyin 1385 Girder No No China 1999
Changjiang
bridge
7 Hong Kong 1377 Girder Chatter Slotted Hong 1997
Tsing Ma Bridge Kong,
China
8 Weilunzuonuo 1298 Truss No No USA 1964
bridge
9 The Golden Gate 1280 Truss No No USA 1937
Bridge
10 Yangluo Yangtze 1280 Girder No No China 2007
River Bridge
Figure 5.10 depicts the central stabilising plate application in runyang Yangtze River
Bridge, split in Shanxi Hou men bridge box-girder in a boat application, Italy Messina
Strait Bridge to be used is split three-box girder scheme and 5000 m the stability of
suspension bridges and open web portfolio.
Fig. 5.10 Flutter control of main girder efficient aerodynamic measures (size: m) (a)
Stable Central Board application in runyang bridge; (b) Split in Shanxi Hou men bridge
box-girder in a boat; (c) Three box girder bridge over the Strait of Messina split plan; (d)
5000 m stability of the suspension plate and slot combinations.
Fig. 5.12 Vibration control of aerodynamic measures. (a) Winding spiral; (b) Engraving
irregular pits.
In addition to rain-wind induced vibration of cables using aerodynamic measures of
control, auxiliary cable for cable measures can effectively reduce rain-induced vibration
and other vibrations, such as the Normandy bridge, but the measures are rarely used,
mainly because the secondary cables and cable connections difficulties. In addition, if you
can improve the cable damping can achieve the purpose of vibration control, increase the
lasuozu can be used based on different mechanisms for damper, oil damper and viscous
shear damper and friction damper, high damping rubber damper and electricity, magnetic
dampers.
5.2 BRIDGE WIND RESISTANT DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
As with wind-resistant design of bridges, bridges including theoretical analysis, seismic
design and analysis and shaking table test and numerical simulation of earthquake damage
investigation, but at the concept design stage, generally does not allow for refinement of
the seismic design and analysis, so build bridges located meter idea is particularly
important. In order to implement the concept of seismic design of bridges, first, I had to
learn the basic characteristics of earthquake ground motions—Magnitude and intensity,
Bridge Seismic damage and aseismic design method, which will be introduced in the first
part of the earthquake and seismic; Secondly, the need to be familiar with a variety of
bridge seismic design principles, part II briefly introduces four beam bridges, arch bridges,
cable-stayed bridge, a suspension bridge kind type of structure dynamic characteristic and
seismic response characteristic and aseismic design principle, and requires an
understanding of domestic and international bridges case studies in order to draw them in
the conceptual design, and application and development of, and the third part focuses on
the structure, load-bearing structures and foundation case; and, finally, two vibration
reduction measures to understand the common—dampers and bearings, part IV including
damper and vibration reduction, locking device and buffer supports.
1. Earthquake
Earthquakes are a natural phenomenon caused by the Earth’s internal structure movement.
In strata movement, more dramatic break bad sport, can cause tremors, on above-ground
or underground buildings in different levels of earthquake damage, and led to loss of life
and damage to property.
Size of seismic vibration can be described by two indicators, namely, their magnitude
and intensity. The former is a measure of earthquake size indicators, usually with the
maximum amplitude (Table 5.9) or source release of strain energy (Table 5.10) to
represent, whereas the latter is used to indicate seismic degree of impact on surface and
building, it not only with the release of seismic energy, depth and distance from the
epicentre, and engineering geological condition and seismic wave propagation
characteristics of a building and so on, the rules of the seismic design of highway bridges
(JTG/TB02-01-2008) provides seismic fortification intensity of relations and horizontal
design Basic acceleration of ground motion as shown in Table 5.11.
Table 5.9 Earthquake magnitude according to the defined maximum amplitude (m = 1gA).
Category Shock level M Category Shock Level M
Large earthquakes M ≥ 7 Tiny earthquakes 3 > M ≥ 1
Medium Earthquakes 7 > M ≥ 5 Ultra-tiny earthquakes 1 > M
Small earthquakes 5 > M ≥ 3
Table 5.11 Seismic fortification intensity and horizontal design Basic acceleration of
ground motion.
Seismic intensity 6 7 8 9
Acceleration peak 0.05 g 0.10 (0.15)g 0.20 (0.30)g 0.40g
2. Earthquake Disasters
Earthquake disasters have been recorded in history as early as there is a record of strong
earthquakes often cause surface changes, such as topography, and landslides and
liquefaction facility damage and fires, floods, pollution, disease and other secondary
disasters caused by human or animal casualties and socio-economic loss.
Bridges without the reasonable seismic design will be lead to serious damage in the
quake. Turns out, both at home and abroad because of the number of bridge structural
damage caused by the earthquake, far more than by storms, ship collision damage caused
by other reasons such as. For example, in China in the 1975, haicheng earthquake in
China, 618 bridges in earthquake regions in the 193-seat suffered varying degrees of
damage, accounting for about 31% in the 1976 Tangshan earthquake, suffered earthquake
damage of railway bridges accounted for 39%, Tangshan earthquake disaster of highway
bridge 62%, earthquake damage to highway bridge in Tianjin 21%; in the 2008 Wenchuan
earthquake, there are 6 different types of bridge-more than 6000 square beam structure
subjected to earthquake disaster, about 10% of them were badly damaged or collapsed,
needs to rebuild after demolition. According to bridges disaster investigation, seismic
damage of main bridge structure is reflected in various parts of the structure, and can
follow the structure from top to bottom is divided into earthquake damage to structures,
support and ancillary facilities such as earthquake damage and earthquake damage to
structures in the lower part. Earthquake damage to superstructure, bridge or arch bridge
upper structure subjected to earthquake damage and destroyed rare, often by other parts of
the bridge structure damage caused by breakage of the girder and arch, such as caused by
adjacent girders colliding beam end and deck structural damage in the vicinity of the
department, and so on. When sliding displacement of earthquake damage beyond the pier
when the bearing surface, it would have been serious the falling beams (Fig. 5.13).
The earthquake, bearing of Bridge Seismic damage is extremely popular and has long
been considered a weakness on the seismic performance of bridge. Damage was mainly
for pot bearing anchoring bolts were pulled out, cut or shear failure of the bearing itself,
plate bearing is pushed out, cut or cut-out damage (Fig. 5.14). In addition, bridge ancillary
facilities block masonry shear or cut-tension-bending damage joints horizontal shear
failure occurs, vertical or horizontal tension and compression shear failure damaged
railings can also occur lateral deformation, deformation and failure of the vertical or
horizontal tensile failure, and so on.
Substructure or the serious damage of bridge pier and abutment is mainly due to soil
liquefaction, ground subsidence and slope slip or break causing, the main earthquake
damage included bridge abutment pier cracks, cracks, joints cracked, serious results in pier
collapse (Fig. 5.15).
Fig. 5.13 Miao Zi ping whole spans of minjiang River Bridge in Wenchuan earthquake in
Wenchuan earthquake, Luo Liang Tu.
Fig. 5.14 Rubber cut-out damage.
Set forth in the rules for the seismic design of highway bridges using the principle of
two levels of fortification, two-stage design. The first phase anti-seismic designs, the
elastic seismic design; the second phase of the seismic design ductility seismic design
methods, and capable of protecting designs principle. Through the first phase of the
seismic design, which correspond to E1 earthquake seismic design can achieve similar
levels and original specifications earthquake fortification level. Through the second phase
of the earthquake-resistant design of the corresponding E2 earthquake seismic design to
ensure the structure adequate ductility capacity, by checking to ensure structural ductility
capacity is greater than the ductility demand. Design by introducing the ability to protect
the original then, ensure that the plastic hinge in the selected location appear, and there is
no shear damage failure modes. By aseismic measures set meter, ensure that the
displacement of the structure with sufficient capacity.
The seismic design of highway bridges rules according to the complexity of dynamic
response under earthquake excitation, bridge structural dynamic response calculation of
bridge structures subjected to earthquake-resistant design and verification will be divided
into two broad categories, namely, rules bridge rules and non-bridge. Among them, the
rules of bridge beam is the largest single span is less than or equal to 90 m, and Pier height
is less than or equal to 30 m bridge, bridge seismic rules must in strict accordance with the
rules in addition to all the other bridges, including do not satisfy the conditions of beam
bridges, arch bridges, cable-stayed bridges, hanging bridges and other bridges are non-
rules, rules only irregular bridge seismic design principles are given, including seismic
concept design provisions.
3. Cable-stayed Bridge
Frequency and vibration mode characteristics of cable-stayed bridge and its rigidity and
quality-related, such as closed-box girder with vertical deflection frequency of open cross-
section height. The others under the same conditions, of harp-type cable arrangement of
vertical deflection frequency will be lower for radial arrangement. Large span cable-stayed
bridge is a long-period structure, its first mode—floating vertical vibration on seismic
response of main tower along the bridge to the tribute offering an absolute advantage.
Floating structural system of cable-stayed bridge in the largest contribution to the
transverse seismic response of the tower is the main tower vibration modes (transverse
vibrations of transverse vibration of symmetric and anti-symmetric).
From the seismic requirements, wish to structure flexible. Vibration of flexible
structures because long seismic response of a smaller, but the displacement reactions great
and should be attract attention. Built on the seismic fortification intensity 8 or 9 degrees of
cable-stayed bridge should be a priority in the area of floating system; floating system
resulted in large beam the nodal displacements, we should use the tower, elastic or
damping constraint system.
4. Suspension Bridge
Due to the suspension, bridge is a flexible structure, with floating structural system of
cable-stayed bridge as the basic cycle is very long and is thus subject to earthquake load
control can be small. However, the vertical earthquake component on stiffening girder,
effects of bending moment of beam main tower, tower, the effects of axial force of piles
shall be pay attention to. Relative displacements between the girders and beams is another
characteristic of flexible structures. Ensure the role of expansion joints, located reset the
block, damping bearing, are better measures for reducing relative displacement, to prevent
falling beams. Main load-bearing structure, the towers should be choices helps to improve
the structure and volume of ductile deformation capacity and avoid the occurrence of
brittle failure.
Table 5.13 Comprehensive comparison of three kind of restraint system and float system.
Constraint name Damp limit Lock limiting Flexible Floating
constraints constraint constraint structural
system
A tower connection restraint C =15 000 =0. Dynamic Elastic —
system parameters 4 ±750 mm locking 750 stiffness 50
limited mm limited MN/m
Horizontal 0.285/0.272 0.190/0.170 0.483/0.470 0.690/0.673
displacement of
beam (m)
The top 0.371/0.368 0.237/0.227 0.637/0.625 0.820/0.818
horizontal
displacement
(m)
Earthquake
Tugend shear 31.7/34.3 46.9/50.4 35.6/39.6 36.8/39.6
reaction
(MN)
Tugend bending 2280/1.740 3160/2950 2740/2500 2790/2490
moment
(MN·m)
Device trip (m) 0.293/0.271 0 0.421/0.439 0.683/0.673
Device binding 12.1/11.6 64.2/76.2 21.0/22.0 —
(MN)
Fig. 5.22 Dampers and locking device output response curves in.
Fig. 5.23 Single mass-damping vibration displacement time history curve.
Fig. 5.26 Energy of C-shaped steel supports connection (size unit: mm).
Fig. 5.28 Sketch of structure of double spherical aseismic bearing under 1—seat board; 2
—guide plate; 3—shear pin 4—security screw; 5—seat plate; 6—dust seal unit 7—sphere
stainless steel skate board; 8—PTFE skateboards; 9—seat board.
Double spherical aseismic bearing is based on general ball-bearings developed,
through the use of large-diameter spherical friction takes a common ball-type bearing flat
friction pair, and limit restraints designed F (x) (Shear) a new bearing. The bearing using a
pendulum KP mechanism to extend the natural vibration period of bridge can be provided
through the deck weight reset capabilities needed to help x (Relative displacement) bridge
superstructure to its original position.
Of double spherical aseismic bearing isolation works: when an earthquake occurs and
horizontal lateral force exceeds a predetermined value, limited the shear pins and safety
device cutting off screws, bearing the transverse limit restriction was lifted, large-diameter
spherical transverse of friction slide freely through friction gradually consumes energy.
Thus, prolong the earthquake cycle, achieve the effect of damping and earthquake; after
the earthquake, structural weight and re-silience can be formed so that bearing reset.
Bearings hysteresis curve is shown in Fig. 5.29.
Note: The ship hits the fortification level L1 is a 100-year return period, L2 1000 return
periods.
1. Bridge upstream and downstream waterways and ports development and planning, as
well as utilisation of the shoreline.
2. The bridge should be selected in channel straight River, deep grooves and the
riverbed or seabed stability, water depth and flow condition on the good leg, bridge
water bed (seabed) scour and modest.
3. Bridge should avoid the bends, branch road, Rapids, segregation and concentration
port anchorage, port operation area, such as, the distance should be able to guarantee
safe navigation of ships.
4. The bridge axis should be perpendicular to the current trend and orthogonal design
routes if possible, water flow and bridge axis normal angle should not exceed 5°.
In fact, route straight bridge is the case, or drifters crashing head-on with the bridge of
the ship will be very small, more oblique collision of bridge piers and abutments. Oblique
impact angle of less than 45°. When the skew bridge and waterway, the regular to oblique
impact of piers and abutments are possible. Moreover, when the axis of the bridge have a
greater angle between the normal and mainstream, will produce to impede the safety of
navigation of bad water. As the flow angle and bridge axis normal to not meet the
requirements, you should consider increasing across the span of the bridge to ensure the
safe navigation of the ship.
Fig. 5.33 Sweden new Tjӧrn Bridge design drawings (size: m).
Table 5.15 The ship collision design with bridge piers foundation
Bridge pier Direction Design- Typical collision condition
resistant
force (MN)
Transverse 130 50,000 ton 4m/s being hit,
2m/s side crash
Main bridge main pylon pier
Along the 65 50,000 ton 1.5m/s is hit,
bridge to 1m/s side crash
Transverse 40.6 5,000 ton 3.5m/s is hit, a
10,000 ton 2.5m/s head on
Near of main auxiliary piers crash
Along the 20.3 5,000 ton 2 m/s front hit
bridge to
Transverse 14.5 5,000 ton 1.5 m/s front hit
direction
Near of main auxiliary piers
Transverse 14.8 5,000 ton 1.5 m/s front hit
direction
Transverse 14.5 5,000 ton 1.5 m/s front hit
direction
The main bridge abutment
Transverse 14.8 5,000 ton 1.5 m/s front hit
direction
Transverse 60 50,000 ton 4 m/s front hit,
Main piers of auxiliary bridge 1 m/s side crash
of continuous rigid-frame Along the 55 50,000 ton 4.1 m/s front
bridge bridge to hit, 5 m/s side crash
navigation
1. The anti-collision facilities main function is, when designing a ship collision, to
facilities damage amount of dissipation; avoid ship protrusive parts direct impact
drilling pile and pier, tower structures reduce the damage length.
2. When serious collision occur, the anti-collision facilities through its own kinetic
energy of deformation and failure to fully absorb the shipping to reduce pier the force
of the collision, when relatively minor collision, the anti-collision facilities of
sufficient strength and resistance to deformation, use of facilities around the baffle
box energy absorber to protect the overall integrity of the structure of facilities
subject, while reducing the impact the ship’s damage.
3. Under normal conditions, the anti-collision facilities with full-floating ability,
flexible, easy to use water ballast makes the anti-collision facilities keep good
floatation; after being damaged due to collision, and can limit the extent of damage to
certain areas within the buoyancy of the anticollision facilities remains must be and
the necessary buoyancy without sinking, easy fix.
Fig. 5.36 The floating protective system (a) The bulbous bow cross brake system (b) The
bulbous bow may not cross brake system; (c) Tilt the bow may over braking system; (d)
Flat end of the bow may become more brake systems (e) Floating protective system
photos.
Another floating energy dissipating the anti-collision facilities by installed around the
main pier cofferdam or pontoon, using materials such as steel and rubber to achieve the
goal of energy dissipation. Energy dissipation steel structure main body of the
anticollision facilities of floating deck structure, platform, structure, floor structure,
vertical and horizontal bulkheads, inner walls, perimeter wall, horizontal truss elements,
such as, at the same time external wall form multiple watertight compartments and ballast
tanks, on the inner wall set the rubber parts of the anti-collision facilities can be improved
contact with the pier bearing platform can. Floating the anti-collision facilities under the
advantages of buoyancy along the pier move up and down so that it can adapt to the
change of water level, range of the protection pier; disadvantage is that complex, Pier and
pile cap shape required. Yellowstone bridge of floating the anti-collision facilities as
shown in Fig. 5.37.
Fig. 5.37 Floating energy dissipating the anticollision facilities in Huangshi Yangtze River
Bridge main piers.
Fig. 5.45 Donghai bridge installation of prefabricated bridge pier (a) “venture” floating
crane; (b) “erecting one barge” Pier installation vessels.
Fig. 5.46 Ningbo Yongjiang Main beam cross-section (size: m) (a) originally concrete
bilateral main rib section; (b) eventually steel box girder and concrete composite beams.
2. Design Details
Design details include:
3. Replacement Measures
Not every bridge structural unit of life and as long as the bridge’s design life. If we gave
every structural unit life expectancy and the bridge’s design life of the same, costs may be
very high. Design in general, as a matter of routine, in certain structural elements can be
replaced after a certain time. Supports, expansion joints and wearing course fall into this
category structure. It can be seen that structural unit of easy substitution becomes very
important. Any traffic would increase maintenance costs, although the costs and life-cycle
costs are not an order of magnitude. One takes far too long to maintain nearby commercial
projects often troubled by serious damage.
Study of bridge structure system is to find out its mechanical properties in order to
carry out system of bridge structure and apply to practical engineering according to local
conditions.
1. For soft soil ground in Tianjin, and arch not only horizontal force on the basis of the
system, there is a large bending moment, seismic and long-term load effects were
negative, and this is the principal contradiction in the system and condition of
building the bridge;
2. In order to reduce the annual effect of temperature on the structure and need to set a
Corbel arch-beam, horizontal thrust long level pull cable under deck setting you want
multi-channel expansion joint, makes the structure of complex, and driving comfort;
3. The bridgehead buildings you pass arch winding tension, under complicated stress
and poor seismic performance of the system.
Fig. 6.1 Tianjin Guotai bridge.
Fig. 6.3 Sketch of girder and arch combination structure system with three-span non thrust
design (unit: mm).
1. modification became hinged arch at the foot of solid, release the horizontal
constraint, based only on vertical and horizontal girders bear;
2. structures freely in the horizontal direction, so annual range of temperature has less
influence, arch-beam used in consolidation, deck without increasing expansion joints;
3. the bridgehead building separate from the main structure, landscape and ballast only,
system performance is much improved.
Two structure such as shown in Table 6.2, after optimisation, mechanical performance
will be significantly improved not only the structure and make the whole engineering cost
reduced.
Table 6.2 Structure system comparison.
Comparison project Solid duangong system No thrust beam arch
combination system
Supporting constraint Arch fixed thrust Hinged arch, no thrust
Force base Vertical force + horizontal force + Nearly vertical force
moment
Rib Force transmission path is not Smooth power transmission
smooth path clear
Horizontal thrust Basic level of cable and tie beam in Tie beam itself bear
balanced approach set
Deck system The main impact of bridge No main bridge expansion
expansion joints driving comfort joints
Bridge construction Large projects shall be provided Engineering, without setting
with vertical pre-stressing vertical prestressing
Technical difficulty Great Small
Security There are security risks Okay
Seismic performance Poor Better
Fig. 6.8 Bridge diagrams (a) thrust system; (b) part of the thrust system; (c), three-span
continuous lift system; (d) simple support without thrust system.
Fig. 6.10 Double-line bridge of Shibanpo Changjiang River Bridge in general layout (size:
m).
Double-line bridge of Shibanpo Changjiang River Bridge in the main span without use
of lightweight concrete, but breaking with steel beams instead a concrete beam, through
material changes in the composition of main girders, to vary the winner Liang Heng load
distribution, thus opening up the steel-pre-stressed concrete continuous rigid-frame bridge
this bridge, on economy, safety, durability and so on to meet the premise, solution
summary of continuous rigid frame bridge of long-span 300 m problems.
Example 6.2. Arch bridge system of Chongqing Caiyuanba Yangtze River Bridge.
Chongqing Caiyuanba Yangtze River Bridge is the first orbital dual-use of King Road,
city of steel and concrete composite rigid frame structure and tied-arch bridge (Figs. 6.11
& 6.12 ).
Fig. 6.13 Comparison of supporting tied side arch span with or without pole sets (a)
Caiyuanba bridge across no pole; (b) common bridges across any vertical poles.
After removing the post, side spans of arch ribs no longer subjected to vertical loads,
and can be made into a straight bar, arch bridge structure can be used at the lower portion
of the Y-shaped the concrete structure, under the continual fluctuations in water level do
not require special conservation as well as steel. Three pole pieces large y-shaped structure
seems solid, steady, and increase impact resistance capacity.
In this way, in terms of structure, caiyuanba bridge consists of three elements: a Y-
shaped pre-stressed concrete rigid frame on each side and the steel box tied arch bridge in
the middle (Fig. 6.14), the calculation so as to allow the centre of bowstring arch span is
reduced from 420 m to 320 m and improves overall efficiency while reducing a key
substructure design more difficult.
Fig. 6.14 Y-shaped rigid-frame structure and tied-arch load path diagram.
Compatible with the three independent units, this bridge has also been used in the
design of vertical isolation system tie rod, vertical tie bar divided into cross-tie bar and
side span bow string, and anchor its independence. On this basis, and additional vertical
tie bar at side pier. Three sets of independent tie rod systems are available in the
implementation process of the main body of the bridge (rigid frames and the main arch)
force and the adjustment of the linear space control: under constant load by adjusting the
frame on each side of the tie rod and the tail end of the vertical cable, rigid rod bending
torque to reduce and regulate the bowstring cable force of arch in the middle, perfectly
balanced horizontal thrust, only vertical forces on both sides of the Y-shaped rigid
structure. At constant load under three separate, and consider this to achieve an optimal
stress. Since then, under the live load action, tied with other the longitudinal member
according to the level of stiffness distribution of force. But due to live load accounts for
only a fraction of the total load, there would be no essential impact on the system as a
whole.
In short, Caiyuanba bridge through structural innovation in the system, separate tie rod
using active control technology enhanced material efficiency rate, saving a lot of
permanent structural steel.
Example 6.3. Cable-stayed bridge system—Greece Rion-Antirion Bridge.
Rion-Antirion Bridge (Fig. 6.15) across Greece Corinth isthmus, composite girder
cable-stayed bridge of main bridge for more tower bridge continuous, using floating five-
span structure, span consists of 286 m + 3 × 560 m + 286 m (Fig. 6.16).
Fig. 6.25 Conventional cable-stayed bridge without backstays and sketch of loading at
non-backstay section.
Driving medium within the span of the bridge through the river in summer to adjust
the component of force distribution within the structure, using the pre-mix concrete
girders, with a leaning tower of auxiliary forces, while ensuring economic performance
good aesthetic effect is obtained.
Example 6.6. System of the new structure of super long span cable-supported bridges.
Traditional super long span cable-supported bridges—a cable-stayed bridge [Fig.
6.26(a)] and suspension bridge [Fig. 6.26(b)] two systems have emerged in recent years
cable-stayed-suspension system [Fig. 6.26(c)] and partly anchored cable-stayed bridge
[Fig. 6.26(d)]. By studying the above systems, one may conceive partly anchored cable-
stayed suspension system [Fig. 6.26(e)]. It is not difficult to imagine, the system will both
parts of main girder of cable-stayed bridge with reduced axial force and anchored cable-
stayed-suspension advantages of cooperative system spanning large and become a more
long-span van restricted bridge could be considered.
Fig. 6.26 Idea of cable-supported bridges system —Tower system (a) cable-stayed bridge;
(b) suspension bridges; (c) cable-stayed-suspension system; (d) partially anchored cable-
stayed bridges; (e) partially anchored cable-stayed-suspension system.
Separately, there is already a multi-tower cable-stayed bridge [Fig. 6.27(a)] and
multiple-tower suspension bridge [Fig. 6.27(b)], can be conceived multi-tower cable-
stayed-suspension system [Fig. 6.27 (c)] based on total anchored suspension bridge [Fig.
6.28(a)] idea, conceived two series of common anchor system, one for “combo” system, as
shown in Fig. 6.28(b)and (d) shown in second for “mutual combination” system, as shown
in Fig. 6.29(a) and (c) as shown, and continues to expand. This structure for super long
span cable-supported bridge offers a variety of options and new ideas.
Fig. 6.27 Idea of cable-supported bridges system —Multi-tower system (a) cable-stayed
bridge; (b) suspension bridges; (c) cable-stayed-suspension system.
Fig. 6.28 Of cable-supported bridges system ideas–a anchorage-sharing system (a) win-
anchored suspension bridge; (b) a total of anchored cable-stayed bridge anchor in part; (c)
a total of anchored cable-stayed-suspension system; (d) total bolt partially anchored cable-
stayed-suspension system.
Fig. 6.29 Cable Supported Bridges mutual combination system conceived—Total anchor
system (a) Total anchored suspension bridge—partly anchored cable-stayed bridge; b)
Total anchored suspension bridge—stayed—suspension; (c) Co-anchored suspension
bridge—partly anchored cable—stayed suspension system.
Through the above described can be seen: clear structures and contents, and lay the
foundations for bridge structural system; analysis of bridge structural system of force,
force transmission route, can be provide clear direction for rational selection of bridge
structure system, may also be looking for method of bridge structural system innovation;
system for optimising the force structure, reduction of construction investment,
construction convenient, reduced maintenance costs, and meet the needs of engineering,
extending the applicable conditions is very important meaning for the construction of the
bridge. And bridge system space is vast, systems change can bring new life into this
ancient engineering of the bridge.
6.2 IMPORTANT DESIGN PARAMETER
OPTIMISATION AND ADJUSTMENT
6.2.1 Classification of Design Parameters of Bridge
Structures
Design parameters of bridge structure can be divided into general layout parameters and
system parameters. General layout parameters primarily deal with structures description,
the main span and side spans of cable-stayed bridges, high towers and the cross-ratio,
beam and cross-ratio and wide-span ratio is in the design of cable-stayed bridge indexes.
System parameters refer to the same type of bridge with different loading systems, such as
external constraints, internal connections, etc. Different bridge structures differ greatly in
structural design parameters. Bridge design parameters not only reflects the structure of
the bridge structure system external form, but also reflects the bridge structure under load
forces and their stress response. Table 6.3 shows the four basic types of the main structure
of the bridge design parameters.
Various parameters of bridge structures (General layout of system parameters and
parameters) interact with each other. Structure parameters determine the shape of the
structure, load, resistance and stress patterns. Meanwhile, adjust and optimise the
structural parameters, can be changed. Variable structure properties, the mechanical
properties of structural and economic performance status.
Table 6.4 Effect of column-span ratio on overall structural elastic and stability.
Load condition Elastic buckling Tower span Tower span
simulation ratio = 0.21 ratio = 0.16
Bridge tower vertical 4.509 5.948
buckling
Main beam outside- 4.474 2.694
Constant load
surface buckling
Main beam inside- 4.714 3.456
surface buckling
Bridge tower vertical 4.168 5.353
buckling
Main beam outside- 4.117 2.416
Constant load + live load
surface buckling
Main beam inside- 4.26 3.098
surface buckling
Bridge tower vertical 4.143 5.313
buckling
Dead load + live load + Main beam outside- 4.094 2.397
lateral still wind surface buckling
Main beam inside- 4.229 3.074
surface buckling
This shows that the towers and the cross-ratio is one of the most important parameters of
cable-stayed bridge in cable-stayed bridge design should take a reasonable height ratio.
Fig. 6.32 Large-span cable-stayed bridge with different forms of connection diagram.
The Su Tong Bridge main span of 1088 m, in the design process, the first four
talianglian forms are compared. and their stress response. Results are shown in Table 6.6.
Table 6.6 Results comparison between different structures under static conditions.
Calculation Structure response Full Vertical Tower beam Horizontal
condition floating support consolidation elastic
restraint
Cable Towermain beam 5.5E4/ 1.6E4/ 7 800/ – 5.4E4/ –
bending moment – 4.1E4 –7.6E4 1.1E5 4.3E4
(kN.m)
Bottom bending 1.0E6/ 1.0E6/ 7.9E5/ – 1.0E6/ –
moments (kN.m) –2.8E5 –2.8E5 3.2E5 2.9E5
Live loads Main span deflection –2190 –2190 –2170 /135 –2190/
(mm) /145 /146 145
Horizontal displacement – – –9/46 –139/168
of beam end (m) 366/395 367/394
The top horizontal – – –66/502 –75/508
displacement (m) 188/603 188/602
Cable Tower main beam 755.4 3772 3.89E5 6805
bending moment
(kN.m)
The overall Bottom bending 3.82E5 3.82E5 4.93E6 4.89E5
temperature moments (kN·m)
difference 30° Horizontal displacement –365 –366 –249 –363
of beam end (m)
The top horizontal –203 –203 –147 –202
displacement (m)
Cable Tower main beam 844.1 980 –1.69E3 –3 991
bending moment
(kN.m)
Bottom bending – – –4.61E5 – 6.28E5
Vertical wind moments (kN.m) 8.62E5 8.62E5
turbulance
Horizontal displacement –268 –268 –9.5 –116
of beam end (mm)
The top horizontal –296 –296 –29 –139
displacement (mm)
Cable Tower main beam 1 378 1 499 –875E4 –3963
bending moment
(kN.m)
Bottom bending – – –1.16E5 –2.99E5
Automobile
moments (kN.m) 5.58E5 5.58E5
braking force
Horizontal displacement –287 –287 –2.1 –120
of beam end (mm)
The top horizontal –298 –298 –3.0 –124
displacement (mm)
Comparison results can be seen from the Table 6.6: compared with float system, Ta
Liang Gu pairing in the primary beam vertical stiffness effect is large, but significantly
increased the longitudinal stiffness of the structure. Floating system frees up horizontal
forces caused by temperature, but longitudinal wind and steam tower of the vehicle
braking force bending moment at the end is 1.9 times and 4.8 times larger than the
consolidation system. Set a certain bridge tower vertical elastic constraints with certain
rigidity, on the one hand by live loads can be reduced, and vertical wind turbine and tower
of automobile braking force taliang and bending moment at the end of the horizontal
displacement. The other hand, compared with the consolidation system, released system
significantly effect of temperature stress on bottom bending moment.
Some of the more typical engineering tower cable-stayed bridge, the beam pattern is
shown in Table 6.7.
Arch system, connections within the structure of influence of loading form is very
obvious. Fig. 6.33 shows the same arch of reamless arch and single arch, two-hinged arch,
three-hinged arch under the same load bearing forms.
Fig. 6.33 Envelope diagrams of Arch structure bending moment: (a) hingeless arch; (b)
single hinged arched; (c) of two-hinged arch; (d) three-hinged arch.
1. Experience Method
Experience is established on the basis of experience in the design, use sum engineering
statistics, identify design parameters of a reasonable range of values to guide the design of
the new bridge. This method of bridge structures with regular system is the most
convenient way.
2. Analytical Method
Analytical method is through theoretical mechanics obtain design parameters and
mechanical values of relationships, a methods used to make adjustments to the design
parameters. This method requires designers have good mechanical skills and deep
understanding of the structural system.
For example, we want to improve radial load lower sectional arch (Fig. 6.36) of the in-
plane buckling factor analytical method can be used to export its critical load
Expression: , where K and rise span ratio and arch hinge related to the
number, as shown in Table 6.8.
Table 6.8 data indicated that decreased with increased number of hinge the stability of
arch; various arches of critical loads in ξ is 0.3, maximum, this is because the ξ-hour arc
length is short but high pressure, pressure at large ξ is small but the arc length is longer.
Therefore, the formula derived by analytical method, methods of improving qcr
increasing EIx, strengthen internal and border around harness changing the ratio of height
to span. What specific measures can be determined according to the actual situation.
Fig. 6.37 General layout scheme of cable stayed bridge with a main span of 1400 m (size:
m).
Results showed that anchor main beam length is increased, the principal bending
moment decrease, main beam length of anchoring segment for more than 400 m changes
flattens; main beam stress in axial force decreases tension increases; bending moment
decrease main tower, main beam length of anchoring segment for more than 600 m
changes flattens; main column axial force changes little; main pylon of main beam
displacement and displacement, main beam length of anchoring segment for more than
600 m changes slowly. Therefore, a main span of 1400 m partially anchored cable-stayed
bridge anchor section main beam length in the 400~600 m is reasonable.
If you want to further optimise the mechanical indices, you can refer to the trends of
the curve obtained, the main beam length of anchoring segment for minor adjustment.
Fig. 6.38 Comparison of live load effects (a) bending moment extreme value; (b) main
beam axis force; (c) beam displacement extremum; (d), main tower of moment extreme
value; (e) main column axial force; (f) extreme value of main tower of displacement.
6.3 CONSTRUCTION METHOD SELECTION AND
SAFETY IDENTIFICATION
6.3.1 The Construction Method of Bridge Structures
Design and construction of bridge structures are inextricably linked, and in order to do a
design, designers must have conventional construction methods and new construction
technology.
Common construction methods are: overall construction method of cast in situ and
pre-cast-install method by span construction method of cantilever construction method,
turn construction method of jacking construction method, shifting method, lifting
construction method. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages and scope of
application, as shown in Tables 6.9 and 6.10.
Traverse Next to the fold Do not change the structure of Lateral movement
construction structure of the the bridge system during the temporary
method position the supports required to
structure and supporting the
lateral moves to construction of the
gauge fixed structure weight,
position support requirements
Traverse Placement of Increase tonnage Requires suitable land
construction structures in the or water surface set
method future pre- preparation of high
fabricated lifting capacity
structure on the requirement; promoted
ground and lift knot frame should be
in place. balanced
Fig. 6.39 Full scaffold construction of continuous Liang Heng contains internal force
diagram.
Fig. 6.40 Simple supported-continuous constant load internal forces diagram.
Fig. 6.42 Cantilever construction of continuous beam constant load internal forces
diagram.
Fig. 6.43 Incremental launching construction continuous beam ridge pivot bending
moment diagram.
Creep effects after the bridge, re-distribution associated with construction methods and
duration, and live load stress condition and construction of structures has nothing to do.
The construction and design of bridge structure has a very close relationship, on the
different structures used in construction of bridge structures methods can be different, the
same structural form may use different construction methods. During the conceptual
design phase, must take full account of construction methods, through proper construction
techniques ensure that the design is achieved. Meanwhile, development of construction
technology of the bridge, in order to achieve bridge design, offers a flexible and powerful
tool, as well as increased span, improved structure and the use of new materials, provided
the necessary conditions. Therefore, the design and construction are complementary,
mutually binding.
Fig. 6.44 Cantilever construction of continuous beam constant load internal forces
diagram.
Fig. 6.45 Incremental launching construction continuous beam ridge pivot bending
moment diagram.
Bridge system is complex, and often fail to press the picture and complete the
construction, and need to go through a number of structural system of transfer change.
Therefore, when considering design, taking into account the possibility of construction,
economics and rationality.
With vertical pre-stressed reinforcement of continuous beam configuration below to
illustrate the relationship between design and construction methods.
Layout of vertical pre-stressed reinforcement of continuous beam under different
construction methods are: sub-paragraph continuous reinforcement, reinforcement, and so
on.
1. Continuously Reinforcement
Construction of cast in situ continuous beam, longitudinal pre stressing tendons in
accordance with distribution in all parts of the force requirements of the bridge beams.
Usually quantity in the line up of the parabolic trajectory. As Fig. 6.46(a), as l1 l2 l3 l4
shown in the side across and are made up (a) of multi-section parabola, and anti-between
inflection points of the curve. Reinforced concrete according to figure 6 layout can be
considered as in Fig. 6.46(b)) shows, which close to the fulcrum by negative bending
moment area turned to positive bending moment areas, while the bending point of view
slightly (b) weakened, but near the fulcrum cross-section shear resistance is greatly
improved.
2. Fragmented Reinforcement
Piecewise is cantilevered construction of reinforcement and construction of simply
supported-continuous continuous most commonly used reinforced concrete beams.
Cantilever construction of continuous girder bridge, is starting from the pier to the
symmetrical cantilever construction, in order to support girders and construction of self-
weight load set out in cantilever construction of pre-stressing requirements. System when
tensioning forces reinforced and complemented other positive moment required to use
phase quantity, this quantity is also called secondary tensioning bars or late bar. Fig. 6.47
shows the cantilever construction continuous beam bridge reinforcement general
construction, where solid gluten is tensioned reinforced during the construction process,
dashed line is reinforced later in the system conversion stretching tendons.
Fig. 6.47 Sketch of sectional reinforcement of cantilever construction continuous beam.
Installation consists of simply supported-continuous construction of continuous girder
bridge, which is adopting the sectional reinforcement of prestressed tendons Fig. 6.48. Pre
fabrication pre-fabricated components based on force and consider lifting must be secured
with tensioning, simple installation levels, this secondary tension reinforcement of pier
site layout, then the secondary tensioning.
Fig. 6.51 In the process of pushing the front beam installed pylons and cables.
1. each construction stage of bridge structure’s ability to resist wind damage and
flooding accidents;
2. the stress state in the control section of the most unfavourable construction phase;
3. the displacement of the cantilever end state;
4. the structural stability of the construction phase.
Paying particular attention to floods and typhoons in the conceptual design, ship and
other unsafe impact on structures. In General, within sunk pier foundations before
flooding beyond the design flood water level. Actual projects upstream flood crest early
arrival, construction equipment does not feet factor caused the accident are many
examples of such accidents. Will also encounter a similar situation in the bridge, that can
not be ignored due to an accident the consequences. In upper structure construction is also
possible accidents resulting in significant financial losses. To bridge this concept should
be considered in the design.
Concept design should also focus on constraint pouring of large and complex
structures, the most disadvantaged, cables and pre-stressed cantilever construction stage
pull, system conversion and other stages, designed to leave in safety.
Conceptual design phase, also through the construction phase to determine the bridge
during the construction phase of the security risk assessment.
6.4 ESTIMATION OF BRIDGE STRUCTURE AND
RECOGNITION OF ADVANCE
Design of bridge structure is: development of structure member sizes, through the
calculations to verify the safety and legitimacy, then adjust the original estimate to
optimize the structure of alternate process.
Advances in computer technology and software, putting us on a size of bridge
structures that have been identified are essential accurate analysis possible. However,
when we begin conceptual design, the size of these structures must be based.
Meter personnel to develop. Early size should be within a reasonable range, otherwise
it would gut the entire design. The bridge’s advanced nature is the embodiment of
technological progress, but also guarantee the competitiveness of the important guarantee.
Bridge’s advance, must begin at the concept design stage.
Therefore, during the conceptual design phase, estimation of main stress components
of the stress state of the bridge, and prepare its size appears to be particularly is very
important.
1. Loading
(a) Constant Load
According to the established six-lane suspension bridge with steel box girder, assume that
the width of the bridge is 34 m (taking into account the reserve and emergency parking
lane), beam height 3.5 m. Steel box girder and suspenders weight is assumed to be 500
kg/m2, which can be used to estimate their weight load is: 500 × 34 ÷ 100 = 170 kN/m. Set
weight of bridge deck pavement and crash bars around 50 kN/m.
2. Estimation Analysis
(a) Estimation of Main Cables
The main cable is the main load-bearing components of the bridge, dead load borne by the
main cables of the construction phase, bridge with stiffening beam to share, but in long-
span bridges, the stiffening girder of sharing part is negligible.
Main cable curve approximation for the parabolic line cable horizontal force (two
cables together, the same below) as follows:
Stress capacity of cable material is γc is located = 78.5 kN/m3, cable material design
strength σs = 1670 MPa, factor of safety γ0 = 2.0 (project value at 2.0~2.5), the gc to γcAc
= γc γ0 Tm/σs in place, can be found across primary horizontal force of the cable as
follows:
In accordance with the principles across the horizontal force of the main cable of the
same approximate, using Ta = Hm/cos φa side span cables can be further evaluated the
great pulling, where φa is the saddles edge across the angle and the horizontal line of the
main cable. Across the main cable curve is a catenary, estimates still put aside curve
approximation. Side span of la = 300 m, loose saddle point to control point of the main
cable saddles of a vertical distance h = 140 m, side spans rise fa ≈ 5.152 m, then:
Aa is the area of side span of cable from the side maximum force Ta to get =
504571 mm2. From thin one can work out tower top displacement:
If tower vertical cross section moment of inertia It =300 m4, total height of the tower
from the bottom surface of the ht = 180 m, C50, concrete is used, main tower of bottom
bending moment weight is negligible, the bending moment at the end of may, according to
calculation mode of a cantilever beam subjected to forced displacement as:
And Hl is unknown here, cannot be solved by equivalent beam method, therefore needs to
be supplemented by a main cable compatibility equations.
Since the horizontal projection of the total length of the main cable is constant, it is
easy to deduct cable compatible equations as follows:
Note:
Combining Table 6.11 and main cable compatibility equation, after a simple iteration
Hl and η can be obtained, resulting in stiffening beam bending moment. The steps are as
follows:
1. Assumed that the initial value of Hl, according to precision requirements step ΔHl.
2. To determine the value of Hl, is given in Table 6.11 η(ξ), φ(ξ) formula η and φ.
3. Simpson quadrature formula is used to calculate two integral equations
compatibility, compatible function f(Hl).
4. Use Hl iteration value is calculated:
5. Repeat steps (b)~(d) until f(Hl, i) fully close to 0, satisfy the accuracy requirements,
get the Hl and η which is the theoretical value.
6. Using mid-span bending moment calculation formulas in Table 6.11 to obtain
stiffening beam bending moment.
The Iterative process of this case is shown in Table 6.12, calculation formula step size
set as ΔHl = 100 kN.
The iterative process can be seen is Table 6.12, convergence is very fast. Finally
stiffening beams bending moment is calculated as 4421.8 kN·m.
Final estimates of this bridge is shown in Table 6.13.
Table 6.14 Simple support uniformed cross-section beam height or slab thickness
Span Section Load beam Height or slab Note h/L
(m) form thickness (cm)
10 Hollow Highway-grade-I, 60 Pre-stressed 1/17
slab Highway-grade-II concrete plate
13 Hollow Highway-grade-I, 70 Pre-stressed 1/19
slab Highway-grade-II concrete plate
16 Hollow Highway-grade-I, 80 Pre-stressed 1/20
slab Highway-grade-II concrete plate
20 Hollow Highway-grade-I, 95 Pre-stressed 1/21
slab Highway-grade-II concrete plate
20 T-beam Highway-grade-I, 150 Pre-stressed 1/13
Highway-grade-II concrete plate
25 T-beam Highway-grade-I, 170 Pre-stressed 1/15
Highway-grade-II concrete plate
30 T-beam Highway-grade-I, 200 Pre-stressed 1/15
Highway-grade-II concrete plate
35 T-beam Highway-grade-I, 230 Pre-stressed 1/15
Highway-grade-II concrete plate
40 T-beam Highway-grade-I, 250 Pre-stressed 1/16
Highway-grade-II concrete plate
Table 6.15 Beam height in variable cross-section continuous beam and continuous rigid
frame bridge.
Bridge Beam height h/L
Span (m) Section form width (m) Notes
(m) Fulcrum Across Fulcrum Across
30 + 50 + Single-box dual- 8.50 2.80 1.50 1982, 1/18 1/34
30 Chamber continuous
beam
47 + 3 × Double-box 21.0 4.00 2.00 1979, 1/18 1/35
70 + 47 dual-Chamber continuous
beam
59 + 7 × Double-box 24.0 5.40 3.00 1983, 1/17 1/30
90 + 59 sibgle-Chamber continuous
beam
70 + 94 + Single-box 12.0 5.00 2.00 1985, 1/19 1/47
70 single-Chamber continuous
beam
70 + 4 × Single-box 13.0 5.50 2.20 1995, 1/18 1/46
100 + 70 single-Chamber continuous
beam
80 + 110 + Five-box single- 24.0 5.50 2.70 1983, 1/20 1/41
80 Chamber continuous
beam
75 + 7 × Single-box 18.5 6.50 2.60 1993, 1/19 1/46
120 + 75 sibgleChamber continuous
beam
70 + 2 × Double-box 31.0 6.80 2.50 1993, 1/18 1/50
125 + 70 sibgle-Chamber continuous
beam
85 + 154 + Single-box 11.0 8.50 2.80 1991, 1/18 1/55
85 single-Chamber continuous
beam
65 + 125 + Single-box 15.0 10.00 3.00 1988, 1/18 1/60
180 + 110 single-Chamber continuous
rigid frame
162.5 + 3 Single-box 19.5 13.0 4.10 1995, 1/19 1/60
× 245 + single-Chamber continuous
162.5 rigid frame
150 + 270 Double-box 31.0 14.8 5.0 2000, 1/18 1/54
+ 150 sibgle-Chamber continuous
rigid frame
2. Arch Bridge
Listed in Tables 6.16 and 6.17 are rib arch height and height-span ratio in rib arch and box
arch.
Table 6.16 Arch cross-section area in reinforced concrete arch bridge.
Span Arch cross-section Notes
(m) (cm)
30 Height 90, width 85 H-shaped double-rib, rib spacing 4.95 m
(1/8)
40 Height 90, width 60 Rectangular three-rib, ribs spacing 4 m
(1/5)
50 Height 120, width H-shaped double-rib, rib spacing 5 m
80 (1/5)
60 Height 140, width H-shaped double-rib, rib spacing 5 m
90 (1/6)
65 Height 160.1, wide Rectangular double-rib, ribs spacing 5 m, width variable
164 (1/5) section arch width 221.7 cm
Note: Are the ratio of height to span.
Table 6.17 Arch ring thickness in reinforced concrete arch bridge.
Span (m) Arch ring thickness (cm) Notes
30 91 (1/8) Box width 132 cm
60 130 (1/7) Box width 130 cm
92 160 (1/10) Box width 159 cm
100 160 (1/6) Box width 130 cm
146 250 (1/4) Box width 1050 cm (single-box three-chamber)
3. Cable-stayed Bridge
As for two-span cable-stayed bridge with single tower, side-to-across ratio is usually
0.5~0.8, with the majority being 0.6~0.7. For twin towers three-span cable-stayed bridge,
side-across ratio is 0.3~0.5, with the majority being 0.4. Tower height above the deck and
the cross-length ratio is typically between 1/4~1/7, mostly about 0.25. Beam height and
main span-length ratio in early thin cable systems is generally 1/5~1/70, in dense cable
system generally 1/70~1/200.
Table 6.18 lists some of the main dimensions of cable-stayed bridges.
4. Suspension Bridge
Completed suspension bridges, side-span ratio is mostly between 0.2~0.3, United States
George Washington Bridge has the smallest side to span ratio of 0.174, whereas the largest
side-span ratio is the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge of 0.482. The vertical cross-ratio of
suspension bridges is 1/9~1/12, heavier suspension bridges adapt bigger vertical cross
ratio in order to limit the increase of forces, such as the great belt East bridge, vertical
cross-ratio is 1/9; box lighter beam may have small vertical cross-ratio to increase the
stiffness of suspension bridge. Bosphorus bridge vertical cross-ratio is 1/12; self-anchored
suspension bridge has greater vertical cross-ratio than ground-Anchored suspension
bridge, generally about 1/5.
Table 6.19 lists some of the main dimensions of cable-stayed bridges.
1. Beam Bridge
Table 6.21 Pre-stressed concrete T-shaped beam materials indicator (1983 final drawings).
Materials index per square metre of deck
Span Cross-
Concrete PC steel products Ordinary steels
(m) section
(m3/m2) (kg/m2) (kg/m2)
25 T-shaped 0.38 14 15
30 T-shaped 0.41 15.7 50. 7
35 T-shaped 0.46 19.1 52.3
40 T-shaped 0.49 22.4 53.4
50 T-shaped 0.4 28.7 49.4
62 T-shaped 0.56 44.6 72.4
Note: The table does not include decks, the number of crash barrier or railing and
walkways. The 50 m and 62 m span data are from individual bridge, not blueprint.
2. Arch Bridge
Table 6.23 Reinforced concrete arch bridge superstructure materials index.
Clear span (m) Materials index per square metre of deck of arch
Bars (kg/m2) Concrete (m3/m2)
40 113.3 0.76
50 181.2 0.85
60 152 1
Note: This table is converted from “The highway bridge and culvert/m clear span of the
arch bridge design manual”, calculate area is the arch area of the ventral surface of the
horizontal projection, so the indicators are greater that the results of full-bridge-area
calculations.
Table 6.24 Box arch bridge upper part structures materials index.
Clear span (m) Materials index per square metre of deck of arch
Bars (kg/m2) Concrete (m3/m2)
30 8.1 0.31
60 19.4 0.65
66 19.8 0.45
92 30 0.63
100 30.6 0.53
Note: This table is converted from “The highway bridge and culvert/m clear span of the
arch bridge design manual”, calculate area is the arch area of the ventral surface of the
horizontal projection, so the indicators are greater that the results of full-bridge-area
calculations.
3. Cable-stayed Bridge
Note: The construction volume of main tower is part of the lower part construction. All
bridges not specified otherwise are cable-stayed bridges in China.
4. Suspension bridge
Table 6.26 Cable-stayed bridge superstructure materials index.
Materials index per square metre
of deck
Main Main
Concrete Ordinary Stayed
span structure, Notes
(m3/ m2) steel (kg/m2) cable
(m) materials
Upper Lower Upper Lower (kg/
2
part part part part m )
Three-span, Japan, built-in 1993, twodech
steel truss, bridge, lower part indicators
570 steel tower — — 1008.3 610.2 360.6 do not include foundations,
and anchorage, but steel
consumption data only
Three-span, Japan, built in 1983, lower
steel truss, indices lower part indicators
770 steel tower — — 495.7 171 203.5 do not include foundations,
and anchorage, but only steel
consumption data
Three-span, Japan, built-in 1985, twodech
steel truss, bridge, lower part indicators
570 steel tower — — 611.3 166.8 283.7 do not include foundations,
and anchorage, but only steel
consumption data
Single-span Built-in 1985, steel
steel box consumption data in tower,
900 girder, — 4.83 412.7 — 267.2 anchorage unavailable
concrete
tower
Three-span, United States, built-in 1937
1280 steel truss, — — 498.1 778.8 429.7
steel tower
Three-span, Japan, built-in 1998,
steel truss, foundation, anchorage steel
1991 steel tower — — 648.2 360.1 432.2 consumption data, unavailable,
lower part steel indicators are
only for the tower
Note: The construction volume of main tower and anchorage is part of the lower part
construction. All bridges not specified otherwise are cable-stayed bridges in China.
6.4.4 Identifying Advances
Any actions with thorough thought during construction to increase security, lower costs,
improve and beautify the structure and environment, improve structure durability and
environmental design, or through the introduction of new materials, new technology and
new equipment to simplify and shorten the process of construction, overcoming
difficulties that cannot be solved by conventional methods are all advances. In contrast,
raise costs, increase the risk of work for the sake of innovation should be regarded as
backward. identification of advance must start from the concept design.
Security is an eternal topic, pose a security risk has two major factors: natural and
man-made disasters. Natural disasters are mainly seismic, wind, mudslides, floods and
snow disaster and so on. Man-made disasters include overloaded, traffic accident,
collision, etc.
In order to withstand the earthquake disasters, ensuring great structural safety under
seismic forces, Greece bridge Rion at conceptual design stage base isolation is used,
placing the steel caissons on gravel cushion, allowing relative slip between the
Foundation, which guarantees the safety of tower columns.
Fig. 6.58 Facade layout of three arch bridges (size: mm) (a) Thrust steel arch bridge (b)
Dead load thrust-free prestressed concrete arch bridge, (c) Thrust of reinforced concrete
arch bridge.
“Economy” is a relative concept, economy at stake of security, be could not attend. In
the mid-1990s, many bridges are built very economical, but these bridges low safety
factor, ability to withstand overload is also low, cannot be said to be advanced. Similarly,
materials indications listed in the previous section lists reflect bridge economic
performance from a certain angle.
A bridge with real advances in the economy can be reflected in the land system,
material, functional structures, construction and other aspects.
In downtown Kunshan Lou Jiang adjacent three newly built arch bridges, main span is
around 40 m, as shown in Fig. 6.58. Fig. 6.58(a) is a thrust steel arch bridge, the ratio of
height to span 1/10.3, the main bridge span 44.87 m; Fig. 6.58(b) is a bridge of constant
load without thrust pre-stress concrete arch bridge with a main span 36 m; Fig. 6.58(c) is
thrust of reinforced concrete arch bridge, with a height-span ratio of 1/9.
Kunshan is a soft soil area, bridge programme is not economical. But in order to
beautify the city bridges, arch bridges is also an option. On soft ground, in order to
overcome the horizontal thrust base will take a large economic cost. And horizontal thrust
and structures are related. Fig. 6.58(a) thrust for the bridge arch, using steel arch bridge,
light weight, relatively small horizontal thrust. Fig. 6.58(b) bridge constant load without
thrust, only horizontal force live load and temperature. Fig. 6.58(c) bridge with large
weight has the largest basic horizontal thrust. Therefore, from conceptual design stage we
can decide which economic b > a > c of three bridges, three economic indicators listed in
Table 6.27 illustrates the point.
Table 6.27 Construction cost comparison of three arch bridges.
Programme Cost per square meter (USD/m2) Economic efficiency
a 1.029 Average
b 0.602 Superior
c 1.111 Poor
Improving and beautifying the structure can also reflect the bridge’s advance. In the
concept of the United States Oakland Bay Bridge, in order to satisfy residents taste for
single-column pylon and the demand that the bridge can immediately restore traffic
functionality after the quake, structure of multi-column shear tower was proposed. The
Tower look like a single tower structure Fig. 6.59 is a single-column and portal bridge
tower scheme selection.
Fig. 6.60 Durability of stonecutters bridge maintenance facility (a) main column bottom
detection platform; (b) main welded connection shuttle repair; (c) maintenance under the
main beam hangers; (d) cables repair vehicle.
6.5 IMPORTANT MECHANICAL CALCULATION IN
CONCEPT DESIGN PHASE
During the conceptual design phase, the main purpose of structure analysis is to verify
whether the establishment, including strength and stiffness (distortion or image
stabilisation qualitative) fatigue of overall control meet code requirements, simplified
methods or empirical formula is often used to estimate. But when confronted with
complex structure, numerical methods are used. Numerical model is crucial in determining
whether numerical analysis is correct.
1. The entire structure or portion of a structure as a rigid body lost balance (capsizing);
2. Damage to the components or connections because of the stress exceeds the material
strength limit (including fatigue), or due to excessive deformation and unfit to
continue bearing load;
3. Structure transformed into mobile;
4. The structure or structure lose stability;
5. Foundation lose bearing capacity and gets damaged.
Through analysis of structure, each component can be obtained under the most adverse
combination of responses. Usually on structural components according to load bearing
limit state, followed by calculation of deformation, crack width, anti-crack, etc., based on
serviceability limit State.
Bridge design specifications of components for ultimate limit state calculation using
the following formula:
The above formula is a basic expression , giving in detail the bridge bending,
compression, tension, torsion, punching shear, local pressure component calculation
method of bearing capacity design values, no longer listed here.
During the conceptual design phase, because there are a lot of options, each type of
bridge layout, structure is not stable, this can only be preliminary calculations. For
example, for a continuous beam bridge, at the concept design stage, because you haven’t
configured the general reinforcement or pre-stressing reinforcement, and therefore cannot
check the structural strength and can only be computed structures, previous work
experience, preliminary judge whether or not the section size may be reinforcing success.
Therefore, the conceptual design stage of structural strength check is mainly holding
structure size is appropriate.
2. Cantilever Beam
Comparing with control code for modification one can determine whether the
structural rigidity of the structure meet the requirements. For example, the highway
reinforced concrete and pre-stressed concrete bridge design code (JTG D62—2004)
provides as follows: reinforced and pre-stressed concrete long-term deflection of the
flexural members, after long-term deflection of eliminating structural weight, warping the
maximum deflection of primary beam should not be more than 1/600 of calculating span,
cantilever length not exceeding 1/300. The highway cable stayed bridge design rules
(JTG/TD65-01-2007) states: main beam lane loading (no impact) under maximum vertical
deflection of concrete beam bridge shall not be more than l/500, steel beams and
composite beams in the main hole using steel beams shall not be more than l/400. The
highway cable bridge design code (approval) in the provision of: stiffening girder of
suspension bridge by vehicle load (regardless of the impact) of the maximum vertical
deflection should not be greater than the span of the 1/250 and fiftieth ~ 1/300; in high
winds (deck car-free) maximum lateral displacement should not be greater than the span
under the influence of 1/150.
Stability includes two aspects: static stability, including stability and regional stability
as a whole; wind-induced stability, including flutter instability and static wind instability
and so on.
Static forc, structural stability of cable-stayed bridges, arch bridges and other issues
are more prominent, thin-walled structures such as thin-walled steel box girder, bridge
tower local stability is more prominent. During the conceptual design phase primarily
concerned with the overall stability of finite element method can be easier to first class
stability analysis of structures and stability safety factor meets the requirements for
testing. Local stability in terms of rods stability ensured by limiting slenderness ratio,
stability of stiffened plate structure measures adopted as assurance.
On mechanics, for large-span bridge at conceptual design stage only preliminary
estimates according to the formula, the highway bridge specification for design of wind
resistance (JTG/T D60-01-2004) are detailed in the static wind stability, galloping, flutter
stability test calculation formulas and specific requirements.
1. Beam bridge
(a) Simply Supported Beam
When calculating the impact of continuous beam caused when the positive bending
moment and shear effects by f1; negative effect is calculated using f2.
2. Arch Bridge
When the main arches for such section or other arch bridges (such as truss arch and
rigid frame arch, and so on):
3. Cable-stayed Bridge
(a) Vertical Bending Frequency of the Twin Towers of Cable-stayed Bridge
Cable-stayed bridges without auxiliary piers: f1 = 110/l.
Cable-stayed bridges with auxiliary piers: f1 = 150/l.
In the formula: l = main span cable-stayed bridge span (m);
f1 = vertical bending frequency (Hz).
Table 6.29 Twin Tower cable-stayed bridge base frequency calculation parameters.
Cable facade Shape of main girder cross-section Steel bridge Concrete bridge
Open 10 9
Parallel cable Half-open 12 12
Closed 17 14
Open 12 11
Inclined plane Half-Open 14 12
Closed 21 17
4. Suspension Bridge
(b) When the main span more than 500 m, the suspension of the anti-
symmetric vertical bending frequency
In the formula: Ec, Ac = the main cable of the elastic modulus (MPa), cross-
sectional area (m2).
In the formula: EIω, and GId = restrained torsional stiffness (N.m4) and free
torsional stiffness (N.m2) of closed box beam
restrained torsional stiffness can be ignored;
r = stiffening girder section radius (m);
Bc = centre distance of the main cable (m).
Fig. 6.61 Space truss calculation model (a) girder bridge (b) cable-stayed bridge.
For framed structures, a unit corresponds to two end nodes, of nodes and cells boils
down to determine node location, in general the following principles should be followed:
6.6.5 Quality
When calculating the dynamic characteristics of structure should be given quality, mainly
refers to the components of the translational mass and moment of inertia. Translation
quality of centralised or distributed approach, and the moment of inertia is way depending
on the simulation of the floor system is different and can be automatically form or
according to the actual sections of the mass distribution calculations input.
6.6.6 Loads
Bridge structures need to withstand various loads, such as temporary loads, dead loads,
live loads, wind, any temperature and load. These loads consist of a series of load exerted
on the structure model of express or analog, each load included a series of concentrated
loads (section point loading) or distributed load. Range relative to the extension unit can
use smaller loads concentrated loads simulation, and vice versa with a distributed load
simulation.
Dead load refers to the weight of the structure, the size according to the size and
density of the material and the acceleration of gravity is calculated. General description
the distributed load, but sometimes also attach some concentrated loads, such as truss
continuous girder beam weight is concentrated in the model force simulation.
Temporary construction loads on the structure has been built mainly of temporary
stacking loads, and hanging baskets, and so on. Interim stacking load can be simulated
based on equivalent in the form of concentrated or distributed load. Simulation of hanging
basket is relatively complex. General cantilever hanging baskets can be fixed with a
virtual rod unit and structure has been built-in several equivalent concentration on
simulated basket moves, you can fold the unit at this stage and concentrated force
dismounted to move before the next stage of the unit and focus. Fore-cable-stayed bridge
basket required to simulate the tension in its construction and process value calculation
method can be used to simulate.
Live load can be directly illustrated using the standard load calculation, and record
transverse, longitudinal reduction factor.
Static wind load on a structure shapes, wind speed and the Pontic of bridge site
structure related to the height of the load. When calculate one can refer to code for design
of highway bridge wind (JTG/T D60-01-2004), the estimation formula of critical wind
speed of flutter. For important large-span structures, first through wind tunnel tests to
determine its major components of the three-factor (curve), then calculate the
corresponding equivalent static wind loads on structures. Flexible structures and
sometimes even structural posture change causes changes in angle of attack of the wind
effect of static wind loading.
Other static loads, such as ship and ice loads, and also calculate the equivalent load
applied to the corresponding position in the model.
In some cases, especially in high seismic intensity area, many dynamic load-controlled
bridge design parameters. At this point, understanding dynamic loads of the nature of the
responses of bridges under such loads is very important. In the districts of high intensity,
Thong common multi-modal response spectrum analysis to calculate the dynamic
response of bridges. In this case, usually with a given structural damping periods and
under acceleration, velocity and displacement relationship between response spectrum
load. In some cases, especially for complex bridge structures, and time history analysis
method is usually used when needed at the border when applying a group ride on the
nodes load (usually expressed as time or time-acceleration-displacement curve).
Example 6.12. According to the conceptual design, shown in Fig. 6.63, and full-bridge
(156 + 180 + 300) m + 1400 m + (300 + 180 + 156) m of 7-span continuous structures.
main beam is made of flat steel box girder, beam height 4.5 m, the full width 41 m
(including wind mouth). Pylons uses “A” shaped concrete towers, set the beam at the
bottom anchor, set the lower beam girder. Tower height is 357 m deck above 287 m, the
tower is a hollow rectangular section. Cable total 38 × 4 × 2 = 304, specifications for
PES7-211~313(1770 MPa), single cable maximum length of about 750 m. Floating
structural system for the whole system, and try to model this structure.
Fig. 6.63 General layout scheme of cable-stayed bridge with a main span of 1400 m (size:
m) (a) programme general arrangement; (b) pylon arrangement; (c) girder sections.
According to this knowledge, can be modeled according to the following steps for this
solution:
1. The choice of plane and spatial model: Conceptual design for similar
configurations of cable-stayed bridge in Planar structures, but large-span bridge, in
transverse direction (lateral) loads of established controls, so using spatial models.
2. Unit type selection: Using truss structures, and the selection of tower column of
main girder beam elements, cable select space beam element.
3. Description: Main beam and column have access to all the nodes in the
corresponding section of the tower at the centroid of the girder set the principles of
the nodes is: beams, on end, cable cranes, tower junction set node, insert a niche
between adjacent points; the main tower sets the node’s principles that is: Tower,
bottom set, beams, cables anchoring points are the endpoints node, the tower columns
and beams a long rod is properly sub-divided so that the unit length has differ; cable
setting the node’s principles are: both ends of the cable are set the node and with
segmented rods method test taking into account non-linear effects of cables SAG, so
each of these cables are inserted at the dividing point 7 nodes. Full bridge element
and node the connection information is as follows: along its axis of beam, towers,
cable connection between adjacent nodes as a unit, cable section corresponds to the
lower point and main beam increased rigidity beam element, namely the main girder
of single-beam mode “fish bone beams” model.
4. And section properties of the material: The main girders, cables for steel
components, pylon for the concrete components, elastic modulus of the material is
already known. Geometry calculation of sectional properties according to the
corresponding section. Beam elements needed to calculate the area and around three
axes: Moment of inertia, the main beam, the main tower in the typical cross-section is
shown in Table 6.30, typical between each cross-section curve can be approximated
by a straight line interpolation; Element need only enter the cross-sectional area, area
corresponding to each cable as shown in Fig. 6.64.
5. The boundary conditions: Combined effects of ignoring upper and lower parts of
the structure, nodes at the bottom of Tower column for consolidation of constraint;
main girder for floating junction structure constraint only two end nodes and the
auxiliary piers at the vertical displacement of the node.
6. Quality: All elements can be directly determined by the area and density. But
beams, floor system of main beams and cables sheath does not participate in force,
such as quality of components with specific quality elements.
7. Loads: In addition to deadweight, a cable-stayed bridge under live load and static
wind load, thermal load and bearing modification and so on. Functions that can be
provided in accordance with the procedures directly imported or calculate the
equivalent load according to specification, separately as multiple load simulation.
Finally, the numerical model is shown in Fig. 6.65. After description of the model
Data based on analysis program numerical formatting, analysis will be carried out through
computers.
1. concrete creep and shrinkage strain led to stress between steel and concrete in large
weight distribution;
2. need a reliable connection between steel and concrete;
3. complicated technology and high cost, we must fully cost competitive advantage.
In Europe, America and Japan for many years efforts have been made, composite
structure in bridges already have a wide range of applications, while also the
corresponding industry standards and specifications. In contrast, composite structure
bridges in China has just started, there is no industry chain, currently do not have design
specification.
Fig. 7.9 Reinforced concrete hollow slab beam shape and internal reinforcement.
Over a wide bridge, in order to increase the torsional stiffness of the bridge, there has
been a combination of box-section beams, usually composed of groove consisting of steel
beams and concrete roof. Bridge of Donghai bridge over main navigation 420 m for long-
span cable-stayed bridge, in order to resist the dominated by container truck load of
eccentric loads, using channel section of main girder box beams (see as shown in Fig.
7.13).
If it is a continuous beam, in order to resist the pivot plate pressure caused by negative
bending moment stresses at the pier near the base plate can be poured concrete in order to
improve the stiffness of composite beam smaller, roof and floor beams can also be built
with concrete, webs of steel structures, steel webs can effectively avoid webs easy to crack
under tensile stress of concrete problems. Top and bottom setting can be the same as in
concrete beam in the concrete pre-stressing tendons, to resist bending tensile stress. If you
need to layout curved pre-stressing, can take the form of externally pre-stressed. Fig. 7.14
is France’s La Ferte Saint-Aubin bridge, Web is made of 12 mm thick steel plate.
In addition to simple-supported beam, beam in the other bridge types is likely to take
different directions in different sectors of the moment, such as continuous beam across
sectors bear the positive moment, while the middle pier near Liang Duancheng charged
moment, which made it possible for both upper and lower beam flange pulling force.
Prevention of crack in the tension zone of the concrete in tension becomes the key to the
design. Solution to this problem is in the concrete pre-stressed plate. Pre-stressing in
several different ways, direct approach within the board or boards by pre-stressed
reinforced, after bent steel beams can also be poured concrete slab and then release the
Pre-flex pre-stressed indirect approaches.
Fig. 7.10 Reinforcements in reinforced glass works only after cracks have occurred.
Fig. 7.11 The serious corrosion of concrete has lost it protection of steel bars.
Fig. 7.12 New composite section beam, Germany.
Fig. 7.13 Donghai cable-stayed bridge main girder cross section at main navigation span
(unit: cm).
Fig. 7.15 Composite girder cable-stayed bridge main girder erection process.
Figure 7.17 is the France Cognac bridge. It is a continuous box girder bridge, the top
and bottom was pre-stressed concrete, and webs were converted wave shape steel web
plate. Because quality steel hummocky, with almost no longitudinal stiffness, but can take
on shear, it exerted on the beam all by in vivo and in vitro on pre-stressed concrete, and
long-term creep will not be cause between steel and concrete, should re-distribution of
gravity. In addition, the transverse stiffness of corrugated webs than steel, so it can be
without stiffener, drastically reduces the effect work intensity.
Fig. 7.16 Switzerland Vaux Viaduct (size: m) (a) General arrangement; (b) Steel beam
push process; (c) Cross-section.
Fig. 7.21 Composite beams of steel (a) pipe; (b) u-channel steel.
In addition to the composite section beam, pillar can also be use the composite section.
Main steel casing filled with concrete piers cross-section. The advantages are: on the one
hand, column surface plate can effectively resist tensile stress to prevent cracking of
concrete on the other, steel housings can be used as scaffolds and templates, save on
construction costs. Fig. 7.22 is the towers of the Akashi bridge and selection programme,
which section is divided into many compartments of the steel casing filled with concrete
to form a composite section.
Most of cable-stayed bridge tower for eccentric compression member, can be built
with concrete, but at the top of the tower cable anchorage area, in addition to vertical
under the pressure, but also bear the main span and side spans of cable horizontal force on
the pull. This concrete tower columns, use negative, there are two ways to take the level of
tension. One is the main span and side spans of cable pylon cross, horizontal tension
transformed into compression, the benefits of doing so are tower anchorage zone of
volume can be reduced, unfavourable place is the primary span and side spans of cable
transverse does not meet at a single point, towers assumed local torque and bolt-head is
exposed. Another way of dealing with is the use of hollow towers, inclined cable
anchorage in the transverse direction of towers and walls. Advantage to this is the main
side spans of cable anchor fixed on the same plane, bridge overall reasonable strength,
disadvantage is, ask for installed in the tower stayed, poor construction, the Tower post
jamb to bear pulling force. Resist the pull of the tower within the walls, there are two
methods: one is the tower walls arranged in circumferential pre-stressed, the parties law
pre-stressing loss in the tower there is the risk of cracking and another method is the use of
steel and concrete composite sections, borne by the concrete vertical pressure, inflict
horizontal force on steel.
Fig. 7.22 Towers of the Akashi bridge and selection programme (size: mm) (a)
Combination of tower column cross-section formed schematics; (b) Akashi bridge tower
selection scheme details.
Fig. 7.23 Nromandie bridge, France pylon anchorage zone of tectonic (elevation units: m;
dimensions unit: mm).
Figure 7.23 shows the Nromandie bridge, France pylon anchorage zone structure. The
main span of the bridge is 856 m, embedded in the concrete wall undertake longitudinal
tension of steel anchor box, the vertical force passing through shear studs to tower on a
concrete, towers and concrete in the transverse direction is divided into two pieces of steel
anchor box and tower configurations within circumferential pre-stressing of concrete to
cover of steel anchor box passed over by shear studs vertical pull.
Figure 7.24 is Rion-Antirion Bridge bridge pylon anchorage zone structure, its
construction principle are the same as Nromandie bridge.
Figure 7.25 shows China’s Su Tong bridge constructed of steel anchor box, full of
steel anchor box embedded in a closed hollow concrete towers columns, analysis showed
that, due to the rigidity of steel anchor box is not infinite, under the action of horizontal
forces of cable-stayed, transverse to the tower wall side will produce a horizontal force,
under the most unfavourable conditions reach the level of concrete cracking, for
overcoming the cracking of concrete failure profit impact tower configuration with more
conventional bars in concrete walls to spread the crack, crack width control in a certain
fan within the surrounding.
2. Combination of Architecture
Structure of the different sections with different materials, can achieve weight reduction,
cost savings, speed of construction purposes.
Figure 7.29 is the layout of vertical and cross-section of the bridge of France
Normandy bridge. Main span 856 m span of was the world’s large cable-stayed bridge
across the Seine river, straddling the river, a condition of small-span bridge, so the side
span of cable-stayed bridge and the main from the towers out of 116 m concrete span
section, middle main span of steel box girder. This reduces cross-main beam weight (beam
9 t/m, if we adopt the concrete beam 45 t/m), save cable costs, while reducing the side
span length, not only saves the cost side, more auxiliary supporting piers also greatly
increases the stiffness of the main span. To section integration one side span concrete
beam and steel box girder of main span is selected the same shape.
Fig. 7.29 The layout of vertical and cross-section of Normandy bridge, France.
Chongqing shibanpo Yangtze river double-line bridge of shibanpo Changjiang River
Bridge in old in order to coordinate needs to build 330 m of main span continuous rigid
frame bridge. Large-span pre-stressed concrete continuous rigid-frame bridge, due to the
weight of main girder set degree, will produce a great deal of bending moments and shear
forces, previous bridge built, there have been many cracks. In order to avoid these
problems, Mr Man-Chung Tang in the cross-section of steel beam scheme span weight
sets in due to the decrease of 330 m master looked back only the equivalent of 270 m of
long span continuous rigid-frame span bending moment of pre-stressed concrete
continuous rigid frame and the 270 m long-span pre-stressed concrete continuous rigid
frame is built of precedents, so programme set up as shown in Fig. 7.30.
Chongqing caiyuanba Yangtze River Bridge Is a span of 88 m + 102 m + 420 m + 102
m + 88 m supporting system arch bridge, due to terrain features, has selected a span across
the main channel of the programme. Side span on river banks and in shallow water area,
reducing the span can reduce costs, and eliminates side pillars, aesthetic values. In order to
balance the weight of the main span of the bridge above the main arch with steel box
section, below the side spans and bridge main span arch using concrete cross-section, as
shown in Fig. 7.31.
Fig. 7.30 Changjiang Shibanpo River Bridge double-line bridge (a) Main spans 330 m; (b)
Of steel beams and reinforced concrete beams load distribution map; (c) The cross beam
lifting system schematics; (d) Across the beam of the lifting process.
Fig. 7.31 Caiyuanba Yangtze River Bridge (a) general arrangement; (b) rendering.
Fig. 7.32 Connector structure (a) Cylinder head Stud connectors (b) Grooved steel
connectors (c) bent steel connectors.
Perforated plate is the use of steel concrete between steel and concrete in the hole
forces a new connection forms along the steel beam vertical connecting plates can be set
through holes on steel, can also do not set through steel bars. This connection is first
proposed by Leonhardt and others in 1987, Japan got a lot of research and applications.
Study shows that holes in the mix concrete has great dowel action and its ultimate
destruction is the hole in the shear failure of reinforced concrete, and are not subject to the
effects of fatigue. At present, specification is basically not open cell provide for the shear
capacity of steel plate calculated basically based on test an empirical formula.
Fig. 7.33 Shows the shear plate and concrete bolted connections with perforated sheet.
Fig. 7.34 Shibanpo bridge of steel-concrete composite connection point (size unit: mm)
(a) steel and concrete connecting structures; (b) in the connection section of perforated
steel plate (c) connect steel beams install.
Chongqing Shibanpo bridge of steel-concrete composite joints made of perforated
steel plate connections structure with pre-stressed joint. Because in the middle-section of
steel beam from a major, if the steel beams cantilevered cast-suspended in the air and
concrete connection, a long time, the operation is difficult. Steel beam end connection
section is separate from the main production, fixed on a concrete cantilever and hoisting of
steel girders in place connect directly with welding, so that after hoisting into place the
field connection workload has been greatly reduced, ensuring the safety and quality of
construction. Fig. 7.34 is slate slope construction and connection of steel beams of the
bridge connecting hole on plate. Perforated steel embedded in concrete connections steel
beam connections with perforated steel plate welded and tensioned, main hoisting of steel
girders in place welded to steel beam connections.
Fig. 7.38 Glass City Skyway main bridge tower facades and cross-section (unit: m).
Located in the United States city of Toledo, Ohio, Glass across the Maumee river City
Skyway Bridge is a two-span 186.69 m single-cable-plane cable-stayed bridge with single
tower, bridge width reaches 38.814 m, as shown in Fig. 7.37. In order to make the bridge a
new landmark of the city, and aesthetic requirements bridge scheme is one of the main
factors to be considered when, so choose a simple, single-cable multi-tower cable-stayed
bridge. Due to large, cable forces of cable-stayed, the maximum cable required 156 root
7Ø5 steel wire Fig. 7.38. If the pylon anchorage cable on both sides, the giant large
horizontal force would make the Tower size increased a lot. To solve this problem, the
design continuously through the pylon of cable-stayed bridge saddles, saddle structure as
in Fig. 7.39. Saddle consists of a series of small diameter 25 mm stainless steel tubes, each
pipe through a steel wire, all the small pipe wrapped in a big stainless steel tube closed at
both ends, filling in the casing strength 34.5 MPa cement slurries, as strand completely in
parallel through the tower, successfully resolved the hawser asks not bending with small
radius problem. Due to this critical structures, towers using solid cross-section tower size
was greatly reduced, and because tower anchorage zone stress is very small, the
reinforcement is greatly simplified. Simple anchoring provides conditions for the area is
decorated with glass towers.
Fig. 7.39 Glass City Skyway main Bridge facades (unit: mm).
Effect of cyclic loads on the bridge is mainly reflected in the vibration caused by
fatigue and dynamic amplification sides. Dynamic role in addition to loads itself with
relations, also associated with the natural frequency of the structure. When the structure of
the natural vibration frequency cyclic loading of frequencies or frequency multiplier with
the outside world came near, the resonance structure occurs, power amplification is more
obvious, and even dynamic instability. Therefore, the reduction of dynamic characteristics
of the destruction of the bridge from the following two aspects: one is to change the
structure of vibration characteristics, so that it is not easy for the outer resonance
excitation effect; the second is increase passivation measures, reduce the destruction of the
dynamic load capacity.
2. Change the Structure Vibration Characteristics of Structures
For relatively light structure or structures are prone to periodic external vibration under
load, may be controlled by design factors. Most likely vibration of cables of cable-stayed
bridge is bridge members. There are two factors causing vibrations of cable-stayed: one is
the parametric oscillation, and second, the vortex-induced vibration under the action of
wind and rain.
Fig. 7.42 Hydraulic damper (a) hydraulic dampers; (b) position on damper in cable.
If yield would also eliminate the vibration of structure, in the traditional concept of
structure is not allowed to succumb, even under the earthquake forces as well. But if fruit
intends to make some minor component at design time in the strong earthquake occurred
while yielding to remove earthquake input of energy, you can protect the main structure,
and these secondary structures after earthquake can be replaced. This is a design under the
performance-based seismic design idea.
New East San Francisco Bay Bridge is to replace the existing San Francisco East Bay
Bridge self-anchored suspension bridge, east of the existing bridge is a steel truss bridge,
the 1989, San Francisco earthquake partially damaged it, according to estimates, the
bridge could not meet a future anti-earthquake requirements, and reinforcement of cost is
very high, so to build a new Bay Bridge. East San Francisco Bay Bridge Fig. 7.43 is a
single-tower self-anchored suspension bridges, with the main span of 385 m Bridge is
based on conditions across the deepwater channel decision, due to the aesthetic
requirements of the local population, they do not want portal pylon, but single-column.
Huge deck suspended on a single column, in the earthquake zone pylon seismic
requirements it is difficult to foot, so designer Mr Man-Chung Tang limited destruction
dissipation solution.
The whole tower is divided into four branches, and shear plate connection between
each other. Battened usually tower of limbs even as a whole so that they work together to
resist the live load moments. And under strong earthquake forces, these panels will
surrender, to the Council the role of protecting the main structure of full bridge was
destroyed, as shown in Fig. 7.44.
Fig. 7.43 The new San Francisco Bay Bridge East Facade layout (size: m).
Fig. 7.44 East San Francisco Bay Bridge Tower columns with shear keys (size unit: mm)
(a) Tower column cross-section; (b) Cross-section diagram of bridge; (c) Finite element
simulation of the shear yield.
Canada Confederation Bridge was built-in the North Atlantic Winter sea ice, ice floes
in spring alongwith the currents hit the pier, to prevent crashed ice bridge becomes the key
to bridge design. Resist ice impact directly through strengthening the piers, but it will
greatly increased. Designers through thematic studies and designed the ice structure. Ice
shield is set in sea-level location on the pier slope, when ice floes rammed into a pier at
sheet lifted, under the action of gravity, crushed ice, eliminating the impact of ice energy,
as shown in Fig. 7.45. This is a unique example of a design of energy dissipation.
2. Ease of Construction
Ultimately to be achieved through the construction of bridge design, construction quality
depends to a large extent on the ease of construction, must fully take into account the
difficulty of construction of complex components to ensure reliable operation.
Construction technology of inclined cable fully reflects the ease of application
development requirements. Early parallel wires of cable-stayed bridges in applying on-site
production, wire wears into the PE sleeve anchor head is installed, completion of cable
tensioning sleeve grouting cement slurry. Because on-site production, pouring cement in
hard dense near the anchor head, causing cable durability is greatly reduced. Some of our
cable-stayed operating for 10 years or so, only had to replace the bridge cables. In order to
solve the problem of construction of cable-stayed, Japan engineers invented the hot
extrusion PE sleeve, semi-parallel wire cables. On the factory floor by hot-extruding PE
sleeve wrap in wire, so quality of wire corrosion greatly improved. In order to facilitate
transport from factory to construction site of cable, parallel wire twisted 7°, make cables
in elastic modulus case of not more than the amount, you can pan in the roller. This cable
has become mainstream. After further increases as bridge of long-span, inclined cable
diameter and weight increased significantly, even if it is difficult to transport in the roller.
In order to solve this problem, France freyssinet company has invented a single-unit
parallel tensioning steel strand cables. PE sleeve is first installed in the cable position and
comes with PE wrapping the steel strands one-by-one, into the scene PE sleeve and pull
and then filling in the sleeve preservative, antiseptic liquid can be replaced during
operation. This not only solves the problem of transport and long cable tension, and
improved anti-corrosive measures, than the early filling water mud corrosion reliability is
greatly increased. Fig. 7.46 for the construction of Qingzhou Minjiang bridge in the cable.
Forming technology of post-tensioned, pre-stressed pipe to improve ease of
application examples. Pullout difficult extubation process, and pipe friction losses, and
thus, invented the process of formation of metal corrugated pipe, pre-stressing pipeline
construction difficulty is greatly reduced. Easily leakage of metal corrugated pipe
plugging, to reduce the reliability of pre-stressed and piping grout is not easy compacting.
In order to solve these problems, plastic corrugated pipe was invented. Plastic corrugated
pipe heat welding long pipe except at the ends, completely sealed and this will be greatly
reduce the problem of pipeline leakage, but also makes it possible to vacuum mud.
3. Ease of Inspection
Bridge component is not yet quantified the relationship between influencing factors and
durability, so used to periodically check necessary measures to ensure durable security.
Durability is the main controlling factor for the bridge components, such as steel
components, cable anchor head, base, telescopic devices, must be checked frequently, so
that should be considered when designing the future convenience of checks, reserved
check condition.
For steel girder bridge, in order to facilitate corrosion inspection and using stage
additional coatings, conditions should be set up in the breast can be moved check the
platform.
Figure 7.47 is the Hong Kong Ting Kau Bridge cable connection to the steel-concrete
composite girder structure. Cable through the ear plate of steel and steel beam connections
anchor layout above deck, exposed to make inspection engineers can directly see the
anchor, but also easy to check operation.
Fig. 7.46 The construction of Qingzhou Minjiang cable bridge.
Fig. 7.47 Stay cable bridge with steel-concrete composite main Beam coupling
construction.
Early concrete cable-stayed bridge cable, tie-bar arch bridge suspender using
prestressed anchor head first method of protection, anchor embedded in concrete.
However, as some cable-stayed bridge and tie-bar arch bridge suspender rust accident
happened, cables and cranes rod corrosion check of a great importance. Operation found
buried in concrete in the anchor head is difficult to check, thus, the designed cables or
lifting anchor head is exposed and protection sleeve design, protective cover removable
for easy checking.
Figure 7.48 for the Ting Kau Bridge, Tsing Yi Bridge section, beam of cable-stayed
bridge with steel hinge, for ease of maintenance, support week edge design are taken into
account in the operating room.
Fig. 7.48 Ting Kau Bridge, Tsing Yi Bridge side profiles (unit: m).
4. Replacement Measures
Expected component needs to be replaced during use must be set aside for replacement
measures, apart from the detachable component itself, but also to reserve replacement
operation of points and space.
Cables and Suspender cable supported bridges due to fatigue and corrosion problems,
you must in the use of a certain number of years after the replacement, so in addition to
cable replacement must be considered in the design of bringing mechanical problems,
would also like to reserve some operational measures. Fig. 7.49 is Runyang bridge hang
Sola Panel, set on plate for use temporary suspender suspenders bolt holes.
Fig. 7.50 Partially anchored cable-stayed bridge with intermediate horizontal cables.
Fig. 7.51 Process idea to first erect span in the middle.
Fig. 7.53 Rion-antirion Bridge (size: m) (a) river section (b) pylon structure (c)
infrastructure.
Foregoing Greece for 4 towers connected across Rion-Antirion bridge cable-stayed
bridge, bridge is located in water depths of 65 m. In such deep water bridge base is a
technical challenge. Commonly used scheme for large-scale deep water bridge foundation
or the open caisson foundation of pile, but construction works of the foundation in such a
deep sea water is very difficult. Therefore, the foundation uses the innovative design of
this bridge and under the sea construction of large foundation. Undersea site is soft
foundation of bridge site, in order to enhance bearing capacity and to broaden the base of
foundation intensive short break into piles, each base consists of 250, (25~30 m long) steel
pipe piles, within 7~8 m, as shown in Fig. 7.53.
Such a large expansion is located to the bottom of the process is a bold and innovative
ideas. Used floating under water sinking craft. 90 m diameter, expansion chassis is
designed to be separated into many compartments sealed hollow box, box at the coast
stratified placement within the excavation dry dock, dry dock can be poured two base
chassis. When you finish pouring the pier at the bottom of section, bring water in the dry
dock, the chassis can emerge, dragged into the sea. Dry dock once again closed after
pouring two pier foundations chassis. Continue pouring the piers on floating on the sea
bottom, high piers at the same time, the chassis underneath due to the weight of the piers
over the sea floor. When high piers reach to a certain height, floating in the waters of
spread foundation and was towed to pier—the pier continued to pour concrete. When the
pier to board after a pier height, infusion in the chassis and the basis of hollow pier, sea
piers to the effect of gravity located under pile reinforced seabed. At this point, the
foundations and piers built entirely, you can continue up bridge tower in construction. Fig.
7.54 shows in dry dock in the pouring of the foundation and completion of prefabricated
base being dragged out of dry dock.
Fig. 7.54 Rion-Antirion bridge Foundation construction (a) Dry docking base chassis; (b)
Based chassis out of dry dock.
As China’s economic development and technological progress to build the bridge,
construction of bridge over the sea requirement has become reality. In our country in
recent years building Donghai bridge, Hangzhou Bay Cross-Sea Bridge, the island project
in Zhoushan Jintang bridge, Qingdao haiwan bridge and a number of cross-Sea Bridge.
These bridges across dozens of kilometers of distance on the sea, no land construction,
erection method of bridge beam design of the most important factors to be considered.
These cross-sea bridges across the shallow water or mud flat, little depth, in addition to the
navigation needs set outside the large-span bridge, the remaining bridge were determined
by the economy and duration, economy and duration depends mainly on the erection
process and equipment capacity.
East China Sea Bridge was built-in China’s first cross-Sea Bridge a total length of 32.5
km. Full bridge in addition to the two main navigation span stayed-cable three auxiliary
navigation opening bridge, using cantilever construction continuous girder bridge with
variable cross-section, but rest all used the height of continuous beam bridge of bridge
spans. Deep sea Part is a 70 m long-span continuous beam using monolithic construction
technology of hoisting, simple support into continuous erection. Shallow Ford parts is a 50
m long-span continuous beam using movable frame hole-by-hole in situ process set up.
Hangzhou Bay Bridge is the world’s longest sea-crossing bridge, full length 36 km, the
two main navigation span cable-stayed bridge, North Channel size 448 m, navigable span
South 318 m, and the remaining 30~80 m span continuous girder of bridge spans. Deep
part with 70 m span sea part is a 70 m long-span continuous beam using monolithic
construction technology of hoisting, simple support into continuous erection. Shallow
sections dominated by 50 m long-span continuous beam using shift formwork lifting hole-
by-hole (beam girder) in process and beaches part dominated by 30 m long-span
continuous beam.
Island project in Zhoushan Jintang bridge is 26.54 km, 620 m steel girder cable-stayed
bridge of main navigation span for span east navigable Kong Wei 216 m span prestressed
continuous rigid-frame and navigation span 156 m span continuous girders in the west, the
majority of non-navigable spans of 60~70 m continuous beam, using full span pre-cast
hoisting erection process.
In order to guarantee period, several bridges are used in this installation process.
Because the water is not very deep, use of driven pile foundation. Had intended to use pre-
cast pre-stressed concrete pipe piles for Donghai bridge Fig. 7.55(a), but after some time it
was found that prestressed concrete pipe pile head could be easily crushed, thereafter only
steel pipe piles were used. Two other bridge was used to break into steel tube pile bases
Fig. 7.55(c). Steel bottom sealing concrete of pile construction technology, is only one on-
site placement of full-bridge construction pieces. Piers precast hoisting technology of
watering down the seam and pile connection Figs. 7.55(b), (d). Superstructure of
continuous beam effects lifting or moving die carrier cast uses technology, to
accommodate construction of water over long distances. The deep water area, you can use
large floating cranes, floating cranes of lifting capacity of 2,500 t, therefore, constructed
using the 60~70 m long-span continuous beam, 70 m lifting the quality of whole hole
2180t Figs. 7.55(e), (f). Inaccessible to large ships in shallow water, we must use the
already built piers erection of main girder. Uses 50 m long-span continuous girder of
Hangzhou Bay Bridge, box girders with large girder transport vehicle has been set up on
the deck of transported to the bridge using erector erection Figs. 7.55(g), (h). 50 m
continuous girders of Donghai bridge using the moving die carrier cast new construction
technology. Due to the number of number of main girders, piers, during the process of pre-
fabricated steel banding used pre-fabricated in the workshop, whole casting process,
makes efficient use of templates is greatly increased.
Fig. 7.55 Donghai bridge and Bay Bridge assembling process. (a) Pre-stressed concrete
pipe piles for Donghai bridge; (b) Donghai bridge precast concrete piers within the field;
(c) Steel pipe piles of Hangzhou Bay sea-crossing bridge; (d) Hangzhou Bay cross-sea
bridge pier and pile Cap docking; (e) Prefabricated at the bar as a whole into the mold of
the Hangzhou Bay Bridge; (f) 70 m spans of Donghai bridge girder integral lifting; (g)
Box girder of Hangzhou Bay Bridge from the ground onto decks; (h) Hangzhou bay
Bridge 1,600t bridge girders.
Massive construction of railway passenger dedicated line, design speed of 200~350
km/h, rail ride quality is very high, when completed should consider not only the situation,
while also taking into account the long-term deformation results. Therefore, requires a
long-term commitment and total not more than 30 mm of deflection, and the 20 m range
of uneven settlement not exceeding 20 mm. Such a high demand for soft soil foundation
and roadbed filling height exceeds the 5 m section is unable to achieve, so these sections
needed to bridge road design, which increase the proportion of railway bridges in
passenger dedicated lines in length, average total route length of bridge 36%. Using bridge
instead of road bridge generally do not require long span, span size depends on the cost of
the superstructure and substructure cost balance, also depend on the time, equipment,
capacity, and other factors. Track extensive use of bridge construction period will become
the main controlling factor for the construction of passenger, fast bridge becomes a
problem that must be solved. Increasing the speed of bridge erection methods there are
several. One is framing a comprehensive workers, this approach requires a lot of support,
templates, and human, and cannot turnover. II is the use of large precast technology this
requires fast and efficient precast plant, as well as large girder erecting equipment. In
order to solve this problem, in railway-related research and after a long exploration in
engineering units, develop criteria for passenger bridges in China were—32 m, 24 m, 20
m, span post-tensioning method pre-stressed concrete simply supported box beam Fig.
7.56. Three kinds of standard double-track box beam with long span 899t, 699t, 562t,
respectively, using the whole construction technology of pre-cast hoisting, transport, in
order to achieve the goal of rapid construction. Primarily in pre-cast box beams pre-
fabricated in the factory, through the beam girder approach transport to beam, then
through the erection of bridge girder erection machine. Set of process of pre-fabricated,
transport, installation and operation process as well as the equipment required.
Fig. 7.56 Passenger dedicated line 32 m double line box girder cross-section (unit: cm) (a)
Cross-section; (b) Pivot section.
Fig. 7.57 Segmental assembly (a) MSS segmental process diagram; (b) Assembled in the
box girder segments; (c) Assembled after the completion of box girders; (d) United States
New Roosevelt Bridge section connecting the alveolar.
Viaduct is a form of using bridge instead of road bridge, also built on the land bridge,
but in most cases were of short and medium span bridges. Viaduct on the original road-
building, bridges while maintaining traffic flow on existing roads, construction site
became one of the important factors controlling the bridge construction. Pre-fabricated
lifting is one way to solve space problems, on structure in pre-fabricated in the factory on
the outskirts of the city, transport to the night-time traffic in smaller times of bridge crane
loading. Large viaducts have greater width and weight, full span transport is impossible
within the urban area. Early trestle used longitudinally parting methods, such as hollow
slabs or t-beams, a piece on a girder bridge by lateral ties after, if the Shanghai inner ring
viaduct is basically take the form of hollow plate and t-shaped beam. Practice: using
fabricated hollow panels, weak bridge horizontal linkages, prone to bridge longitudinal
crack, instead of t-beams, easy lateral during transport. Box-girder of the landscape as a
whole is good, but the city will not be the whole set up. One approach is the use of full
space supports in situ, doing covers, time consuming and inefficient. Another approach is
to use a horizontal parting of the ways pre-cast segmental. Segmental assembly mounted
on large movable scaffold, pre-cast segmental transportation to the site temporarily
supported on brackets, all sections install in place, with tendons into the whole. As shown
in Fig. 7.57(a), (b), (c). In order to ensure the reliable segment connections, segmental sets
can occlude each other tooth and section after section of the front end with back-end of the
previous segment as a template and even pre-fabricated continued, as in Fig. 7.57(d)
shown below.
Construction technology of large-span cable-stayed cantilever, while its system is also
particularly suitable for cantilever construction, it is a cable-stayed bridge to get an
important factor in promoting. In certain cases, however, erection of other methods, such
as pushing makes it well adapted to land condition.
Completed in 2004, France Millau Viaduct, needs across the Tarn River Valley,
connecting both sides of the highlands, in the valley, for soft soil foundation, basis in order
to reduce the workload, select 8-span cable-stayed bridge scheme, span into 204 m + 6 ×
342 m + 204 m, due to the high bridge pier using taliang DUN consolidation system, as
shown in Fig. 7.58. This bridge with a large span across the Valley, high, very high and
pier (2 pier of 245 m, 3 high pier of bridge deck pavement of bridge deck of high 230 m),
cantilever erection difficulties, you need to set the lifting so much so, boldly using push-
installation technology of main beam, girder in place before you install pylons and cables.
The main beam, for adapting to the incremental launching construction, used single-cable-
plane with small base width (only 4 m) inverted trapezoidal cross section, and bridge deck
width of 32.05 m (Including wind up), at the intersection of bottom and inclined plate set
longitudinal clapboard to support push reaction forces in the process, as shown in Fig.
7.59.
Fig. 7.60 Construction of the Millau Viaduct (a) Pushing the Millau Viaduct girder in; (b)
On the tower is straight in the course of construction.
Can be seen from the examples described above, in order to adapt to different
environments to build the bridge, flexible mounting method must be used, not what
approach to what type of bridge is mechanically. In exceptional cases, possible mounting
methods, in turn also affect bridges set design scheme. Therefore, good bridge engineers
must master the technical principles in different contexts in order to work out alone and
practical design and construction program.
Fig. 7.63 “Swan” at of lifting work (a) Confederation Bridge erection; (b) Cresund in
hoisting Bridge approach bridge.
During the course of construction of Donghai bridge, designed and built the “four
airlines to forge ahead” and “little Swan”, and two large floating crane, are dedicated to
marine construction crane.
CCCC’s “four sail endeavour” has jib crane, with lifting capacity of 2,600t, 100 m in
length, width 41 m, 7.6 m in depth, its most prominent feature is the lifting heights of upto
80 m, as shown in Fig. 7.64(b), box girder cable-stayed bridge at main navigation span of
Donghai bridge “The four airlines to forge ahead” was lifting. The floating crane with
“strong” number only has a lifting capability, must have a beam barges together.
Iron bridge Engineering Bureau for 70 m box girders of Donghai bridge erection
construction of “little Swan” crane ship, using a “Swan” design ideas, you can beam lifted
themselves after, don’t need to beam barges together. Disadvantage of doing so is that the
floating crane to transport contains the main beam navigation in bridge longer in length,
floating crane used less efficiently. “Little Swan” lifting capacity of 2,500t, maximum
lifting height 41 m, wide 7 m, as shown in Fig. 7.65 (a). In order to set up district 70 m of
box girder of Hangzhou Bay Bridge high pier, built iron bridge Engineering Bureau a
“floating crane. “Day one”, also is lifting one floating crane, lifting capacity of 3,000t, the
maximum lifting height upto 53 m. On the bridge erection is complete it can also be
converted into a jib crane for other hydraulic lifting operations. Due to “day one”
construction, during the construction of the Shanghai Yangtze River tunnel and bridge,
bridge using steel-concrete composite beam of long span 105 m, quality 2350t, saving
foundation price, achieved better economic results, as shown in Fig. 7.65(b).
Fig. 7.64 The large floating cranes “strong” and “four sail endeavour” (a) “vigorously” in
the East China Sea Bridge erection; (b) “four airlines to forge ahead” in the Jintang bridge
erection.
Fig. 7.65 The large floating cranes “little Swan” and “day one” (a) “little Swan” in lifting
70 m box girders of Donghai bridge; (b) “day” in the Shanghai Yangtze River tunnel and
bridge erection 105 m box beam.
Long span bridge was built on the water, in order to guarantee period, use of driven
pile foundation. Built-in China in the East China Sea Bridge of Hangzhou Gulf bridge
cross-Sea Bridge, due to the bridge’s long, tight, in addition to several main navigation
channel bridge piers using basically the basis of a bored pile into steel pipe foundation.
Hangzhou Bay Bridge, a total of 1.5 m, 1.6 m diameter steel 5144 pipe piles, maximum
depth of 88 m, such a large number of large steel pipe pile must have big effective pile
driving equipment to complete. Piling on the water must be done with the pile driver, in
order to build offshore long bridge and coastal Marina, China has built several of the
world’s most advanced driving boats in recent years. Common characteristics of these
floating pile driver is: pile high, 90 m above, can sink into the 80 m the length of the pile
diameter, the biggest pile diameter 2.0~3.0 m, flexible operation, could eat into raking
piles and higher productivity, as a result of automatic hydraulic control device, every boat
sinking 10~15. In the absence of measuring marks to determine where piling on the water,
usually real-time GPS positioning system is equipped. Haili 801 turn pile frame, precision
60 mm, is currently one of the world’s most advanced large pile driver. Table 7.2 is the
largest parameters of the largest pole ship. Fig. 7.66 shows the two different types of
floating pile driver.
Fig. 7.66 Large pile driver (a) three air 15th; (b) Hai Li, No. 801.
Beam girder erection of hole-by-hole method is not a new technology, pre-fabricated
bridges have also been used in the past. However, because the primary beam horizontal
slice, the weight of each beam is relatively small, even if 50 m-span T-beams, lifting
weight does not exceed 250t, therefore, bridge girder erection machine lifting capacity
required is small. Meanwhile, pre-cast beam transport in the already-built bridge will not
break through the bridge’s load, no special treatment in deck paving of temporary rail,
beam carrier formed by several temporary group of railway axles. But for the entire hole
set girder weighs greatly increased, these 32 m long span box girder weighing 900 t. This
lifting capacity requirements for bridge girder erection machine greatly improved,
moreover, beam has been set up on the beam transport, its weight far beyond the future
use of loads must use special transportation beam motor on beam spread over a wider
area. Liang Ti from the pre-fabrication to beam transportation truck also need large
removable hanger—The gantry.
Bridge building machine is a means to expand the already built piers and girders, a
hole-by-hole bridge equipment. In order to be able to set up completed bridge across the
span, generally long main beam of bridge erecting machine must be no more than two
holes. The difference between setting up all full hole and erection of pre-cast beams is that
in order for erection of girder bridge girder erecting machine through the bridge girder
erection machine in the hind legs, the legs must be entirely outside the beam width, or
retractable. Assembled width is much smaller than the width of the beam, it is easy to
cross the bridge girder erection machine and made the design of bridge girder erecting
machine very simple as that. In order to improve the efficiency of bridging, advanced
bridge girder erecting machine using the hydraulic control system. Advanced embodiment
of bridge girder erection machine in terms of its light weight and ease of operation.
Fig. 7.67 Bridge machine structure diagram (a) DF900 non-guiding-beam bridge girder
erecting machine (b) DF900D guiding-beam bridge girder erecting machine (c)
transporting-erecting-in-one bridge girder erecting machine.
Italy’s Nicola is the world’s leader in the production of bridge girder erecting machine,
after the digestion and absorption of recent years, our country has production and erection
of monolithic erecting machine. According to the characteristics of China’s construction
of passenger dedicated lines, these erector is also supported to varying degrees
improvement, make the operation more convenient. For example, using beam
transportation truck TRANS-bridge-tunnel machine, Erector, erector bi-directional
bridging technology are manufacturer improvements and inventions in China. Current
monolithic erecting machine comes in three forms, namely without Liang Shi, Liang Shi,
and integrated transportation and erection. Fig. 7.67 are no guiding-beam bridge girder
erecting machine DF900, guiding-beam bridge girder erecting machine DF900D and Italy
nicola-transporting-erecting-in-one bridge machine structure diagram, they are all used in
the Chinese passenger dedicated lines.
Beam carrier’s main functions are: delivery of prefabricated box girder by bridge
girder erecting machine and is responsible for feeding of pre-fabricated box girder
erecting machine, within the transitions can be checked when erecting machine long
distances. Because of openings since major, currently most advanced beam transportation
truck with rubber-tyred, in order to increase and beam transportation road contact area
increases. In addition, wheel type beam carrier operations greater freedom, without the
preset orbit, as shown in Fig. 7.68.
Fig. 7.68 The box beam operating at prefabrication site (a) Main girders of Donghai
bridge in orbit transfers and (b) Wheeled girder of Hangzhou Bay Bridge.
Full span pre-cast and hoisting construction of porous Longbridge is the duration of
the programme is born out of control factors of condition of building the bridge, although
the full time limit, but the demand for heavy equipment. In the construction of Chinese
passenger dedicated line, through comparative analysis are as follows inspection,
construction of a main beam pre-casting yard complete with girder, bridge equipment,
one-way bridge length of 10 km of the economy. Super pre-fabricated plant can be built in
the middle of line, after finishing erecting a bridge girder the erection machine transport
back to the beam direction to start the opposite direction. The economic length of double
Erection is 20 km.
Fig. 7.72 China’s zhongtie major research of large-span mobile (unit : m).
Steel high strength, good rigidity and flatness, widely used in engineering. But the
high cost of steel formwork, not easy to change re-used, so in need of mass production of
pre-cast plant to use more. In order to overcome this shortcoming, assembled steel
framework was invented, but the seams of assembled steel framework is difficult to handle
and, therefore, relatively poor surface quality of concrete.
Glulam template is the currently used template, it has hardened layer on the surface,
there is a certain air suction, and seams easy to deal with and therefore produced better
surface quality of concrete structures. Both sides of Glulam templates can be used, and re-
usedfor upto 30~50 times. In the 1980, of the 20th century the introduction of glued wood
mold production technology, but the relatively poor quality of the domestic bond template,
some re-use can reach no more than 10 times. Bamboo production is large in China, in the
1980, of the 20th century in China invented a glue bamboo template, properties and
glulam is similar to or better than wood-mode, repeat number can be more than 30 times,
and has been widely applied, can now be exported to foreign countries.
Template’s surface physical properties directly affect the quality of production of
concrete components, concrete is vibrated and condensation to release a certain amount of
water and gas in the process, it will form bubbles and tiny grooves on the surface of the
concrete, thus affecting the concrete the compactness of the surface, reducing the role of
reinforced protection. In order to solve this problem, Japanese engineers invented in 1985,
production a controlled permeability formwork (Controlled Permeability Formwork,
known as CPF). The surfaces have permeability for water and airy, which can be in the
newly poured concrete to drain excess free water and air, greatly improved performance.
Since then, the Europe, Denmark, Germany and the United Kingdom have been produced
using this template. Starting from Hangzhou Bay Cross-Sea Bridge in China, in order to
high durability of the bridge piers, try using permeable formwork, good results have been
achieved.
Fig. 7.74 Hangzhou bay bridge overall template (a) Outside the box girder of Hangzhou
Bay Cross-Sea Bridge model (b) Hangzhou Bay Bridge shrinkage overall IMC.
Fig. 7.75 Comparison of energy absorbing plastic hinges and seismic control device (a)
Beam plastic hinges to absorb seismic energy; (b) Energy dissipation devices absorb
seismic energy.
After 10 years of research, Japan Nippon Steel company LYP100, LYP235 (yield
strength of 100MPa and 235MPa) two low-yield-point steel, steels compared to
conventional steel with lower yield strength and resistance to Rachyan, and yield-point
margin of error smaller, has better extension and low cycle fatigue resistance properties.
Table 7.4 shows the places of application requirements of HPC performance codes
shown in Table 7.3.
Table 7.5 Comparison of typical fiber axial direction mechanical properties with that of
steel, aluminum.
Coefficient
Tensile Young’s of thermal Specific Specific
Relative Extension
Material type strength modulus expansion intensity modulus
density rate (%)
(GPa) (GPa) (GPa) (GPa)
(10–6/°C)
E 2.55 3.5 74 5.0 4.8 1.37 29
S, R 2.49 4.9 84 2.9 5.7 1.97 34
Glass
M 2.89 3.5 110 5.7 3.2 1.21 38
Fiber
AR 2.70 3.2 73.1 6.5 4.4 1.19 27
C 2.52 3.3 68.9 6.3 4.8 1.31 27
Standard 1.75 3.5 235 –0.41 1.5 2.00 134
type
(T300)
High 1.81 5.6 300 –0.56 1.7 3.09 166
strength
(T800H)
Carbon
Fiber High 1.88 4.0 485 –0.6 0.8 2.13 213
models
(M50J)
Extreme- 2.18 2.2 830 –1.4 0.3 1.01 381
High
model
(P120)
Kelvar 1.44 3.6 125 –2.0 2.5 2.50 87
49
Aramid
Fiber Kelvar 1.45 2.9 165 –3.6 1.3 2.00 114
149
HM-50 1.39 3.1 77 –0.1 4.2 2.23 55
Steel HRB400 7.8 0.42 206 12 18 0.05 26
Steel
bars
High 7.8 1.86 200 12 3.5 0.24 26
strength
steel
wire
Aluminum 2.7 0.63 74 22 3.0 0.23 27
Fig. 7.79 FRP materials connection form (size unit: mm) (a) Bonded FRP reinforcement
type anchor; (b) Wedge bonding FRP reinforcement type anchor; (c) Bonding FRP profile
form.
In addition, fatigue resistance, durability of the FRP has not yet mature theory and
experience, need further study.
Finally, the economics is the question concerned by all engineers and users. Only seen
from the material price, FRP structure and compared with reinforced concrete structure is
not competitive, but due to light weight, and taking into account the corrosion resistance
of FRP materials lower maintenance costs arising from using FRP materials, the overall
economic efficiency is deserving attention. Given that the FRP is at an early stage, the cost
is high, as the volume of applications increased, the price of FRP products produced on a
larger scale will be greatly decrease. Case study of concrete structures strengthened with
CFRP and its price from the initial 2000 yuan/m2, is reduced to at present about 500
Yuan/m2, is a good example.
The rapid development of China is in bridge-building phase, due to the different levels
of economic development, peak of bridge construction in foreign countries 30 years
earlier, so the bridge can be a lot of foreign experience for reference in our country.
However, our country and abroad the same, different natural conditions of the
construction, so we cannot copy the technology. For example, a country with a large
population, with a development of the traffic surge in overall level width of building
bridges in China than abroad, which make foreign developed bridge knot system is not
necessarily suited to China’s national conditions, design theories are not necessarily
suitable lagging research in China results in quality problems in wide bridges. However,
the large population of China has the advantage of low labour costs, China’s construction,
Labour costs account for about project cost 25% ~30% and 60% ~70% of foreign labour
cost of the total project cost, therefore, drive to solve the problem in the construction of
mentality and the focus is different.
Raising the level of science and technology in order to improve the bridge
construction, our country at all levels of Government in the construction of the bridge has
promotional value, can improve the industry competition ability research projects were
funded. On bridge engineering research funding in recent years is the highest national
technical support program.
National science and technology support program is to implement the outline of the
national medium-and long-term program for scientific and technological development
(2006–2020) (Hereinafter referred to as the program), mainly for national economic and
social development needs, is focusing on major economic and Social Development
Department technical problems, and was established on the basis of national scientific and
technological plans of national science and technology plan. Supporting programme,
mainly the implementation of the platform for point and its priority theme in the area of
mission, to major public technical and industrial generic technology research focuses on
development and application of the model, and major construction projects and major
equipment development, strengthening of integrated innovation and the introduction of
secondary innovation, with a focus on involving global major technical issues of sex,
trans-industry, trans-regional, focused on overcoming a number of key technologies, break
through the bottlenecks and improve our industrial competitiveness, providing support to
the coordinated development of economy and society in China.
States currently funding mainly for bridge engineering research is set in large complex
bridge construction project, requiring in bridge construction at the same time, address the
common problems of similar bridges, enhance the competitiveness of the industry as a
whole. Currently national science and technology support included in bridge-building case
studies were funded through three bridges, they are: Su-Tong Yangtze river highway
bridge and Zhoushan Island West Hou bridge of Taizhou Changjiang river highway
bridge. Funded research is as follows.
Su Tong bridge technology supporting plan research overall objectives: make meter
scale long span cable-stayed bridges breakthrough to improve cable-stayed bridge
construction techniques. There are six sub-topics:
1000 meter scale cable-stayed bridge technology standards and essential structure
and properties;
Long cable production, erection and vibration reduction technology research and
demonstration;
Erection of large-span steel box girder and its control technology research and
demonstration;
Monitoring and control technology research of 300 m cable tower;
Deep water pile foundation construction and erosion protection for complete
integration technology;
Construction management for large complex traffic engineering and safety disaster
reduction technology.
Cross-sea mega size steel box girder of long span suspension bridge structure
characteristics and technical standards;
Cross-sea queen size steel box girder of long span suspension bridge wind key
technologies;
Key material for large-span suspension bridge cable system;
Mega size complete technology of steel box girder of long-span suspension bridge
split;
Cross-sea mega size steel box girder of long span suspension bridges study and
demonstration of key technologies;
Meag size steel box girder of long span suspension bridge with key technologies of
monitoring and management.
In 1949, after the liberation of Tianjin, with the development of Tianjin’s economic
self-reliance built a massive bridge Table 8.1. Especially since the 1980s after the
introduction of reform and opening up, great changes have taken place in bridge
construction on the technology and scale. In order to improve urban transport in order to
meet the needs of economic construction, Tianjin has newly built and re-built many
important bridges. Especially in the Haihe river in Tianjin, gradually building the Lion
Bridge, North Andover Plaza bridge, chifeng light bridge and the Guanghua bridge. These
are all concrete bridge, built-in the 1970, of the 20th century and 80 respectively. Old
bridge renovation project including the 1991, Liu Zhuangqiao and King Kong Bridge in
1996.
Tianjin haihe bridges mostly built before in the mid 1980, of the 20th century on, more
Jintang bridge, built in 1906, Jiefang bridge, built in 1927. Due to the existing bridge built
for a long time, limited to the political and economic condition, its simple structure and
low load, and due to the settlement of the business for many years, most no longer meets
planning navigation requirements as well as Haihe economic development consistent with
the objectives, in particular, highlight the landscape design requirements. For the
penetration of these issues to be resolved at the end , existing bridges need to be rebuilt or
reconstructed.
As the river of nine rivers converge, has given birth to this beautiful city and formed
and continues to be enriched its culture, history and cultural heritage. For connecting the
city of Tianjin Haihe River Bridge construction pioneer leagues has become the natural
places of great players. Silent love of the Haihe River, witnessing the history of bridge
construction of Tianjin. From the late 19th century, on the Haihe river in Tianjin began
building various bridges. Bridge structure evolved from the original forms into meeting
the needs of urban development and function. From the design concept, the bridge
construction is no longer content merely to function, but constant attention to coordination
with the urban landscape. Construction of the Haihe River Bridge, one must take full
account of the city’s master plan, and look at haihe economic development closely, and
with a new design creating a modern city environment. Tianjin Haihe economic
development, Tianjin Haihe bridge planned to form a complete set of system.
According to the current construction of Haihe River Bridge, can be divided into the
following two categories:
Both the re-construction of the old bridge of the Haihe river, including retrofit and
bridge repair and reinforcement of concrete bridges; Concrete bridge reconstruction
include: Lion Bridge, Guanghua bridge and North bridge, bridge of light; Open repair
and reinforcement of the bridge include: Jintang bridge, Jiefang bridge.
The new bridge on the river, including: Dagu bridge and Fenghua, Chifeng, Bengbu
bridge, Ji Zhaoqiao bridge, and so on.
8.2 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF URBAN BRIDGE—
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Unlike most products, the architecture presents space while being felt as an entire
environment. Design tasks are comprehensive and specific, it has both shaped and
invisible, and this makes things complicated. In order to create an effective building,
designers need to process spatial form with three interrelated functions: use, material
relating to the activities and the symbolic needs. Requirement for designers is to group
multiple properties of a building together, in order to meet these requirements, and the
collection should be optimized.
T. y. Lin, “the concept and system structure”
We might as well apply this concept to the design of urban bridge with this
interpretation: urban bridges is a structure, while itself produces an environment, which is
an integral part of the urban landscape. Bridge design process is about the overall concept
, and detailed local, it not only in structural engineering, but also in architectural
aesthetics, which puts the ideas into a complex systematic engineering of bridge design. In
order to complete a good piece of work, the designer must bridge structure with three
interrelated functions: functions, constraints and aesthetic requirements. Bridge designer is
required to use structural and architectural aesthetics and other means to meet these three
requirements, and optimize it, i.e., a bridge’s indicators of “safety, utility, economy and
beauty” are optimal.
Thus, to form a good design solution, you need to use advanced design ideas and new
technologies, new processes, and fully understand concept and system structure, and not
only can accurately calculate and analyze a given structure and components. Today, only
in accordance with a program training designers does not go far enough, because the very
fast pace of development in the world today, because no one wants to be left behind.
Students of architectural or structural design can not only learn a few traditional skills and
be done, on the contrary, they must be taught to appreciate and use new technology, the
best method is to use innovations in design. Designs are a process of discovering problem,
problem analysis and problem-solving process, design form is one of the results of this
process, it does not exist outside this process independently and therefore they cannot be
indulged in “forms”. If you will only rely on the specification, design manuals, computer
programs used by traditional design, especially in integrated computer program
comprehensive application today, learned college as they get older can lead to the loss of
learned concepts, let alone innovate designs.
In this chapter, we try to think in terms of analysis and creation of urban bridge design
activities, is because the thinking of the world completeness and depth of the grip is
unmatched by anything else. Perhaps the same designer of the bridge varies, but thinking
is the subject reflects the object of relatively stable forms, depending on the value
objective of designers, psychological characteristics and cultural traditions, knowledge
structure and professional basis. During the course of the conceptual design of urban
bridge, design thinking is exactly what we need the most.
Construction of the bridge, is closely related to socio-economic development;
throughout the history of bridges in the world, is an ancient bridge outstanding practicality
to focus on aesthetic effects of modern as well as contemporary bridges and landscape
history of the transition with the surrounding environment. In this case, an increasing
number of newly built bridge highlights the features of the new bridge, structure
diversification, focusing on the surrounding environment coordination has become the
development trend of the new bridge. In recent years, urban bridge has received more and
more attention, it is due to the construction of bridges in the city, reflecting the more
styling variety, more attention to expressions of landscape. Therefore, at conceptual design
of urban bridge how to apply advanced design idea, what ideas, become the primary issue
facing a bridge designer.
What we say here “concept design”, refers to the bridge design’s initial conception
stage, overall layout of how to set up layout, how to carry out the overall concept of the
process. At this stage, bridge designer must have knowledge and hard work, meticulous,
use deduction and conscious, positive towards advice of the partners and owners. any
decision on bridge structure in conceptual design phase will have the rational, economic,
aesthetic effects on bridge structure. We perform “concept design” with the ultimate goal
being to provide the most complete and efficient technical solutions, but in general design
phase, should grasp the overall design concept of avoiding ideas received numerous
details of the disturbance. In fact, whether you can distinguish the fundamental elements
from many details is an important factor dertermining if he could successfully complete
the design.
A case study of dagu bridge in Tianjin Haihe river, at the start of the design, we must
first understand the design requirements, can be summarised as follows:
Function, the restrictive conditions and landscape aspects, covering almost all bridge
design requirements, designers is the concept of rational use of structure and aesthetics, in
meeting the above requirements based on the finished design tasks, and try to achieve
“security, utility, economy and beauty” optimal configuration. Dagu bridge is built, not
only strengthened the Haihe river transport links, and became part of Tianjin City
landscape, and thus by virtue of its excellent design and landscape, becomes when
landmark buildings.
So, designers is how to do it? I think that to successfully complete a design work,
science must be and intuition and deduction and induction are perfectly combined to
design around it. Indeed, for any design, regardless of how perfect the theory, based on
ideas of how mature, inevitably there will be numerous subjective concept design, as a
bridge designer, you will always have the opportunity to structure their own unique ideas
into practical projects to, and may also melt into the idea of art and aesthetics, and achieve
the combination of art and technology, this is the charm of design. Scientists could very
well do their job without having to care about how artists think; the artist may or may not
need theories of the scientists will be able to creations, but is not so simple for designers,
they have to pay attention to scientific and artistic effects. Here, although it is not possible
only through text drove home for the conceptual design of urban bridge, but this is not
going to give talk about some vague concept, but how to deeply explore issues in
structural engineering and architecture learn two ways to carry out the conceptual design
of urban bridge.
8.3 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF URBAN BRIDGE—
STRUCTURE AND ENGINEERING
In the bridge design process, many advanced design ideas are often through conceptual
design to materialize. Want to finish any good works, cannot be fully implemented in
accordance with an established procedure. We emphasise that a bridge engineer’s main
tasks are under certain qualifying conditions, apply concepts to design the structure of the
programme as a whole, creatively to achieve optimal structures to meet the requirements
of owners. The following content, largely through explain the structure of urban bridge
engineering unique places, to further elaborate the ideas of conceptual design, as well as
how to troubleshoot creative use of urban bridge design.
1. according to the purpose, there are a road bridge, a railway bridge, the road-railway
bridge, bridge, pedestrian bridges, aqueducts, as well as other special bridges beam
(such as through the pipes, cables, etc.).
2. by the main materials: wooden, steel bridges, masonry bridges, reinforced concrete
and pre-stressed reinforced concrete bridge.
3. according to the structure, warping, arch, bridge, cable-supported bridge (suspension
bridges and cable-stayed bridge) systems.
4. by the cross form: fixed bridge, a bascule bridge, floating, submersible bridge etc.
• Cable-stayed Bridge
Cantilever construction of cable-stayed bridges due to the suit, tower shape and the shape
diversify their tall beautiful model, various parts reasonable strength, quickly spread the
word to come out, this is also the most successful in the history of bridge structure models.
So far the built cable-stayed bridge with the largest Span length is China’s Su Tong
Yangtze River Bridge, a main span of 1088 m, exceeds 1000 m.
1. A main span of 1991, m of Japan Akashi Kaikyo Bridge, the steel suspension bridge
(advanced technology of deep water Foundation, advanced technology, super cable
design, structure control technology);
2. A main span of 1624 m of Denmark the sea with Bridge, the steel suspension bridge
(advanced technology and advanced design of deep-water Foundation construction
technology.
3. Cross 890 m of Japan more luoqiao, steel cable-stayed bridge (side span for concrete
structures);
4. Cross 856 m of France the Normandy bridge, steel cable-stayed bridge (side span for
concrete structures, hybrid cable-stayed bridge, advanced pyramid structures, towers
and girder construction side by example, using structural control technologies,
welded box-section).
In the last decade of the 20th century, we have witnessed more than a few record span
bridge construction, each of them is a sign of progress of bridge engineering. In China, in
the years late in the 1990, of the 20th century and the 21st century began, China bridge
both in scale and pace, have made a spectacular achievement. Today, China remained the
world’s record of longest bridges: Donghai bridge is the longest cross-sea bridge.
Meanwhile, we should also see, China is in the midst of reform and opening up economic
takeoff stage of development and infrastructure advances, although the scale and pace of
the construction of the bridge in the world is the leading, But that doesn’t mean China
bridge technology to achieve world class standards, our most developed in the 1960, of the
20th century, the creation of new materials, new technology and new structure, we just got
done with people decades ago have already done. For world records, Chinese-American
doctor of man-Chung Tang was said long ago: “I don’t think we should spend extra money
to Genesis records, and great efforts should be made to design beautiful, technologically
advanced bridge. Break the world record does not make sense, and is a beautiful bridges,
high quality is always excellent achievements of the monument.”
In the wake of modernism, bridges has appeared in two: the first is bridges and
complex advanced modern technology links and tend to bring bridge to engineering
Kingdom bridge another tendency is viewed as a system of cultural meaning, the bridge
beam shapes generated as a result of the cultural connotation of the ingenious
interpretations to explain the significance of structural form, the pursuit of cultural
performances and continuation. In terms of engineering, developed almost all the
innovation in raw technology that China, as a developing country lags behind developed
countries in the process of technology development and need further efforts to shorten the
gap in culture, due to the developed infrastructure is complete, scale and pace of the
construction of the bridge has reached a stable development stage, bridge designers began
to focus more on the bridge of cultural understanding, Spain engineer Santiago caratera
watts is particularly prominent in this area. In China, is now at a stage of rapid
development infrastructure, and so-called “food will often eat, and then for the United
States; clothing will often warm, and then seek Hali; Chang an Habitat will then seek
music,” Chinese bridge on building size and number and taken get extraordinary results,
but beautiful bridge lags utility requirements, this is determined by the economic and
social conditions in China.
In his book, published in 1991, the global bridge aesthetics, mentioned in the view:
Bridge configuration should be designed under the maximum visual attraction to bear its
loads. Some prominent bridge engineers and architects in the book of words very
enlightening for us:
“The validity of performance and aesthetic structure so closely together, which is more
difficult to determine in some sheer beautiful bridge and touch us in the creative impulses
behind in structural engineering, whether it is dynamic or static structure of abstract
aesthetics thought.”
—De Miranda (Italy)
“As was the case as each crafts, a beautiful bridge of many aesthetic characteristics are
represented in the form, to say that in the bridge designer of bridges could be granted in
the form of a beautiful. Process for both sensitivity and technical capacity require form,
because it does not do so, he cannot guarantee the realization of thought.”
—Revelo (Mexico)
“In this regard, however, must be emphasised depending on project requirements, but
with less changes or decorating attempts to improve appearance is set method of bridge
and should be condemned in the strong wording. Only developed into a general idea of the
main aesthetic design department in order to achieve kick-butt design. Therefore, there
must be a full involvement of the architect, this, from the time envisaged by the basic
forms are to begin.”
—Liebenberg (South Africa).
Many writers argue that the global bridge aesthetics and bridge shape should not be in
the form of load effects, regardless of its shape, while bridge shape should not be in the
form of appearance, regardless of bridge load effect. Instead, the two main objectives and
appearance, is not out to combine together, thus the choice of a certain specific forms of
bridges from the design evolution and come, alternating and continuous consideration
forms the design process in the functionality and appearance of the effect of two aspects of
decision-making. Finally, at least in the designer’s comments, two aspects of the design
optimisation and thus will show up. Functionality and appearance of both determining
form, bridge designers to ignore one or the other major goals, to be built in the wrong
place at the wrong time, the wrong bridge. As Dr man-Chung Tang has mentioned:
“beauty is not added on the structure of the decorations, but the philosophy throughout the
design process. Function of a beautiful bridge should be natural, with simple structure,
innovative design, and the environment harmony.”
These world famous design companies participate in the Haihe river new bridge
design, making Haihe River new bridge able to fully integrate current development trends
of bridge, borrowing world intellectual resources, establish a culture, and pursuing high
technology. Meanwhile, we also emphasise great importance to innovation in design and
construction, through the continuation of new bridges in Haihe River culture, highlight the
economic development in Tianjin.
Width of the Tianjin Haihe river is generally around 100 meters, as span are small, and
navigation standards are not high, so most of the various types of bridges are consider a
bridge over the river. Starting from selecting your new bridge of dagu bridge in bridge and
structural characteristics as shown in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3 Structure feature highlights of the newly built haihe River bridge.
Bridge Arrangement Bridge forms and basic features
name of bridge
span (m)
Dagu Three spans On both sides the main arch rings decumbent in opposite
bridge of: 24 + 106 direction, main arch ring size, tilt angle are asymmetry. Sling
+ 24 space layout, full bridge consists of four cable planes.
Fenghua Three-span: Tied arch bridge. Three spatial arrangement of arch form three
bridge 56 + 138 + groups of vierendeel, each group of vierendeel arch with three
56 triangle connected with the “Blade”. Full-bridge has six Sling-
cable-plane, each group of vierendeel arch features two cable
planes, with the exception of two pairs of vierendeel arch outside
the inner Sling crossing arrangement, all other Sling are arranged
in parallel.
Bengbu Seven cross: Arch-beam composite structure bridges. Antisymmetric flexible
bridge 27 + 12.63 + arches on both sides and the middle lane group of rigid box
35.37 + 42 + girder and intermediate supports are also anti-symmetric layout.
35.37 + Composition of the main arch also consists of smaller arch ribs,
12.63 + 27 arch ribs are connected by transverse arch ribs, each form of arch
rib using space warps.
Fenghua Three-span: Special cable-stayed bridge, uses the streamline form enclosed
bridge 120 + 55 + curved steel box girder in main beam. Main tower is located in
40 the inside of the curve of oblique, structurally separated from the
main bridge. Pylon cable is positioned behind main tower to
balance the horizontal force of main tower. Main span and side
span are asymmetrical, main span use fan-shaped arrangement,
side with thin rope system.
Fumin Four spans Single-tower self-anchored suspension bridge. Main span cable
bridge of : 160 + 13 is space cable, tilt hanging rod is set in the main beam from the
+ 37 + 20 middle to both sides of the. Sidewalks located beneath the main
beam.
Main structure consists of box girder of the bridge with the lattice arch consists of
small box girder sections, structure of the unique network-shape arch bridge is never
use a principal stress structures.
Design first starting from the landscape dimensions of the selected components,
which greatly increases the difficulty of structural design and workload.
Load bars under tension and compression transform into bridge design support
structure (1st, 6th Pier).
Used in the bridge configuration is a hinged components in order to meet the need of
force structure (2nd and 5th Pier).
Special “V”-shaped structure Pier design (3rd and 4th Pier).
Due to the prominent landscape of this bridge, bridge structure fully into account
aesthetic requirements. This bridge, such as linear, sectional dimensions of space hormone
directly affects the aesthetic effect through optimized calculations and research necessary
to solve the difficulties of the structure to meet traffic requirements, and full attention to
appearance, so as to ensure uniformity in its effects and appearance features, rich in
Tianjin urban image, Ascension Day Tianjin’s status, which greatly promoted the
economic development the Haihe River.
Fig. 8.23 Before and after the transformation of the Lion Bridge.
Tests on the first of the bridge showed that Northampton bridge suspension beam are
unable to meet the existing load requirements, you need to thoroughly replacement.
Meanwhile, Northampton bridge of cantilever beam brackets must also be reinforced.
According to the planning requirement of Haihe River Bridge, on the North onkyo
alterations include the following:
Fig. 8.24 North Bridge.
1. Widening: widening part is on the Haihe River bridge downstream steel bridge and re
do two width 9 m, newly-widened bridge span arrangement consistent with the
existing bridge;
2. Equally in order to meet the existing navigation requirements of the Haihe River,
North Bridge will also be to be the overall rise, lifting height of 1.55 m;
3. North Onkyo landscape decoration mainly borrowed from the Western classical style
of the Pont Alexandre III in Paris, France, bridgehead statue-production with western
classical forms and learn Chinese traditional theme, Green Dragon, white tiger,
rosefinch, Xuanwu meaning North, South, East and West the Quartet peace; piers
statue embossed front decorative bronze dragon, delicately on the plinth for four
different dance Dragon Lady; sidewalk and non-motor vehicle road surfaces as
Granite paving; Rails in the form of elegant vase forms and the use of stone for its
characteristics; bridge head consists 4 bridgehead fortress of 20 m in height,
highlighting its ancient dignified features. Transformed the landscape of
Northampton bridge features can be summarized as “European style Han rhythm”.
8.4 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF URBAN BRIDGE—
STRUCTURE AND ENGINEERING—THE
ARCHITECTURAL AESTHETICS
When Germany bridge master qiaoge·xilasi was asked in an interview: “what is an
engineer in the eyes of the art of architecture?” He replied: “that process it is the natural or
urban environment can be like dealing with the function and construction of social
responsibility as sensitive creative design. A friendly, holistic solution suitable for all
purposes, including their appearance is also very beautiful feeling. Architecture is the
ultimate goal, comments ensue. “The designer wants to stress is, the beauty of bridges art
values and bridging functions are equally important. An excellent bridge designs should
be the science, technology and culture the result of combining art and should adapt to the
various aspects of the project requirement, while the demand for architectural aesthetics,
two of the more important point is: in harmony with the environment and an attractive
appearance.
Dr man-Chung Tang once said that “a successful bridge design must be natural,
simple, innovative, coordinated with the surrounding environment, and get along well.
“He was once quoted in Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary of” civilisation “definition of”
using science and technology to achieve the comfort and convenience of modern “to
describe the United States important concept in building design. The bridge structure is
concerned, “safety leaps” provides “convenience”, and beautiful environment makes one
feel “comfortable”. Therefore, Man-Chung Tang stressed the importance of bridge
aesthetics in terms of quality of life. He thought bridge are public buildings was
decorating the environment one of the most important structures. History of mankind are
to improve the quality of life. Beauty is a very important part of quality of life! Therefore,
the bridge should not neglect the beautiful.
Professor qiaoge·xilasi and Dr man-Chung Tang, although we are doing the structural
origins of bridge engineers, but they do not exclude introduces the idea of architecture
aesthetics in bridge design. Instead, they’re very big on bridge aesthetics, their works can
be seen in the many of the design elements of the building.
Early city bridge, due to the lack of material and technical, generic bridge design with
practicality, Liang Duo mark design and use of precast construction, in order to achieve
high performance and short of goals, choices and the importance of appearance, often
behind such pragmatic considerations. Today, the bridge has a more and more important
role in urban space, we hope the city bridge not only as a tool to cross, but other buildings,
reflecting the quality of urban life, interpreting in a way or value, become part of people’s
lives.
As bridge designers of the new era, we can’t force their way of thinking in the field of
architecture, also want to try architecture some thinking into the field of bridge design,
creating both works of art and architectural design of the structure. Modern architecture, is
a design imported from western thought since reform and opening up, all along, the
domestic construction sector there are several trends:
Domestic architecture of the level there is a considerable gap with the European
powers, several tendencies of the above, the domestic construction sector common
problem in columns. We should pay attention to when using architectural philosophy, not
blindly to the Builder, but should be directed at specific problems of rational thought, after
all, in the field of bridge using architectural aesthetics, at the international level is still at
an initial stage.
(c) The United Kingdom’s Millennium Bridge Over the Lankaisitelun River
United Kingdom Millennium Bridge on the Lankaisitelun river Fig. 8.28 “Y”-shaped
railway viaduct piers and connects with the North Bank of the river. It makes both sides of
the river between Lancaster and morecambe walking and bicycling all very convenient.
This twin mast cable-stayed structure using the south better geographical conditions and at
the same time awakens sleeping memories, people seemed to enjoy the 17 and 18th
century, when the pier was crowded with ships. Bridge passageway extending into the
terminal, adding navigation the image, you can also play a reinforcing role and prevents
the mast swings.
In making use of architectural aesthetics of urban bridge model design, and structural
design compared, often of a more large uncertainties. In fact, for the architectural design
of the bridge is not a so-called absolute standard that can be quantified, in the design
process, most of the time we are unable to determine exactly to what extent an issue is
fully resolved. Generally speaking, the designers end a design for two reasons: one is that
time has run out, and second, they think it is no longer necessary to have a design problem
studied further more. Bridge design in urban landscape, however, we had to hastily
because former junction beam architectural design process, there are many designs and
sometimes regrets. The causes of these issues are , the urban landscape bridge was built
building design, is often the goal is unclear, including design issues would also need to be
proactive to discover. Clearly, “judge when to conclude its work” is an important bridge
designers, but this seems to only find itself through practice. Fizzled out design problems
is very unreasonable, and the other extreme is that problem at design at the beginning of
Ming dynasty practice, later also tend to bring a lot of misleading, in this argument about
“traditional bridge type selection alternative thinking “are mentioned.
(a) Decoration on the Main Structure of the Bridge has a Protective Effect
Such as: surface paint rust-proof steel surface coating and finishes can prevent rain water
and poisonous gases on the corrosion of concrete flowers engineered stone veneer of Pier
and abutment can prevent water, mud, ice, erosion and so on.
(b) Decorations can make up for Local Defects in Bridges of body Image
For example: bridgehead buildings make up the bridge the monotonous level image;
honeycomb, pockmarked face, templates, seam, reinforced gel top concrete tables
unavoidable construction defects can be covered through shows that decoration, so that
they could with a beautiful image like this in front of other people.
(c) Decorations can be used to Adjust the Bridge body Proportions, Scale
For example: use shadow or painted in different shades of colour change too much height
or physical area of visual perception and week surrounding environment of colour can be
adjusted to its sense of scale, and so on.
(d) Decoration can be used as “Visual exchange point” has Weakened the
Role of Bridge and Bridge Differences
Example: difference between great bridge and bridge joints easily shaped points,
destroying smoothly and continuously, built on the main bridge and bridge approach
between the bridgeheads, move horizontally so that people’s attention is transformed into
vertical movement, weakening the main and bridge the differences.
(h) Decorating can Extend and Strengthen the Bridge Space and time
Exhibition and Beautify the Bight Environment
Like bridge landscape lighting at night, not only make it night or day, you can enjoy the
artistic image of the bridge, and improved the city image of the city, showing social
progress, improve people’s lives.
8.5 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF URBAN BRIDGE—
STRUCTURE ENGINEERING IN COMBINATION
WITH ARCHITECTURAL AESTHETICS
United Kingdom architect bulaien·laosen monograph in design thinking, the authors
summarised the design model as shown in Fig. 8.31. In his view, design is a process of
discovering, analysing and solving problems, and from design issues to resolve path to the
programme, requiring analysis, synthesis, evaluation of complex intertwined with the
process of thought.
A
Aerodynamic measures 258, 272
Aerodynamic testing 192
Aesthetic design 76
Air curtain 151
Alkali-aggregate reaction 493
Amplitude 264, 268
Analytical method 341, 472
Anchor group 11
Anisotropic 465
Anti-collision facilities 297
Anti-seismic design 19
Anti-seismic tower 14
Arch bridge 126, 216, 314, 318
Arch system 337
Asphalt concrete pavement 30
Asymmetric arrangement 82
Auto pneumatic caisson 153
Auxiliary pier 84
Axle vibration model 20
B
Backwards analysis 16
Bar stable formula 19
Beam end corner 111
Bedrock 241
Bell foundation 159
Bending moment 380
Bending stiffness 338
Bending torque 324
Bound voyage 121
Boundary conditions 382, 390
Breakthrough 223
Bridge construction 47
Bridge design 224
Bridge pylon 86
Bridge scheme 188
Bridge seismic damage 275
Bridge span 108
Bridge tunnel 193
Bridge-axis 114
Brooklyn bridge 4
C
Cable 239
Cable casing system 26
Cable construction line 335
Cable plane 88
Cable pylon 404
Cable stayed bridge 193
Cable tower model 304
Cables vibration control 269
Cable-stayed 289
Cable-stayed bridge 26, 27, 72, 81, 132, 140, 161, 236, 313, 327, 464
Cable-stayed suspension bridge 137
Caisson 144, 150
Caisson foundation 145
Cantilever casting method 15
Capital investment 179
Carbon fiber 13
Cast in situ 349
Channel high level 293
Circular caisson 229
Collision avoidance 39
Column base 153
Composite 306
Composite cable-stayed bridge 394
Composite design 374
Composite foundation 29, 156
Composite girder 200
Concept design 188, 353
Conceptual design 54, 55
Conceptual design phase 380
Concrete cover 422
Concrete pylon 173
Consolidation 241
Constant load 333
Constant load + live load 333
Construction preparation 344
Construction technology 141
Continuous girder 128, 322
Continuous girder bridge 349
Continuous rigid frame bridge 247
Continuous wall 151
Controlled permeability formwork 449
Corrosion 421
Corrosion resistant steel 454
Corrosion-resistant 454
Cracking resistance 458
Creep 401
Creep co-efficient 400
Creep effects 348
Critical loads 341
Critical wind speed 265
D
Damper device 33
Damping force 394
Dead load 383
Deck 245
Deck system 317
Deck-bearing type movable 446
Deflection theory 4
Derricks stiffness 337
Design concept 48, 304
Design earthquake 202
Design parameters 331
Design problems 222
Disaster prevention design 252
Discretization 380
Double spherical aseismic bearing 286
Double-wall steel cofferdam 154
Drawbridge 190
Drilling-and-blasting 150
Dual-tower cable stayed bridge 194
Durability 465
Durability of concrete 300
Durability problem 20
Durable materials 307
Dywidag anchor 11
E
Earthquake damage 275
Earthquakes 102, 273
East huntington bridge 86
Elastic sliding bearing 285
Elastic supports 319
Energy dissipation 297
Energy dissipation system 285
Expansion joints 278
F
Facade 82
Fatigue resistance 465
Fiber cloth 462
Fiber grating sensor 451
Fiber reinforced concrete 209, 210, 458
Fiber reinforced polymer 460
Finite difference method 373
Finite element analysis 18, 380
Finite element method 373, 466
Flexible structures 278
Floating protective system 297, 298
Flutter control 269
Footbridge 5
Force base 317
Force-bearing structure 69
Freedom of navigation 121
Freezing and thawing 493
Friction pendulum bearings 286
FRP resin material 465
G
Gantry tower 202
Geological exploration 45
Geology 98
Geometric characteristics 380
Geometric description 380
Girder bridge 169
Girder foundation 319
Global positioning system 451
Glue bamboo template 449
Glulam template 448
Grating sensors 451
H
Height-span ratio 135
High performance concrete 11, 456
High performance steel 11, 163, 452
High strength steel 209, 452
Hingeless arch 339
Horizontal alignment 115
Hot extrusion PE sleeve 424
Hydrogeological conditions 156
I
Impact anchorages 291
Impact force 293
In situ method 347
Incremental launching 208
Incremental launching construction method 208
Inland navigation standard 119
Innovation 70
Intelligent monitoring devices 52
Iterative calculation 466
J
Jib crane 440
K
Knot frame stiffness 302
Knowledge economy 53
L
Laminated rubber bearing 284
Landscape architects 113
Landscape effect 334
Large-span cable-stayed bridge 315
Laser technology 451
Lateral movement 345
Launching construction method 351
Limit states 374
Live load 108, 110, 333, 383
Live load deflection 197
Lock-coil 11
Longitudinal and lateral movement 238
Longitudinal stiffness 110, 401
Low tower cable-stayed 140
Lower deck 219
M
Main beam girder 88
Mass damper passive control 20
Master girder 239
Maximum amplitude 273
Middle deck 219
Mid-span deflection 375
Mineral composition 98
Modulus of elasticity 463
Monitoring technology 468
Mounting rack technology 334
Movable frame construction 447
Multi-tower cable-stayed bridge 313
N
Natural conditions 91
Natural frequency 268
Natural science foundation 52
Natural vibration 418
Navigable holes 80
Navigation bridge 38
Navigation requirements 290
Neural network control technology 30
Non-linear materials 381
Non-linear problem 466
Numerical analysis 373, 472
O
Open caisson 146, 174, 175
Overturning moment 327
P
Parabolic steel arches 244
Parallel wire beam 263
Parametric oscillation 418
Pedestrian bridges 492
PHC pipe pile 148
Pier 239
Pier bearing platform 297
Pier foundation 32
Piers 260
Pile bent diaphragm 161
Pile foundation 148
Pile hammer equipment 148
Piles 144
Pneumatic caisson 151
Pneumatic controls 272
Post-tensioned cable-system 241
Post-tensioned pre-stressing steel 242
Post-tensioning prestressed concrete 200
Pre-cast 156
Pre-cast hoisting 435
Precise geometry control 33
Pre-fabricated base 156
Pre-fabricated units 211
Pre-fabrication 306
Pre-stressed concrete 350, 396
Pre-stressed concrete beam 359
Pre-stressed concrete girder 302
Pre-stressed plate 400
Proportional beauty 68
Pylon 140
Pylon foundations 229
Q
Quenching and tempering 453
R
Rain-wind induced vibration 268
Rebar connecting 413
Redundant design 305
Reinforced concrete 462
Reinforced earth 159
Relative displacements 278
Resonance 268, 418
Richter scale 202
Rigid frame bridge 128, 394
Rigid-frame structure 324
Rigidly connected 326
River bed 92
River regime 91
River regime analysis 234
Road construction 90
Rubber bearing 390
Rubber damper 272
S
Scaffolding 182
Seamless connectivity 320
Secondary pier 197
Sediment conditions 92
Segmental assembly 436
Seismic intensity 103
Seismic performance 317
Self-anchored 467
Self-anchored suspension bridge 138
Self-compacting concrete 457
Semi-active 269
Semi-active damper 269
Sensor signals 468
Service life 309
Shantou bay bridge 27
Shear key 326, 327
Shear plate 419
Shield protection system 298
Ship collision 144
Ship collision force 289
Ship domain theory 120
Ship-colliding fortification 287
Shrinkage 401
Sink box 144
Soft soil 316, 371
Soil sinks 174
Space truss 241
Special conditions 246
Split box deck 14
Standard gauge 108
Static response 380
Steel box girder 169
Steel deck 13
Steel pylon 228
Steel truss composite beams 201
Steel truss girder 241
Steel-concrete composite girder 195
Stiffening girder 200
Strong column-weak beam 454
Structural durability measures 309
Structural features 252
Structural seismic control 454
Structure analysis 373
Structure bearing 347
Structure durability 299
Stud connection 412
Studs enough 412
Super long span cable-supported bridge 329
Suspender cables 319
Suspension 87
Suspension bridge 81, 133, 27, 42, 44, 289
T
Technical innovation 90, 223
Technological innovation 141
Technology 306
Tectonic movement 160
Tectonic stress 273
Tensile strength 458
Terrain conditions 87
Tied arch bridge 2
Torsional stiffness 380
Tower anchorage 196
Tower elastic fixation 233
Transient deformation 394
Triaxial compressive stress 407
Truss component 380
Twin towers 233
Two-tier structure 219
U
Ultra high performance concrete 457
Ultrafine admixtures 458
Upper deck 219
V
Vertical alignments 115
Vertical deflection 110
Viaducts 436
Vibration control 269, 394
Virtual digital world 467
Virtual reality 52
Viscous damper 394
Vortex frequency 268
Vortex-excited resonance 268
Vortex-induced vibration 264, 418
Vortex-induced vibration control 272
W
Warping 142
Water anchorage 32
Water level 94
Wind characteristics 254
Wind induced disasters 256
Wind load 198, 383
Wind resistance 225
Wind stability 88
Wind tunnel testing 226
Wind vortex 135
Wind-induced vibration 225, 264
Wind-resistance 253, 257
Y
Yield strength 413, 453