Utilizing antagonistic relationships between microbial populations to control plant

pathogens.
Saprophytic organisms in rhizosphere and phyllosphere protect plants against
pathogens- used in plant protection.
Variety of products developed that have amensal effects on pathogens.
Antifungal agents
a) Basticidin S from Streptomyces griseochromogenes is effective against rice blast
b) Kasugamycin from S. kasugaensis for control of rice blast.
c) Polyoxins from S. cacaoi for control of rice sheath blight and fungal disease of
fruit trees.
Antibacterial agents
Streptomycin and Dihydrostreptomycin from S. griseus and oxytetracyclin from S.
rimosus for control of bacterial diseases of fruit trees and vegetables.
Insecticidal agents
Polyactins from Streptomyces aureus and milbemectins from S. hygroscopicus to
control mites of fruit trees and tea plants.
Herbicidal agents
Bilanafos from S. hygroscopicus control weeds in orchards and mulberry fields
 BIOCONTROL AGENTS

ANTIFUNGAL AMENSALISM AND PARASITISM

Mycoparasitism of Trichoderma harzianum and T. hamatum on Botrytis cinerea,
Sclerotium rolsfsii, and Rhizoctonia solani
The mycelium of Trichoderma winds around the mycelial strands of plant pathogen and
by lytic action penetrates their cell wall. The cell contents of the pathogen are lysed
and utilized by Trichoderma.
Lectins involved in the recognition of host and chitinase involved in the degradation of
the cell wall of host.
Trichoderma does not attack young vigorously growing hyphae of the pathogen, but
infect stressed or senescent hyphae. This limits the effectiveness of control.
Laetiseria arvalis, a basidiomycete, control Pythium ultimum and Rhizoctonia solani
The mechanism of control is by the production of laetisaric acid ( 8-hydroxylinoleic
acid) which induces rapid lysis of pathogenic fungi.
Peniophora gigantea control the infection with Heterobasidion annosum. The
mechanism of control is by hyphal interference- On making contact with P. gigantea
hyphae, H. annosum stops growing, shows impaired membrane integrity, and
degenerate.
ANTIBACTERIAL AMENSALISM AND PARASITISM
Crown gall infection control by Agrocins produced by Agrobacterium radiobacter.
Agrocin 84 is a plasmid encoded adenine nucleotide antimetabolite.
Fluorescent siderophores and antibiotics produced by pseudomonads inhibit the grwth
of bacterial plant root pathogens
 BIOCONTROL AGENTS
BIOPESTICIDES
Preparations of pathogenic or predatory microbial populations that are antagonistic
towards particular pest populations.
Ideal characteristics of biopesticide:
❖ Should not subject to attack by hyperparsites
❖ Should be virulent
❖ Cause disease in the pest population when applied at the recommended concentration
❖ Should not be sensitive to moderate environmental variations
❖ Should survive following application until infection within the pest population has
been established.
❖ Should rapidly establish disease in the pest population so as to minimize destruction
by the pest population.
❖ Should be specific to the pest population , do not cause in non target populations
The aim:
To activate biological control at a lower pest population level by hastening the outbreak
of a disease before extensive damage to crop occurs.
Environmental changes introduced by man such as monoculture affect eficiency of
bioconrol methods.
 BIOCONTROL AGENTS
BIOPESTICIDES
VIRAL PESTICIDES
Viruses infecting insects: coming under Baculoviridae, Poxviridae, Reoviridae,
Iridoviridae, Parvoviridae, Picornaviridae, and Rhabdoviridae.
Some of these are:
Nuclear polyhedrosis viruses (NPV): develop in the host cell nuclei; the virion are
occluded singly or in groups in polyhedral inclusion bodies.
Cytoplasmic polyhedrosis viruses (CPV): develop only in the cytoplasm of host midgut
epithelial cells; the virions are occluded singly in polyhedral inclusion bodies.
Granulosis viruses(GV): develop either the nucleus or the cytoplasm of host fat,
tracheal or epithelial cells; the virions occluded singly or rarely in pairs in small
occlusion bodies called capsule.
Baculoviruses include NPV or GV. Found principally for Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera,
and Diptera. Ingestion of contaminated food transmit the infection. Infection
produce epizootics. NPV kill host larvae and release polyhedra over the plant which
remain infective for long period. Gypsy moths, tent caterpillars, and spruce bud
worms are subjected to epizootics by NPV.
Virally induced infertility was proposed as a potential control measure in the case of
corn ear worm pest.
 BIOCONTROL AGENTS
BIOPESTICIDES
BACTERIAL PESTICIDES
Bacterial pathogens of insects having potential of pesticidal use
Rikettsiella popillae, Bacillus popillae, B. thirungiensis, B. lentimorbus, B. sphaericus,
Clostridium malacosome, pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Xenorhabdus nematophila.
B. thuringiensis, commonly called BT, used since 1960s against lepidopteran pests. The
organism produce distinct parasporal bodies in addition to endospore. It is located
outside the exosporium and is proteinaceous. The main component of the inclusion
is polypeptide of 130-140kDa. It is prototoxin and solubilized in the alkaline midgut of
susceptible insect larvae, releasing the active toxin having size of 30-80kDa.
Activated toxin binds to convoluted brus border membranes of the columnar cells of the
insect midgut. It affects osmoregulation and specifically alters the flux of psium ions
across the epithelium. The BT δ and ω endotoxins are inscticidal.
B. thuringiensis subspecies kurstaki and israeliensis as well as B. sphaericus produce
endotoxins effective against mosquitoes.
B. popilliae and B. lentimorbus control Coleoptera. B. popillae produce parasoral bodies
and infect third instar larvae.
B. lentimorbus does not produce parasporal bodies and infect first and second instar
grubs .
 BIOCONTROL AGENTS
BIOPESTICIDES
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is promising biocontrol agent. But the problems are:
 It is an opportunistic pathogen
 Infects only stressed or injured insects
 Very limited shelf life
 Short survival on exposed dry surfaces such as leaves and stems.
Pseudomonas syringae used to control Ceratocysis ulmi, the fungi causing Dutch elm disease
Rickettsial agents: causes diseases in Coleoptera, Diptera, and Orthoptera. Cause blue
diseases of Japanese beettles and cause diseases of grubs of European chafer.
Problems similar to those in the case of P. aeruginosa.
Protozoan pesticides: potential for use on grasshoppers, mosquitoes, and boll weevils.
Some attempts are made to control lepidopteran pests of fruit trees using sporozoans.
Protozoans are not suited for use as short-term , quick acting microbial insecticides.
Protozoan infections develop slowly in the host, storage is difficult and environmental
stability is also less.
Fungal pesticides: Entomogenous fungi – fungi that live on insects- are several. Beauveria,
Metarrhizium, Entomophthora, and Coelomomyces are examples.
Beauveria bassiana is used to control Colorado beettle and corn earworm.
Metarrhizium used to control leaf hoppers and frog hoppers
Coelomomyces used against the larvae of Anopheles, Aedes and Opifex.
 MICROBIAL LEACHING (MICROBIAL MINING)
Economical extraction of metals from low grade ores by using microbial activity. Also
called biohydrometallurgy.
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, a sulfur oxidising bacteria, is widely used.
The process is currently applied commercially for copper and uranium ores. Recovery of
nickel, zinc, cobalt, tin, cadmium, molybdenum, lead, antimony, arsenic, and
selenium are also possible.
The recovery process is represented by:
MS+2O2 T. ferrooxidans MSO4
T. ferrooxidans is a chemolithotroph that derives energy through the oxidation of either
a reduced sulfur compound, or ferrous iron. Bioleaching actitivity of the organism is
directly by oxidizing the metal, sulfide and/or indirectly by oxidizing the ferrous iron
content of the ore to ferric iron. The ferric iron chemically oxidizes the metal to be
recovered by leaching.
Heap leaching, continuous reactor type leaching, hole-to-hole leaching
Heap leaching: Mine and break up ore and heap it in piles on a water impermeable
formation or specially constructed apron. Water is pumped to the top of the ore heap
and allowed to trickle down. The leachate is collected, processed and recycled.
Continuous reactor type leaching: used for the recovery of copper from low grade
sulfide ore. The oxidation of sulfide and ferrous iron is carried out by T. ferrooxidans
generating the acid for leaching. Copper is precipitated by exchange using scrap
iron.
 MICROBIAL LEACHING (MICROBIAL MINING)

Heap leaching
 MICROBIAL LEACHING (MICROBIAL MINING)

Reactor type leaching

 MICROBIAL LEACHING (MICROBIAL MINING)
Recovery of metal from leachate: The leachate is collected and processed for recovery of
metal. The leached metal is partitioned into an organic solvent and recovered by
stripping(evaporating) the solvent. Both the leaching liquor and the solvent are
recycled.
Hole-to-hole leaching (in situ bioleaching): if the ore formation is sufficiently porous
and overlies water- impermeable strata, a suitable boreholes is established. Some of
the holes are utilized for the injection of the leaching liquor, others are used for the
recovery of the leachate.
Factors influencing bioleaching:
 Chemical form of the element within the ore is resistant to microbial attack
 Toxic products preclude further bioleaching
 Size of the mineral rocks
 Factors influencing the activities of the organism involved- temperature (30-50oC),
acidity (pH 2.3 to 2.5), iron supply, oxygen, the availability of nutrients and
availability of water
Sulfolobus is an obligte thermophilic archae used for bioleaching of molybdenite.
Recovery of gold: from mines gold mixed with chalcopyrite (CaFeS2) and pyrite (FeS2)
the normal extraction with cyanide become difficult. Bioleaching with Sulfolobus
alone or in combination with T. ferrooxidans leaves the porous ore for extraction with
cyanide.
 MICROBIALLY ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY (MEOR)
Contributes to improved petroleum recovery from existing old wells, as well as from
formations that for technical or economic reasons have not been tapped to date.
Common ways of petroleum recovery:
 Under ideal conditions petroleum gush spontaneously from a drill hole or pumped
out
 Secondary recovery- gas pressurizing, water flooding, miscible flooding, and thermal
methods
 Tertiary recovery-use of solvents, surfactants and polymers designed to dislodge oils
from geological formations.
Xanthan gums, surfactant and polymer, produced from Xanthomonas compestris.
Microbial growth on rock pore surfaces dislodges oil directly by physical displacement or
indirectly by synthesis of surface active agents and gases such as H2, CO2, CH4, and
H2S. Viscosity of the oil may be altered by partial microbial degradation.
Microbial suspensions injected in combination with a carbon source such as molasses or
milk whey into an oil formation. The wells were sealed and time was allowed for
microbial action, after that production resume.
Desulfovibrio strains are useful for MEOR.
 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING
Describes the movement and conversion of materials by biochemical activities through
out the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere
Include physical transformations(dissolution, precipitation, volatilization, and fixation)
chemical transformations (biosyntheisis, biodegradation, and oxidoreductive
biotransformations) and various combinations of physical and chemical changes.
All living organisms participate in the process but microbes play major role because
They are ubiquitous, they have diverse metabolic capabilities, they have high enzymatic
activity rates.
Very important for the maintenance of soil fertility.
 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING
CARBON CYCLE
CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)

AUTOTROPHS

ANIMAL RESPIRATION
SOIL ORGANIC MATTER
MICROBIAL CELLS

PLANT C ANIMAL C
In nature C exists in the form of inorganicand complex organiccompounds
The CO2 is the main sourceof c required to build the organicworld
The respirationof all living organisms returns the CO2 to atmosphere
Decomposition of organic matteralso returns C to atmosphere
 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING
CARBON CYCLE
 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING
NITROGEN CYCLE
 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING
NITROGEN CYCLE
N2 found in atmosphere at highest concentration (79%)
Essential constituent in several biomolecules- proteins, nucleic acids, chlorophyll etc.
Available N2 concentration in soil directly governs soil fertility
The key processes involved in N2 cycling are: N2 fixation, ammonification, nitrification,
denitrification, and nitrite ammonification
NITROGEN FIXATION: conversion of gaseous nitrogen to ammonia or organic nitrogen
by microorganisms.
Nitrogen fixing mcroorganisms are called DIAZOTROPHs.
Symbiotic and non-symbiotic N2 fixation
AMMONIFICATION
During organic matter decomposition the organic form of N2 is converted to more labile
inorganic form by the process called N2 mineralization and ammonia and nitrate are
formed.
The process of formation of ammonia from organic compounds is called
ammonification
Ni= organic N mineralized-(Na+Np+Nl+Nd) where Ni- net change in the amount of
inorganic nitrogen, Na- N assimilated by MO, Np- N removed by plants, Nl- N lost by
leaching, Nd- N volatilized by denitrification
 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING
NITROGEN CYCLE
Organisms involved: bacteria ( Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Clostridium, Serratia,
Micrococcus, etc.
Fungi- Alternaria, Aspergillus, Mucor, Penicillium, Rhizopus, etc.
Actinomycetes
Oxidative or reductive deamination results in ammonia production
NITRIFICATION
The process of oxidation of ammonium ions to nitrite ions and subsequently to nitrate
ions.
Nitrate is also produced in manure piles, during sewage processing, and marine
environment.
Bacteria oxidizing ammonium to nitrite: Nitrosomonas, Nitrosococcus, Nitrosolobus,
Nitrosospira, Nitrosovibrio, etc.
Bacteria oxidizing nitrite to nitrate: Nitrobacter, Nitrospira, and Nitrococcus. Most are
autotrophs. Some heterotrophic organisms such as Nitrosomonas and some fungi
such as Aspergillus flavus.
DENITRIFICATION
The microbial reduction of nitrate and nitrite with the liberation of molecular nitrogen
and nitrous oxide is called denitrification.
 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING
NITROGEN CYCLE
Three possible reactions- non biological losses of ammonia, chemical
decomposition of nitrite, and microbial denitrification.
Carried out by bacteria- Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Paracoccus mainly.
Occasionally Thiobacillus denitrificans, Chromobacterium, Corynebacterium,
Hyphomicrobium, and Serratia.
Fungi and Actinomycetes does not involved.
Denitrifying bacteria is abundant in rhizosphere soil. They are aerobic. Nitrate
is used as the electron donor for their growth in absence of oxygen.
Three microbiological reactions of nitrate:
a) A complete reduction to ammonia
b) An incomplete reduction and accumulation of nitrite
c) A reduction to nitrite followed by the evolution of gases (denitrification)
 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
P is important constituentof protoplasm and required for metabolism
Major store house is the rock deposits.
Agricultural crops contain phosphorus containing compounds in their tissues:
phytin, phospholipids, nucleic acids, phosphorylated sugars, coenzymes and
related compounds
Microbial transformations include:
a) Alteration of solubility of inorganiccompounds of phosphorus
b) Mineralization of organic compounds with the release of inorganic
phosphate
c) Immobilization of phosphorus- conversion of inorganic, available ions into
cell components
d) Oxidation/reduction reaction of inorganic phosphorus compounds
Mineralization and immobilization are important microbiologically
Phosphorus content present in bacterial cells account for 1/3 to ½ of all
phosphorus
In soil 15 to 85% of total phosphorus is organic
 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
The inorganic phosphorus is solubilized by phosphate solubilizing
microorganisms into solution, thus made available to plants
Such organisms are abundant in rhizosphere
Solubilization commonly requires acid production
Liberation of H2S by some bacteria, which reacts with ferric phosphate to yield
ferrous sulfide also increases the availability of P to plants.
Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Flavobacterium, Mycobacterium, Micrococcus,
Penicillium, Fusarium, Aspergillus are commonly involved in phosphate
conversion
The organic phosphorus present in the soil is mineralized by microorganisms
producing phosphatases.
Mycorrhizal fungi play a major role in making phosphorus available for host
plants.
 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING
SULFUR CYCLE
 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING
SULFUR CYCLE
S is most abundant in earths crust in low concentrations and not available for
plants
It is present in plant, animal and microbial proteins in the amino acids cysteine
and methionine and in B vitamins i.e., thiamin, biotin, and lipoic acid
In soil S enters in the form of plant residues, animal wastes, chemical
fertilizers, and rain water
In excreta of animals S is present as free sulfaate, thiosulfate, thiocyanate and
taurine
Organic and inorganicS undergoes microbial transformation by
a) Mineralization: decomposition of organic S into smaller units and finally
into inorganic compounds
b) Assimilation/immobilization: incorporation of simple S compounds into
bacterial, fungal and actinomycete cells
c) Oxidation of inorganic ions and compounds such as sulfides, thiosulfate,
polythionates, and elemental sulfur
d) Reduction of sulfate and other anions to sulfide
 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING
SULFUR CYCLE
The soil inhabitants that utilize inorganic sulfur are autotrophs (Thiobacillus
thiooxidans, T. thioparus, T. ferrooxidans, T. novellus, T. denitrificans) or
heterotrophs (Arthrobacter, Bacillus, flavobacterium, and Pseudomonas
generate thiosulfate from elemental S)
Aspergillus, Penicillium, Microsporum, etc. produce sulfate from organic
substrates such as methionine, cystein, thiourea, taurine, etc.
Sulfide level increases due to flooding, increase in temperature, and addition of
organic material when O2 level decreases. Number of sulfate reducing
organisms increases (Desulfovibrio desulfuricans, Desulfotomaculum)
Pseudomonas, Bacillus and Saccharomyces also liberate H2S
Some arahae -Pyrodictium occultum and P. buckii – reduce sulfur
Dissimilatory reduction of sulfur- elemental sulfur is reduced to sulfide but are
unable to reduce sulfate to sufide- is carried out by Desulfuromonas,
Desulfurella, and Campylobacter.
 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING
SULFUR CYCLE
Direct reduction of sulphate can be carried out by two groups of bacteria

Non-acetate oxidizing bacteria Acetate oxidizing bacteria

Deslfovibrio, Desulfomicrobium,
Desulfobotulus, Desulfotomaculum,
Desulfomonile, Desulfobacula,
Archaeoglobus, Desulfobulbus,
Thermodesulfobacterium
Desulfobacter, Desulfobacterium,
Desulfococcus, Desulfonema,
Desulfosarcina, Desulfoarculus,
Desulfacinum, Desulforhabdus,
Thermosulforhabdus
 BIOREMEDIATION
Bioremediation is a waste management technique that involves the use of
organisms to remove or neutralize pollutants from a contaminated site.
According to the EPA, bioremediation is a “treatment that uses naturally
occurring organisms to break down hazardous substances into less toxic or non
toxic substances”.
Technologies can be generally classified as:
in situ: involves treating the contaminated material at the site
ex situ: involves the removal of the contaminated material to be treated elsewhere.
Some examples of bioremediation related technologies
are phytoremediation, bioventing, bioleaching, landfarming, bioreactor compost
ing, bioaugmentation,rhizofiltration, and biostimulation.
Bioremediation may occur on its own (natural attenuation or intrinsic
bioremediation) or may only effectively occur through the addition of fertilizers,
oxygen, etc., that help encourage the growth of the pollution-eating microbes
within the medium (biostimulation).
The addition of matched microbe strains to the medium to enhance the resident
microbe population's ability to break down contaminants. Microorganisms used
to perform the function of bioremediation are known as bioremediators.
 BIOREMEDIATION
The use of genetic engineering to create organisms specifically designed for
bioremediation has great potential.
The bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans (the most radioresistantorganism known)
has been modified to consume and digest toluene and ionic mercury from
highly radioactive nuclear waste.
Releasing genetically augmented organisms into the environment may be
problematic as tracking them can be difficult; bioluminescence genes from other
species may be inserted to make this easier.
Mycoremediation is a form of bioremediation in which fungi are used to
decontaminate the area. The term mycoremediation refers specifically to the use
of fungal mycelia in bioremediation.
The mycelium secretes extracellular enzymes and acids that break
down lignin and cellulose, the two main building blocks of plant fiber.
Wood-degrading fungi are particularly effective in breaking down aromatic
pollutants (toxic components of petroleum), as well as chlorinated compounds
(certain persistent pesticides.
Two species of the Ecuadorian fungus Pestalotiopsis are capable of consuming
Polyurethane in aerobic and anaerobic conditions such as found at the bottom of
landfills.
Mycofiltration is a similar process, using fungal mycelia to filter toxic waste
and microorganisms from water in soil.
 BIOREMEDIATION
XENOBIOTICS
Xenobiotics are substances foreign to an entire biological system, i.e. artificial substances,
which did not exist in nature before their synthesis by humans.
The term xenobiotic is derived from the Greek words (xenos) = foreigner, stranger and (bios,
vios) = life, plus the Greek suffix for adjectives (tic).
It is believed that microorganisms are capable of degrading almost all the different complex
and resistant xenobiotics found on the earth.
RECALCITRANTS
Recalcitrant compounds, either organic or synthetic that are resistant to being broken down
through chemical processes. And therefore are treated using microbes to help with the
process of degrading the recalcitrant compounds into smaller, more manageable
compounds.
Biomagnification, (bioamplification,biological magnification) occurs when
the concentration of a substance, such as DDT or mercury, in an organism exceeds the
background concentration of the substance in its diet.
This increase can occur as a result of:
 Persistence – where the substance can't be broken down by environmental processes
 Food chain energetics – where the substance concentration increases progressively as it
moves up a food chain
 Low or non-existent rate of internal degradation or excretion of the substance – often due
to water-insolubility
Biological magnification often refers to the process whereby certain substances such as
pesticides or heavy metals move up the food chain, work their way into rivers or lakes, and
are eaten by aquatic organisms such as fish, which in turn are eaten by large birds, animals
or humans. The substances become concentrated in tissues or internal organs as they
move up the chain.
 BIOREMEDIATION
Pesticides are substances meant for attracting, seducing, and then destroying, or
mitigating any pest.[1] They are a class of biocide. The most common use of
pesticides is as plant protection products (also known as crop protection
products), which in general protect plants from damaging influences such
as weeds, plant diseases or insects.
The term pesticide includes all of the following: herbicide, insecticide, insect
growth regulator, nematicide,
Termiticide, molluscicide, piscicide,avicide, rodenticide,
predacide, bactericide, insect repellent, animal
repellent, antimicrobial, fungicide, disinfectant(antimicrobial), and sanitizer.
In general, a pesticide is a chemical or biological agent that deters, incapacitates,
kills, or otherwise discourages pests.
Target pests can include insects, plant pathogens,
weeds,mollusks, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms),
and microbes that destroy property, cause nuisance, or spread disease, or are
disease vectors.
Although pesticides have benefits, some also have drawbacks, such as potential
toxicity to humans and other species.
According to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, 9 of the
12 most dangerous and persistent organic chemicals are organochlorine
pesticides.
 BIOREMEDIATION
Organochloride pesticides are synthetic and were widely used
These are cumulative in the organisms and pose chronic health effects, such as
cancer and neurological and teratogenic effects
Organophosphorus pesticides are actually more widely used in the United
States
These pesticides affect the nervous system of insects and humans, in addition
to influencing the reproductive system. Blocks the prolonged inhibition of
the cholinesterase activity responsible for the nervous impulse in organisms.
Carbamate pesticides are important in the agriculture due to their broad
activity spectrum.
They inhibit the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, results in the accumulation of
AcH, causing various symptoms, such as sweating, lacrimation,
hypersalivation and convulsion of extremities.
Decontamination of pesticide-infested environments is a difficult matter and
can be very costly. The damages from pesticides in the environment are
practically irreparable.
The biological methods are advantageous to decontaminate areas that have
been polluted by pesticides.
 BIOREMEDIATION
Organochlorine pesticides
This class of pesticides includes the chlorinated derivatives of diphenyl
ethane (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane - DDT, its metabolites
dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene - DDE, dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane
- DDD, and methoxychlor), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), the group of
hexachlorocyclohexane ,the group of cyclodiene (aldrin, dieldrin, endrin,
chlordane, nonachlor, heptachlor and heptachlor-epoxide), and
chlorinated hydrocarbons (dodecachlorine, toxaphene, and chlordecone).
Biodegradation
The degradation of organochlorine pesticides by pure cultures has been
proven to occur in situ.
The breakdown of dieldrin in the soil by a Pseudomonas sp. Observed.
Biodegradation of DDT residues involves co-metabolism (that is, it requires
the presence of an alternative carbon source, in which microorganisms
growing at the expense of a substrate are able to transform DDT residues
without deriving any nutrient or energy for growth from the process .
Under reducing conditions, reductive dechlorination is the major mechanism
for the microbial conversion of DDT to DDD by Aerobacter aerogenes.
 BIOREMEDIATION
Among microorganisms, bacteria comprise the major group involved in
organochlorine degradation, especially soil habitants belonging to genera
Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Arthrobacter and Micrococcus.
The fungi Penicillium miczynskii, Aspergillus sydowii, Trichoderma sp.,
Penicillium raistrickii, Aspergillus sydowii and Bionectria sp. Were tested in
solid culture medium for organochlorine pesticide degradation.
The studies showed that anaerobic conditions are beneficial to dechlorination
of DDT.
Additional carbon and hydrogen peroxide favors the biodegradation of some
organochlorines.
The decomposition rate depends on conditions in the soil and the bonding of
the pesticide to soil surfaces.
Farm management practices also affect the rate at which pesticides are
degraded.
Irrigation of soils has been shown to enhance degradation of DDT to DDD.
Organophosphate pesticides
 BIOREMEDIATION
Organophosphate pesticides
The organophosphorus pesticides (OP) are all esters of phosphoric acid and are
also called organophosphates, which include aliphatic, phenyl and
heterocyclic derivatives.
Parathion, methyl parathion, chlorpyriphos, malathion, monochrotophos,
diazinon, fenitrothion and dimethoate are widely used.
OP compounds are totally mineralized by the microorganisms.
Pseudomonas diminuta MG is capable of hydrolyzing a wide range of oxon and
thion Ops.
A dual-species consortium comprising engineered E. coli and a natural p-
nitrophenol (PNP) degrader Ochrobactrum sp. strain LL-1 for complete
mineralization of dimethyl OPs.
Two bacteria identified as Pseudomonas putida and Acinetobacter
rhizosphaerae, able to rapidly degrade the organophosphate fenamiphos
were isolated.
The construction of genetically engineered microorganism (GEM) and the
dual-species consortium has the potential to be used in the degradations of
different kinds of pesticides.
 BIOREMEDIATION
Carbamate pesticides
These pesticides are esters of carbamates and organic compounds derived from
carbamic acid. Can be divided into benzimidazole-, N-methyl-, N-phenyl-,
and thiocarbamates.
A number of bacteria capable of degrading carbofuran (Pseudomonas,
Flavobacterium, Achromobacterium, Sphingomonas, Arthrobacter) have
been isolated.
Carbofuran was degraded first to carbofuran phenol and the result was
degraded to 2-hydroxy-3-(3-methylpropan-2-ol) phenol by Sphingomonas
sp. and Arthrobacter sp.
The carbendazin was converted to 2-aminobenzimidazole by Pseudomonas
isolates.
Several Actinomycetes that metabolize carbamate pesticides were isolated.
In general, a limited number of xenobiotic pesticides are metabolized by single
strain, but usually consortia of microorganisms are catalyzed for complete
degradation.
The degradation of these pesticides by enzymatic systems of microorganisms
has contributed to the total removal of xenobiotics from soils, hence
avoiding the contamination of waters and the environment.
 LIGNIN DEGRADATION
Lignin is a complex polymer of aromatic alcohols known as monolignols.
It is most commonly derived from wood, and is an integral part of the
secondary cell walls of plants] and some algae.
Lignin is a cross-linked racemic macromolecule with molecular masses in excess of
10,000Da. It is relatively hydrophobic and aromatic in nature. The degree of
polymerisation in nature is difficult to measure.
There are three monolignol monomers, methoxylated to various degrees: p-
coumaryl alcohol, coniferyl alcohol, and sinapyl alcohol . These lignols are
incorporated into lignin in the form of the phenylpropanoids p-hydroxyphenyl
(H), guaiacyl (G), and syringyl (S), respectively.
All lignins contain small amounts of incomplete or modified monolignols, and
other monomers are prominent in non-woody plants.
Lignin fills the spaces in the cell wall between cellulose, hemicellulose,
and pectin components, especially in xylem tracheids, vessel
elements and sclereid cells. It is covalently linked to hemicellulose and,
therefore, crosslinks different plant polysaccharides, conferring mechanical
strength to the cell wall and by extension the plant as a whole.
Lignin plays a significant role in the carbon cycle, sequestering atmospheric carbon
into the living tissues of woody perennial vegetation. Lignin is one of the most
slowly decomposing components of dead vegetation, contributing a major
fraction of the material that becomes humus as it decomposes.
 LIGNIN DEGRADATION
Highly lignified wood is durable and therefore a good raw material for many
applications. It is also an excellent fuel, since lignin yields more energy when
burned than cellulose. Mechanical, or high-yield pulp used to
make newsprint contains most of the lignin originally present in the wood
In sulfite pulping, lignin is removed from wood pulp as sulfonates.
These lignosulfonates have several uses:
 Dispersants in high performance cement applications, water
treatment formulations and textile dyes
 Additives in specialty oil field applications and agricultural chemicals
 Raw materials for several chemicals, such
as vanillin, DMSO, ethanol, xylitol sugar, and humic acid
 Environmentally sustainable dust suppression agent for roads
BIODEGRADATION
Biodegradation of lignin by brown rot, soft rot, or white rot fungi leads to
destruction of wood on the forest floor and man-made structures such as
fences and wooden buildings. However biodegradation of lignin is a
necessary prerequisite for processing biofuel from plant raw materials.
 LIGNIN DEGRADATION
Lignin is indigestible by animal enzymes, but some fungi (such as the Dryad's
saddle) and bacteria are able to secreteligninases (also named lignases) that
can biodegrade the polymer.
The details of the biodegradation are not yet well understood and the pathways
depends on the type of wood decay.
The enzymes involved may employ free radicals for depolymerization
reactions. Well understood ligninolytic enzymes are manganese
peroxidase and lignin peroxidase.
Lignin peroxidase (also "ligninase", EC number 1.14.99) is a hemoprotein from
the white-rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium with a variety of lignin-
degrading reactions, all dependent on hydrogen peroxide to incorporate
molecular oxygen into reaction products.
There are also several other microbial enzymes that are believed to be involved
in lignin biodegradation, such as manganese peroxidase, laccase.
It has been suggested that the ether bonds in lignin are cleaved by
intramolecular epoxide formation when decayed by fungi.
The aerobic Gram-negative soil bacterium Sphingomonas paucimobilis is able
to degrade lignin-related biphenyl chemical compounds.
 LIGNIN DEGRADATION
Pyrolysis of lignin during the combustion of wood or charcoal production
yields a range of products, of which the most characteristic ones
are methoxy-substituted phenols. Of those, the most important
are guaiacol andsyringol and their derivatives; their presence can be used to
trace a smoke source to a wood fire.
 DEGRADATION OF PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS
Petroleum is an extremely complex mixture of hydrocarbons. From the
hundreds of individual components, several classes, based on related
structures, can be recognized.
Hydrocarbons within the saturate fraction include n-alkanes, branched
alkanes, and cycloalkanes (naphthenes).
The biodegradation of n-alkanes normally proceeds by a monoterminal attack;
usually a primary alcohol is formed followed by an aldehyde and a
monocarboxylic acid.
Further degradation of the carboxylic acid proceeds by fl-oxidation with the
subsequent formation of two-carbon-unit shorter fatty acids and acetyl
coenzyme A, with eventual liberation of C02.
Fatty acids, some of which are toxic, have been found to accumulate during
hydrocarbon biodegradation.
Omega (diterminal) oxidation also has been reported.
Subterminal oxidation sometimes occurs, with formation of a secondary
alcohol and subsequent ketone.
A new pathway recently reported. Acinetobacter species can split a
hydrocarbon at the number 10 position, forming hydroxy acids.
 DEGRADATION OF PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS
Highly branched isoprenoid alkanes, such as pristane, have been found to
undergo omega oxidation, with formation of dicarboxylic acids
Methyl branching generally increases the resistance of hydrocarbons to
microbial attack
Cycloalkanes are particularly resistant to microbial.
Complex alicycic compounds, such as hopanes (tripentacyclic compounds), are
among the most persistent components of petroleum spillages in the
environment
A diverse group of bacteria and fungi have been shown to have the ability of
hydrocarbon degradation.
The most important genera of hydrocarbon utilizers in aquatic environments
were Pseudomonas, Achromobacter, Arthrobacter, Micrococcus, Nocardia,
Vibrio, Acinetobacter, Brevibacterium, Corynebacterium, Flavobacterium,
Candida, Rhodotorula, and Sporobolomyces.
Fungi played an important role in the hydrocarbon-oxidizing activities of the
soil samples (Penicillium and Cunninghamella spp.).
Some cyanobacteria and algae have been found to be capable of hydrocarbon
degradation.
 DEGRADATION OF PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS
The fate of petroleum hydrocarbons in the environment is largely determined by
abiotic factors which influence the weathering, including biodegradation of the
oil.
Factors which influence rates of microbial growth and enzymatic activities affect
the rates of petroleum hydrocarbon biodegradation.
The persistence of petroleum pollutants depends on the quantity and quality of the
hydrocarbon mixture and on the properties of the affected ecosystem.
The physical state of petroleum hydrocarbons has a marked effect on their
biodegradation.
A number of hydrocarbon-degrading microorganisms produce emulsifying agents
(Arthrobacter, Pseudomonas, Corynebacterium).
Hydrocarbon biodegradation can occur over a wide range of temperatures, and
psychrotrophic, mesophilic, and thermophilic hydrocarbon-utilizing
microorganisms have been isolated.
Concentrations of available nitrogen and phosphorus in seawater are severely
limiting to microbial hydrocarbon degradation.
The rates of biodegradation of hydrocarbons from oil spills appear to be highly
dependent on localized environmental conditions.
The microbial degradation of oil pollutants is a complex process and that
environmental factors have a great influence on the fate of spilled oil.
 DEGRADATION OF PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS
Pseudomonas putida
Pseudomonas putida is a Gram-negative, rod-
shaped, saprotrophic soil bacterium.
A variety of P. putida, called "multi-plasmid hydrocarbon-degrading
Pseudomonas," is the first patented organism in the world.
It demonstrates a very diverse metabolism, including the ability to degrade organic
solvents such as toluene. This ability has been put to use in bioremediation, or
the use of microorganisms to biodegrade oil.
Use of P. putida is preferable to some other Pseudomonas species capable of such
degradation, as it is a safe species of bacteria, unlike P. aeruginosa, which is an
opportunistic human pathogen.
 The diverse metabolism of wild-type strains of P. putida is exploited for
bioremediation; function as a soil inoculant to remedy naphthalene-
contaminated soils.
 P. putida is capable of converting styrene oil into the biodegradable
plastic PHA.This may be of use in the effective recycling of Polystyrene foam,
otherwise thought to be not biodegradable.
 P. putida has demonstrated potential biocontrol properties, as an effective
antagonist of damping off diseases such as Pythium and Fusarium.
 P. putida's amenability to genetic manipulation has allowed it to be used in the
synthesis of numerous organic pharmaceutical and agricultural compounds from
various substrates.