(Fisher, Karen Ramsbottom, David) River Diversion PDF

River diversions
A design guide
Karen Fisher
David Ramsbottom
Published by Thomas Telford Publishing, Thomas Telford Ltd, 1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD.
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First published 2001
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Following the General Election in June 2001, the responsibilities of the former Department of the
Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR) in this area were transferred to the new Department for
Transport, Local Government and Regions.
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Preface
River diversions are artificial channels that are used to divert all or part of the
river flow. River diversions are required for a variety of reasons, including
flood relief channels, permanent diversions to permit developments on, or
adjacent to, rivers, and temporary diversions to permit construction work in
rivers.
The design of river diversions covers a wide range of topics, including site
selection, hydrology, hydraulics, environmental considerations, engineering
design, legislation and planning, construction and maintenance. It is very
important that all these aspects are considered during the feasibility and design
stages of river diversions in order to minimise the risk of unforeseen problems
arising during the planning and implementation stages.
The primary purpose of this book is, therefore, to provide guidance on the
design of river diversions taking into account the wide range of issues that must
be considered. The book provides an introduction to these issues and references
are provided to give a more complete coverage of particular aspects. In
addition, specialist advice may also be required for particular aspects of a
scheme but this will depend on the individual scheme and the capabilities of the
design team.
River diversions vary in size from small channels to major river engineering
schemes. The Windsor, Eton and Maidenhead scheme on the River Thames, for
example, consists of an 11 km long flood relief channel with a capacity of 215
cumecs. The principles set out in this book apply to all types and sizes of river
diversion, although the amount of effort needed will depend on the magnitude of
the problems to be addressed.
Karen Fisher joined HR Wallingford in 1987 following graduation from

Oxford University. She has gained a wide range of experience in river and canal
engineering, including hydraulics, sediment movement and river morphology.
In 1991 she began working on a major research project on the hydraulics of
environmentally acceptable channels. This research was followed by research
and consultancy projects on river restoration, river maintenance and vegetation
management. She has written and contributed to guidance documents on river
management, including the design of environmentally acceptable channels.
David Ramsbottom graduated from Cambridge University in 1975 and has spent
his career in water engineering and management. He worked for consulting
engineers Rendel, Palmer and Tritton on harbour and river engineering between
iii
RIVER DIVERSIONS
1975 and 1979, and then for Sir Mott MacDonald and Partners on irrigation,
drainage and river engineering between 1979 and 1988. Since joining HR
Wallingford in 1988, he has specialised in river engineering and management,
including catchment management, flood control and flow measurement.
iv
Acknowledgements
The Design Guide was developed by HR Wallingford Ltd and was funded by the
Department of the Environment (now the Department of the Environment,
Transport and the Regions) under the Partners in Technology Scheme. A Steering
Group was established to assist with the development of the Design Guide. In
addition to attending meetings to discuss and review the Design Guide, members
of the Steering Group advised on particular aspects, provided information on
examples of river diversions and reviewed draft versions of the overall document.
The Steering Group consisted of:
Reg Andrews J. Murphy and Sons Ltd

Simon Bonvoison Nicholas Pearson Associates
Chris Bown Lewin Fryer and Partners
John Cupit Sir Robert McAlpine Ltd (or Paul Doughty)
Gary Edwards Dean and Dyball
Ian Padgett Graham Consulting Group
Andrew Pepper Atpec Ltd (representing the Environment Agency)
Charles Rickard Mott MacDonald
John Strudwick P. Trant Ltd
Patrick Titman Edmund Nuttall
The assistance and contribution provided by the Steering Group is gratefully

acknowledged.
While every effort has been made to ensure that the statements made and
opinions expressed in this publication provide a reliable guide, no liability or
responsibility can be accepted in this respect by the authors or publishers. The
report is a contribution to research generally and it would be imprudent for third
parties to rely on it in specific applications without checking its suitability.
Various sections of this report have drawn on information from third parties.
The use of material from other publications is gratefully acknowledged, especially
the figures adapted from the New rivers and wildlife handbook by kind permission
of the RSPB. However, HR Wallingford Ltd does not warrant the accuracy of data
drawn from third party sources. HR Wallingford Ltd will only accept liability for
the uses of its material in specific projects where it has been engaged to advise
upon a specific commission and given the opportunity to express a view on the
reliability of the material for the particular application.
HR Wallingford Ltd is an independent specialist research, consultancy,
software and training organisation that has been serving the water and civil
v
RIVER DIVERSIONS
engineering industries worldwide for over 50 years in more than 60 countries. The
company provides appropriate solutions for engineers and managers working in:
• water resources
• groundwater
• urban drainage
• rivers
• tidal waters
• ports and harbours
• coastal waters
• offshore.
Address: Howbery Park, Wallingford, Oxon, OX10 8BA, UK

Internet: http://hrwallingford.co.uk
Editor's Note
Following the General Election in June 2001, various Government departments
have been renamed and reorganised. This guide was written prior to the General
Election and the names of the Government departments used were correct at the
time of writing.
vi
Contents
Illustrations xiii
Part A Feasibility and planning 1

1. Introduction 3
1.1. Background, 5
1.2. Types of river diversion, 5
1.3. Scope of the guide, 7
1.4. How to use the guide, 9
2. Outline design 11
2.1. Introduction, 13
2.2. General procedure, 14
2.2.1. Technical, 14
2.2.2. Environmental, 15
2.2.3. Consultation, 15
2.2.4. Legislation, 15
2.3. Data collection, 16
2.3.1. Catchment management, 16
2.3.2. Geomorphology, 17
2.3.3. Hydrological and hydraulic data, 19
2.3.4. Engineering data, 20
2.3.5. Environmental data, 21
2.4. Outline design, 22
2.4.1. Site selection and layout, 22
2.4.2. Flow rate, 25
2.4.3. Hydraulic design, 25
2.4.4. Environmental aspects, 27
2.4.5. Operation and maintenance, 29
Part B Detailed design 31

3. Design flow rate 33
3.1. Flood flows, 36
3.1.1. Design flood, 36
3.1.2. Use of gauged data, 36
3.2. Bankfull flow, 37
3.3. Temporary river diversions, 37
3.4. Low flows, 37
vii
RIVER DIVERSIONS
4. Detailed channel design 39

4.1. Boundary conditions, 41
4.1.1. Tailwater elevation, 41
4.1.2. Normal depth method, 41
4.1.3. Backwater method, 42
4.1.4. Observations, 42
4.2. Plan form, 42
4.3. Channel cross-section shape, 43
4.4. Sizing the channel, 43
4.4.1. Hydraulic capacity, 44
4.4.2. Bed slope, 45
4.5. Flow velocity, 46
4.6. Channel resistance, 46
4.7. Environmental features, 48
4.7.1. Pools and riffles, 48
4.7.2. Current deflectors/groynes, 49
4.7.3. Low stone weirs, 50
4.7.4. Vegetation, 52
4.7.5. River margins – shallows, bays, backwaters
and berms, 53
4.7.6. Shoals and islands, 53
4.8. Bank protection, 54
4.9. Water quality aspects of design, 58
4.9.1. Chemical water quality, 58
4.9.2. Oxygen, 59
4.9.3. Nitrates, 60
4.9.4. Phosphates, 60
4.10. Environmental factors, 60
4.10.1. Fisheries, 61
4.10.2. Flora and fauna, 61
4.10.3. Algae growth and eutrophication, 62
4.10.4. Wetlands, 63
4.10.5. Archaeology and cultural heritage, 64
4.10.6. Landscape and recreation, 64
5. In-channel structures 65
5.1. Control structures, 67
5.1.1. Calculation of flow at a control structure, 68
5.1.2. Fixed weirs, 68
5.1.3. Moveable weirs, 72
5.1.4. Flumes, 73
5.1.5. Gated structures, 73
5.1.6. Orifices, pipes and culverts, 74
5.1.7. Air-regulated siphons, 75
5.1.8. Dams for diversion purposes, 75
5.2. Crossing structures, 76
viii
CONTENTS
5.2.1. Bridges, 76
5.2.2. Culverts, 76
5.3. Maintenance of passage structures, 77
5.3.1. Fish passes, 77
5.3.2. Navigation lock, 78
5.4. Inlet structures, 78
5.4.1. Location and alignment, 79
5.4.2. Transition and entrance, 80
5.4.3. Outlet structures, 81
6. Sediment transport 83
6.2. Initiation of motion, 86
6.3. Sediment transport in non-cohesive, uniform
sediments, 88
6.3.1. Bed load, 89
6.3.2. Suspended load, 89
6.3.3. Wash load, 89
6.3.4. Total load, 89
6.4. Application and use of sediment transport formulae, 89
6.5. Graded sediments, 90
6.6. Cohesive sediments, 90
6.7. Alluvial friction, 91
6.8. Regime theory, 91
6.8.1. Application of regime theory, 92
Part C Construction 93
7. Construction issues 95
7.2. Environmental considerations, 97
7.3. Duration and season, 98
7.3.1. Permanent diversion channels, 98
7.3.2. Temporary diversion channels, 98
7.4. Form of construction, 98
7.5. Ground conditions, 99
7.6. Groundwater, 100
7.7. Water quality, 100
7.8. Pumping, 101
7.9. Risk and integrity of works, 102
7.10. Storage and disposal of material, 102
ix
RIVER DIVERSIONS
7.11. Stability of banks, 103

7.12. Access, 104
7.13. Security, 104
8. Health and safety on site 105

8.2. The health and safety plan – method statements, 108
8.2.1. Role of the designer, 109
8.3. Working on, over or in water, 109
8.3.1. Potential hazards, 109
8.3.2. Common health and safety failings, 110
8.3.3. Potential diseases, 110
8.3.4. Reducing water associated risks, 111
8.4. Legal considerations, 111
8.5. Excavations in river diversions, 112
8.5.1. Introduction, 112
8.5.2. Considerations prior to excavating, 112
8.5.3. Ground conditions, 113
8.5.4. Surface and groundwater levels, 113
8.5.5. Soil type, 114
8.5.6. Contaminated sites, 114
8.5.7. Services, 114
8.5.8. Trenches, 115
8.5.9. Cofferdams, 115
8.5.10. Caissons, 117
8.5.11. Excavation-related monitoring, 118
8.6. Confined spaces, 119
8.6.1. Pipelines, 119
8.7. Working next to roads and railways, 120
Part D Legislation 121

9. Legal responsibilities and planning 123
9.1. The Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food, 125
9.2. Department of the Environment, Transport and the
Regions, 126
9.3. The Scottish Executive, 126
9.4. The Environment Agency, 126
9.5. Internal Drainage Boards, 127
9.6. Local authorities, 128
9.6.1. London authorities, 128
9.7. Particular circumstances, 128
9.7.1. Culverts, 128
x
CONTENTS
9.7.2. Powers of diversion for highway authorities,

129
9.8. Planning permission, 129
9.8.1. Environmental Impact Assessment, 130
9.8.2. Procedure, 130
10. References 131
Appendices 137
Appendix 1. Methods for calculating the tailwater elevation, 139
Appendix 2. Roughness coefficients for natural channels, 145
Appendix 3. Legislation and statutes, 147
Appendix 4. Examples of river diversions, 151
Index 173
xi
Illustrations
Tables
Table 1. Checklist of the principal considerations
for the design of river diversions 16
Table 2. Baseline data 21
Table 3. Standard methodologies for data collection 22
Table 4. Impacts on flora and fauna of diverting a
channel 62
Table 5. Structure types 67
Table 6. Different soil types and associated
problems 114
Table 7. Risks associated with cofferdam
construction 116
Table 8. Risks in pipeline construction 120
Table A2.1. Roughness coefficients for natural channels 146
Table A4.1. Flow split at the Maidenhead, Windsor and
Eton flood relief channel 156
Figures
Figure 1. Different types of diversion channel:
(a) permanent diversion channel replacing
existing channel; (b) permanent diversion
of part of the flow – wet diversion channel;
(c) diversion of part of the flow during
floods – dry diversion channel;
(d) temporary diversion channel 6
Figure 2. How to use the design guide 8
Figure 3. Acceptable and unacceptable options for
river diversion 24
Figure 4. Wraysbury River – existing river
downstream of the diversion 26
Figure 5. Design procedure for river diversions 32
Figure 6. Water flow and structural components
of pool riffle sequences: (a) plan view;
(b) long profile 47
Figure 7. Pool riffle sequence in a straight channel 49
xiii
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Figure 8. Plan shapes of groynes: (a) straight –

perpendicular to the stream; (b) straight –
slanted upstream; (c) straight – slanted
downstream; (d) T-head; (e) bayonet –
slanted upstream; (f) bayonet – slanted
downstream 50
Figure 9. Groynes on the River Skerne 51
Figure 10. Low stone weir on the River Tawe 51
Figure 11. Lateral variation in vegetation across the
channel 53
Figure 12. Enhancing (option a), retaining (option b)
and creating (option c) edge habitats 54
Figure 13. Edge habitats that can be created during
river diversion 55
Figure 14. Grass-planted gabions with fibre rolls at
the foot of the wall 56
Figure 15. Rock bank protection that is designed to
become vegetated 56
Figure 16. Use of fibre rolls for bank protection 57
Figure 17. Bank protection combining vegetation with
stones in a gabion basket 57
Figure 18. Relationship between organics, inorganics,
invertebrates, vegetation and fish in the
aquatic food chain 63
Figure 19. Control structures and their approximate
discharge formulae: (a) triangular profile
Crump weir; (b) vertical gate;
(c) rectangular profile weir; (d) culvert;
(f) rectangular flume 69
Figure 20. Thin-plate vee notch weir 71
Figure 21. Thin-plate rectangular notch weir 71
Figure 22. Value of C for vertical sluice gates 74
Figure 23. Air-regulated siphon 75
Figure 24. Schematic of a Larinier fish pass with plain
baffles 77
Figure 25. Components of a typical navigation lock 78
Figure 26. Typical current path in a flow bend,
showing variation in surface and bottom
current variation 79
Figure 27. Attraction of near bed flows to a 90º
intake, arrows indicating direction of flow 80
Figure 28. Hydraulic variation and areas of
sedimentation around intakes 81
Figure 29. Transformed Shields’ Curve 87
Figure 30. Offline settling lagoons for contaminated
groundwater on the River Ash 101
xiv
ILLUSTR ATIONS
Figure 31. Temporary access over earth embankment 103

Figure 32. Relationship between project team parties 108
Figure 33. Groundwater problem and potential
solution 113
Figure 34. Single and double wall cofferdams:
(a) single wall; (b) double wall 115
Figure 35. Box caisson 117
Figure 36. Impact of excavations on surrounding
ground 118
Figure A1.1. Definitions of A and P for Manning’s
equation 140
Figure A.1.2. Backwater method for calculating tailwater
depth 140
Figure A.1.3. Tailwater calculation sheet 142
Figure A4.1 Lining of the permanent diversion channel 151
Figure A4.2 Intake with trash screen, low-flow weir and
boom 152
Figure A4.3 Initial completed channel showing rock toe
protection 152
Figure A4.4 Outlet bank protection 153
Figure A4.5 Lagoons for contaminated groundwater
settling and mixing 153
Figure A4.6 Vegetation growth one year after
construction 154
Figure A4.7. Weirs and rock pools being constructed 159
Figure A4.8. The completed permanent diversion 159
Figure A4.9. Piled cofferdam and pumps for the
downstream temporary diversion 160
Figure A4.10. Initial breakthrough of the permanent
diversion channel 160
Figure A4.11 Tilting intake gates from the Wraysbury
River 162
Figure A4.12 Siphon on the Staines bypass channel
under the A30 road 162
Figure A4.13 Weir with low-flow notch 163
Figure A4.14. Temporary open channel diversion 165
Figure A4.15. Works at Hambledon Lock 168
Figure A4.16. Cofferdam around Hambledon Lock 169
Figure A4.17. Cofferdam and inlet 170
Figure A4.18. Flexible pipe diverting flow while concrete
reinforcing was placed 171
Figure A4.19. Portadam at downstream end of diversion 171
xv
Part A
Feasibility and planning
Introduction
1
1. Introduction
1.1. BACKGROUND
A river diversion is an artificial channel that is used to divert all or part of the river
flow. River diversions may be required for a range of civil engineering projects,
including flood alleviation schemes, developments on, or adjacent to, a
watercourse, and schemes for new highways or highway widening. Some river
diversions are temporary in order to permit construction work to be carried out
and others are permanent. The objective of this book is to provide guidelines on
the design of river diversions. River diversion design requires a multi-disciplinary
approach. As the awareness of environmental issues has increased, the effects of
engineering works on the ecology, fisheries and pollution within rivers has
become increasingly important. The planning, design and construction of river
diversions needs to take these issues into account alongside engineering
considerations.
1.2. TYPES OF RIVER DIVERSION

There are two main types of river diversion covered by this guide: temporary and
permanent. The guide concentrates on permanent diversions but any differences
which should be considered for a temporary diversion are covered in the relevant
section. There are several different types of diversion channel, as shown in Figure 1.
A ‘wet’ channel carries some flow continuously whereas a ‘dry’ channel only carries
flow at certain times, for example, during a flood. In these guidelines the following
types of diversion channel are considered:
(a) Permanent ‘wet’ diversion to replace the existing channel. In this case all the
flow is diverted on a permanent basis. For example, a new road or other
development may require a permanent river diversion. Permanent diversions
were constructed on the River Biss (see Section A4.3 in Appendix 4).
(b) Permanent diversion of part of the flow. A diversion channel that diverts part
of the flow may either be wet or dry. In both cases a method of splitting the
flow (usually a hydraulic structure) will be needed. Diversion of part of the
flow was carried out on the River Colne at Accommodation Lane (see
Section A4.4.2). A flood relief channel is an example of a permanent
5
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Control structure may be

required at one or both of
these locations
Diversion Existing Diversion Existing

channel river channel river
(a) (b)
Main flow
Control
Control
structure
structure
may be
required
Diversion Diversion Existing river

channel channel Dry during blocked with
Existing
for flood construction cofferdam or
river
flows similar
structure
Control
structure
may be
required
(c) (d)
Figure 1. Different types of diversion channel: (a) permanent diversion channel

replacing existing channel; (b) permanent diversion of part of the flow – wet
diversion channel; (c) diversion of part of the flow during floods – dry diversion
channel; (d) temporary diversion channel
6
INTRODUC TION
diversion of part of the flow. In this case the existing channel is too small for
the flood capacity required and the diversion channel accommodates the
excess flow. This channel may be wet or dry. In the latter case, flow only
occurs in the diversion channel during a flood. A particular case where a
flood relief channel may be the only solution is where buildings or other
features close to the river prevent the possibility of increasing the flow
capacity by river widening or other improvements to the channel and
adjacent floodplains. Flood relief channels were used on the River Colne at
Staines and Lower Horton (see Section A4.4).
(c) Temporary diversion of all flow. In this case the flow is diverted through a
temporary diversion channel in order to undertake work on the existing
channel or a structure before returning the water to the existing channel. A
temporary diversion may be used where a river structure needs to be
constructed in the dry, or the channel must be closed to permit river
restoration or other channel works to be undertaken. A temporary diversion
channel was utilised at Brockenhurst gauging station (see Section A4.5).
(d) Temporary diversion of part of the flow. Part of the flow, usually the high/
flood flows may be diverted to allow work to be undertaken within or
adjacent to the existing channel.
1.3. SCOPE OF THE GUIDE

The guide covers the issues involved in the planning, design and construction of
river diversions and includes the following:
• planning
• data requirements
• outline design
• detailed design
• environmental considerations
• construction, operation and maintenance
• legislation.
The guide is generally intended for application in the UK but many of the basic
principles including, for example, hydraulic design are applicable in other
countries.
The guide is generally concerned with permanent diversions but the methodology
is also applicable to temporary diversions. Many river diversions, particularly
temporary diversions, are carried out on small rivers and streams where considerable
effort in design cannot normally be justified. However, even in these cases it is
important to ensure that the fundamental issues (e.g. flow capacity and
environmental impact) are addressed adequately. Temporary diversions often take
the form of pipe diversions and CIRIA Report 168 (1997b) should be referred to for
more detailed design guidance on pipe diversions.
7
RIVER DIVERSIONS
How to use this guide
Part A: Feasibility and planning

Background information
on types of river
diversions
Chapter 1
Summary of the design

process
Chapter 2
Design flow rate
Chapter 3
Determination of Detailed channel design

tailwater elevation
Appendix 1 Chapter 4
In channel structures
Chapter 5
Sediment transport
Part B: Detailed design Chapter 6

See Figure 5
Construction Health and safety
Chapter 7 Chapter 8
Part C: Construction
Legislation and Legislation

statutes
Appendix 3 Chapter 9
Part D: Legislation
Figure 2. How to use the design guide
8
INTRODUC TION
1.4. HOW TO USE THE GUIDE

The guide is divided into four parts, each of which has a number of chapters. The
parts are as follows:
• Part A – Feasibility and planning

• Part B – Detailed design
• Part C – Construction
• Part D – Legislation.
Part A provides an overall view of the issues to be addressed in river diversion

design. Details of the data requirements, design process and outline design
procedure are also given.
Part B covers the detailed design, including flow estimation, hydraulic design,
sediment transport, hydraulic structures and environmental issues.
Part C deals with construction issues, which are relevant to both temporary and
permanent diversions, and how these should be considered at the design stage.
This part also provides details of the health and safety procedures and risk
implications associated with permanent and temporary river diversions.
An overview of relevant UK legislation is contained in Part D.
Appendices 1, 2 and 3 contain additional background information for the design
process. Eight examples of recent river diversions in the UK are given in
Appendix 4.
Figure 2 shows the structure of the guide.
9
Outline design
2
2. Outline design
2.1. INTRODUCTION
An outline design is needed to assess the feasibility of the river diversion and the
likely costs. For permanent diversions this work normally forms part of the
feasibility study where a range of options would be assessed. The choice of option
is determined by a number of factors, including the availability of land and
topography, cost, planning considerations, design standards, environmental
considerations and public opinion.
Temporary river diversions are often designed by contractors as part of the
temporary works needed to undertake an engineering project.
Before any river diversion scheme is designed, the options and alternatives
should be considered on engineering, economic and environmental grounds. Once
the options have been considered and a decision has been taken to divert the river
on a permanent or temporary basis, attention can be turned to planning, detailed
design and construction. It is important that the environmental, engineering and
economic consequences of any proposals are considered fully at this stage
together with possible impacts on the wider catchment.
Creating a river diversion may have a major impact on the natural habitat of a
channel as well as on navigation, archaeology, recreation, landscape, flood
storage, sediment transport and flow. The impacts of diverting a river can be
numerous and include:
• loss of established aquatic and riparian habitat
• loss of stable (historical) geomorphological regime leading to erosion or
sediment deposition
• loss of flood storage and changes in drainage routes
• loss of agricultural land
• disturbance of archaeological sites
• noise and dust pollution
• changes in ground and surface water quality, including chemical, biological and
physical
• alteration of interchange with groundwater
• changes in sedimentation regimes
• disruption to navigation and recreation
• localised deposition at the point of convergence/divergence with the main
channel
13
RIVER DIVERSIONS
• loss of established landscapes and features

• effects on public access
• changes to designed/historic landscapes.
Where possible, it is generally advisable to avoid river diversion works.

However, where works must be carried out the designer must try to minimise the
adverse impacts of the work. It is also possible that a river diversion can result in
the enhancement of a river. In the event that the adverse impacts cannot be
minimised or avoided, mitigation measures may be required. For example, the
loss of habitat may be compensated for by providing an equivalent area and
quality of habitat elsewhere on the site or close by.
2.2. GENERAL PROCEDURE
2.2.1. Technical
To assess the technical feasibility of a river diversion, the following must be
addressed:
• baseline data collection to determine the present conditions, including:

❍ survey information
❍ flow and level records, particularly flood levels
❍ catchment information
❍ river corridor surveys
❍ bed and bank materials
❍ current standard of flood defence
❍ geomorphological assessment
❍ current river usage.
• type of diversion channel (see Section 1.2)
• site selection – where can the river diversion go and what are the constraints, if
any?
• hydrology and hydraulics, including:
❍ the range of flows which the channel must convey
❍ dry or wet diversion channel?
❍ flow split between the existing channel and diversion channel
❍ suitable size and shape of the channel to take the required range of flows
❍ in-channel structures
❍ sediment transport and channel stability
❍ need for hydraulic modelling
• construction, operation and maintenance aspects, such as access, health and
safety, sources of material, and the Construction (Design and Management)
Regulations 1994 (CDM).
14
OUTLINE DESIGN
2.2.2. Environmental
An environmental scoping exercise should be commenced at this stage as the first
stage in an Environmental Impact Assessment. The scoping exercise should
identify environmental constraints, concerns and opportunities. These may
include the effect of the works on the flora and fauna, water quality, recreation
and amenities, and should take account of catchment considerations and the
overall sustainability of the project.
Existing baseline environmental information should be collected and assessed
to determine whether the data are of sufficient quality to use in an Environmental
Assessment. If not, define the baseline information to be collected as described in
Section 2.3.5.
The need for a full Environmental Statement for the preferred option may also
be identified during the outline design stage. If significant environmental effects
are likely to result from the project then an Environmental Statement will be
required. Taking informal advice from statutory consultees at this stage will
provide a good indication of the need for an Environmental Statement. It is
especially important to consult with the local planning authority in determining
the need for and the scope of an Environmental Statement. Guidance on preparing
an Environmental Statement is given by the Department of Environment (DoE –
the DoE is now known as the Department of the Environment, Transport and the
Regions) document entitled Preparation of Environmental Statements for
planning projects that require Environmental Assessment: A good practice guide
(DoE, 1995). Even if an Environmental Statement is not required, an informal
assessment should be carried out as good practice to ensure that potential impacts
are identified and managed.
2.2.3. Consultation
Consultations should be carried out with statutory and non-statutory bodies to
involve and inform. These consultations are needed to assess reaction and
opinion, and to identify constraints and issues to be taken into account in the
design process. Relevant organisations include the Environment Agency, the river
authority (if different from the Environment Agency), local people, angling clubs,
the local planning authority and environmental organisations.
2.2.4. Legislation
Legislative and planning requirements must be considered when taking account of
the status of the local watercourse (main river or ordinary watercourse, see
Section 9.4), as well as many other criteria.
Designing a river diversion is not simply a question of choosing a channel or
pipe large enough to convey the required flow. There are many factors to consider
and conflicting requirements may arise. The best solution may involve a compro-
mise but the designer should seek to produce the best solution under the circum-
stances by taking into account technical, economic and environmental aspects.
15
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Table 1. Checklist of the principal considerations for the design of river diversions
Criteria Content Section

Outline design Detailed design
Data collection 2.3 2.3

Site selection Layout 2.4.1
Land availability and access 2.4.1
Topography 2.4.1
Contaminated land 2.4.1
Hydrological Design flow rate 2.4.2 3
Design flood 3.1.1
Bankfull flow 3.2
Low flows 3.4
Minimum flows 3.4
Hydraulic Tailwater 4.1.1
Plan form 4.2
Channel shape 4.3
Channel size 2.4.3 4.4
Flow velocity 4.5
Channel resistance 4.6
Environmental features 4.7
Morphology/geomorphology 6
In-channel works Bank protection 4.8
Structures 5
Engineering Construction limitations 7
Environmental General 2.4.4
Channel shape and plan form 4.3/4.7
Water quality 4.9
Ecology 4.10
Archaeology and cultural heritage 4.10.5
Landscape and recreation 4.10.6
Table 1 provides a checklist of the principal design considerations, which need

to be addressed at the planning and design stages of the project. Table 1 also
indicates the sections of this guide in which a more comprehensive discussion of
the issues involved may be found.
2.3. DATA COLLECTION
2.3.1. Catchment management

Catchment management planning within the UK Environment Agency is the
process by which the problems and opportunities resulting from water-related
catchment uses are assessed and action is proposed to optimise the overall future
well-being of the water environment. A catchment use is defined as a direct use of
the water environment (e.g. ecology and water abstraction) or an activity that
impacts upon it (e.g. mineral extraction and housing development). Catchments
16
OUTLINE DESIGN
are defined as discrete geographical units with boundaries derived primarily from
surface-water considerations and comprising one or more hydrometric sub-
catchments.
The issues of catchment management relate mainly to permanent river
diversions. The effect of the diversion on the whole catchment must be considered
at the feasibility stage of the project in order to ensure that any adverse impacts
and mitigation measures are identified before detailed design is carried out.
Issues affecting the whole catchment include:
• erosion and sedimentation

• fish migration
• local habitat.
For each main river, the Environment Agency will have a Local Environment
Agency Plan (LEAP). These provide a useful source of information when
assessing catchment issues. LEAPs provide information on the catchment,
including the interests of county, borough, district and town councils and the local
development plans for the catchment.
LEAPs have been developed with the help of local communities and groups.
They are used to reconcile conflicts between competing uses of water, integrate
water and land uses, and they consider issues within both short-term and long-
term time horizons.
LEAPs consider the various water users’ interests and include the development
of a long-term vision and medium-term strategies and actions through
consultations with local communities and organisations.
A LEAP may include the history of the river and development of the catchment
from old maps, photographs and anecdotal evidence. A LEAP provides useful
information on the past development of the river and the likely changes to the
river in the future.
2.3.2. Geomorphology
A LEAP may include a geomorphological assessment or survey of the river,
which will provide valuable information regarding the shape, size and plan form
of the river in its existing and historical context. However, if the LEAP does not
include this information it is advised that a geomorphological assessment is
carried out. Any proposed diversion can then be considered in the light of the
assessment to determine the deposition/erosion potential of the diversion channel
and what the impact would be on the upstream and downstream reaches of the
river.
The findings of the geomorphological assessment and survey should be taken
into account in the design of the channel. The assessment will also identify
maintenance problems and erosion/deposition issues. The geomorphological
assessment consists of the following:
17
RIVER DIVERSIONS
• fluvial audit
• historical change analysis.
Fluvial audit
A fluvial audit is a geomorphological assessment of channel stability. Its basis lies
in obtaining a semi-quantitative understanding of the sediment budget of a reach
within the context of its catchment. It is critical when assessing the catchment
factors that influence the fluvial geomorphology of a reach.
Traditionally, there has been a lack of consideration given to geomorphological
issues at the planning stage of a project leading to a later treatment of the
symptoms rather than early treatment of the causes. Linkages need to be made
between catchment processes, sediment transport and morphological dynamics at
an early stage of a project.
A fluvial audit makes use of available and easily collected information to assess
the stability of the current channel. It incorporates the collection of two different
types of data:
(a) Documentary evidence at the scale of the catchment and channel network for
extended time periods to identify Potentially Destabilising Phenomena
(PDP).
(b) Field evidence and site specific documents used to assess the current channel
stability, to characterise the operation of the sediment system and to confirm/
reject evidence of channel response to any PDP.
The documentary evidence includes examining flood defence schemes, land

drainage and maintenance operations, catchment plans and LEAPs in combination
with historical maps and aerial photographs. These sources help the
geomorphologist to identify historical channel changes, land-use changes and
management operations that might have affected the fluvial systems, river channel
and its surroundings. Hydrographic records, in particular evidence of floods, can
assist in identifying significant events that may have triggered on-going trends of
sedimentation or erosion. Field evidence for both the project reach and catchment
must be collected to support reasonable estimates of the likely response of the
channel to PDPs.
By using a one-dimensional model of flow and sediment transport, an estimate
of the likely deficit or surplus of sediment in a reach can be made. This
information can be used in the geomorphological assessment to identify the
precise distribution of scour or deposition of sediment and the morphological
response of the reach to sediment transport imbalances.
The Environment Agency (1999a) has carried out a scoping study in order to
produce a best practice guide for fluvial design.
Historical changes analysis

The mapping of channel changes over the period for which the Ordnance Survey
maps, or other sources of map, aerial photographs and satellite images are
available, will indicate how dynamic the present system is and where the channel
18
OUTLINE DESIGN
changes have occurred. In some cases the channel will have been constrained and
it will be more difficult to determine the natural changes in the system.
Sediment modelling
One-dimensional sediment models or hand calculations can be used to determine
the volumes of sediment entering and leaving a reach and the likely impacts
upstream and downstream. Bed samples need to be collected from representative
sections in the river if these calculations are to be performed. This technique will
enable the flow of sediments into and out of the reach in the existing situation to
be matched in the design of the diversion channel.
2.3.3. Hydrological and hydraulic data

Flood flows
The determination of the design flood flow is a fundamental process, which is
covered in Section 3. It is normal practice to design works on rivers and streams
for flood flows of a given return period. In urban situations, where the
consequences of flooding can be very severe, a return period of 100 years is
commonly adopted. In contrast, in agricultural areas a much lower return period
of, say, ten years may be acceptable. However, in all cases, the standard of
protection adopted will need to be justified on economic grounds, usually with
benefit-cost analysis.
Determination of the design flow for a diversion channel should be based on a
full understanding of the hydrology of the catchment upstream and on an
appreciation of the consequences of the diversion channel being overtopped and
flooding an area that previously may not have been at risk.
The data to be collected should include the following:
• an assessment of the size and nature of the catchment area upstream of the
diversion channel and other information needed to provide a hydrological
estimate of flood flows
• an assessment of the maximum flood level based on known information, gauge-
board levels from the Environment Agency or the local authority, or local
information, including photographs and newspaper cuttings
• if the river has a gauging station there should be information on flood levels and
flows, and care should be taken that the gauging station rating curve used is
suitable for high flows. In particular, if ‘drowning’ of gauging structures occurs,
this must be taken into account in the rating. In addition, flood water may
bypass the gauging site (and, hence, not be measured). Photographs of the
gauging station during flood flows are very helpful.
The designer should also look at the impact of any future developments,
highlighted in the catchment plans or local plans, which may impact upon the
runoff and affect future flood peak flows, especially for urban storm events.
19
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Low flows
For diversion channels, the low flow is likely to be as important as the flood
flows. The low flow regime is the dominant regime and influences the water
quality, self-cleansing ability, ecology, fish migration, recreation, visual amenity
and access for maintenance.
It is recommended that low flow data should be collected. Low flow data can
often be collected from gauging station records, especially where water resource
or environmental information has been important. If these data are not available,
low flow estimates can be made using flow gaugings and/or hydrological
calculation.
Sediments
Properties of bed material can be determined by taking a bulk sample of sediments
and grading the sediment through a variety of sieves. Some indication can be
made of the sediment load upstream and downstream of the diversion channel
from knowledge of the nature of the catchment.
2.3.4. Engineering data

The engineering data should include a ground investigation appropriate to the size
of the diversion channel and design stage under consideration. Issues that would
be important at the outline design stage are:
• local survey of the existing channel and floodplain at the site, defining channel
alignment, size, slope, bed material and floodplain extent
• local survey of any proposed route of the diversion channel
• soil conditions – particular concerns include:
❍ running sand close to the line of the proposed channel
❍ weak material close to any proposed structure on the channel
• permeability of ground and depth of groundwater
• contaminated material, which may need to be removed from the site or capped
prior to the site being suitable for use
• topography of adjacent land
• constraints, such as services, land uses, buildings and infrastructure.
Another main element of engineering data is that related to the practicalities of

construction that should, at the outline design stage, be obtained from a
reconnaissance of the site and surrounding area. The particular issues to be
considered are:
• timing and duration of the works

• need for temporary works (e.g. dewatering)
• traffic disruption (e.g. for road closure)
• location of services
• storage and disposal of material
20
OUTLINE DESIGN
• environmental impact of construction works (e.g. passage of fish)

• health and safety aspects, in particular, the requirements of the CDM
Regulations (see Section 8).
2.3.5. Environmental data

Environmental data should be collected at the outline design stage in order to
provide environmental information on the existing river, identify potential
impacts of the works and specify design requirements. The statutory obligation
is for the Environment Agency, Internal Drainage Boards, flood defence
operating authorities and developers to submit planning applications to comply
with Section 16 of the Water Resources Act 1991, Section 12 of the Land
Drainage Act 1991 and implementation of the European Community (EC)
Directive 97/11/EC. These require that a detailed survey should be made of the
local flora and fauna as well as archaeological and other features. The study
will include a ‘river corridor survey’ to identify habitats and wildlife, both
along the river and in adjoining land. The results of this ecological and habitat
survey are recorded on maps, together with information on the river bank
features and bank vegetation. Detailed information on river corridor surveys
can be found in Holmes (1986).
Much of this baseline data are required for an Environmental Impact
Assessment. The amount and nature of information collected depends on the
importance of the issues. Table 2 outlines some of the key information that may
be required. The extent of data collection will depend on the likely significance of
the impacts.
If any data are not available for a particular issue, information may need to be
collected. The Environment Agency recommends standard methodologies for
many areas, as listed in Table 3.
Table 2. Baseline data (information from Environment Agency, 1996a)

Issue Information required
Water quality Fisheries ecosystem class, potable supply, discharges

Water resources Public water supply, industrial/agricultural supply, abstractions
Flood defence Flood storage area, flood protection/sea defence structure, tidal barrier,
floodplain
Fisheries Salmonid, mixed, coarse, commercial fishery/no life
Recreation Boating, walking, fishing, immersion water sports, bird-watching
Conservation Habitat value, conservation interest, landscape type, archaeological
interest, sites or landscapes of cultural heritage importance
Navigation Commercial, leisure, non-navigable
21
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Table 3. Standard methodologies for data collection (information from

Environment Agency, 1996a)
Issue Methodology Status
Water quality Fisheries ecosystem classification

Special ecosystem classification Being developed
Water resources Hydrometric survey In place
Abstraction licence database Being developed
Flood defence Flood defence surveys Standard
Fisheries Fisheries surveys
Fisheries classification Being developed
Recreation No standard methodology
Conservation River corridor survey Published
River landscape assessment Published
River habitat survey Published
System for evaluating rivers for Being finalised
conservation (SERCON)
Archaeology Follow ‘Planning Policy
and Guidance Note’ 13
Historic landscapes No standard methodology
Navigation No standard methodology
2.4. OUTLINE DESIGN

The objectives of the outline design include the following:
• identify all the constraints to be considered in the river diversion design, one of
which is to meet all the requirements of a planning application
• identify mitigation/enhancement opportunities
• produce a sketch design showing key dimensions and levels.
2.4.1. Site selection and layout

Among the most important initial decisions in designing a river diversion are the
location, route, length and layout of channel. A prospective site for a river
diversion must satisfy a wide range of requirements.
Site availability and access

Issues to be considered include land ownership and constraints on land use. For
example, there may be a right of way over the site. There may also be issues
associated with gaining access to the site, either from a legal point of view or in
terms of delivering large plant or equipment to the site.
Topographical considerations
A primary requirement of a river diversion is a suitable route where the ground
levels are similar to the existing river in order to avoid the need for excessive
earthworks or culverts.
22
OUTLINE DESIGN
One of the main design criteria of a permanent diversion would be to ensure

that the gradient of the diversion is similar to the existing river, thereby
maintaining the dynamic equilibrium of the river as closely as possible. There are
a number of acceptable and unacceptable realignment scenarios, which can best
be illustrated by considering a river diversion due to a road construction or flood
alleviation scheme.
Figure 3 shows the acceptable and unacceptable options where environmental
conservation and enhancement opportunities are either ignored (options (a) and
(c) or integrated into the design (options (b) and (d)) but are developed within the
same constraints. Option (b) shows a mirror image scheme, which may be an ideal
route for a diversion if the land is available but usually this option proves
impractical owing to land availability, topography, physical features or
development. Option (d) involves a diversion that is shorter than the existing
river it replaces. A weir has been included to avoid steepening the river slope. Part
of the original river has been retained in order to provide opportunities for
environmental enhancement.
Old meanders from the diverted river may be available and provide
opportunities for environmental enhancement, as indicated in option (b).
Many historic designed or vernacular landscapes have altered semi-natural
watercourses. If the proposed works involve the decision to modify, revert or
maintain historic works to the river, this must be fully documented and justified.
Historic works were sometimes of substantial scale and may relate to the setting
or function of historic buildings or features. If further information is required in
such cases, the English Register of Parks and Gardens may be a useful starting
point (the Register is held by English Heritage, 23 Savile Row, London, W1S
2ET).
The proposed route may be restricted by the presence of trees, which may be
protected. If possible these restrictions should be worked around. The route
chosen will be the simplest available taking into account topography, existing
property, areas for future development and sites of conservation and
archaeological interest but can also consider opportunities for environmental
enhancement.
Ground conditions
Ground conditions must be taken into account in planning the layout of the river
diversion. Issues to be considered include unsuitable material for excavation (for
example, rock), and the permeability of the ground and depth of groundwater.
Contaminated land
If contaminated land is encountered for a permanent diversion, it may be more
economic to find an alternative solution. If this were not possible the material
excavated may be subject to Waste Management Licence and Landfill Tax and
may be removed from the site. Alternatively, on-site remediation action may be
taken. It is important in this situation to contact the Waste Management Authority.
Any material exposed may need to be capped and the permanent diversion would
require to be lined to ensure no contamination to the surface water from
23
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Unacceptable Acceptable
3
5
Pr
op
Ne
os
w
ed
roa
r
2
oa
1
d
d
(a) (b)
Unacceptable Acceptable
4
2 (b)
1 3
(c) (d)
(a) Unacceptable realignment to avoid road. Impacts: gradient will be steepened, habitat lost and erosion potential
(b) Acceptable alternative to (a) as the hydraulic gradient is maintained and potential habitat is created:
1. Realigned channel as mirror image of the original
2. Spoil fills part of the channel
3. Section develops as isolated pond
4. 'New' land incorporated with wildlife potential
5. Backwater created from old channel
(c) Unacceptable realignment to improve flood capacity locally. Impacts: gradient steepened, habitat lost and erosion
potential increased
(d) Acceptable alternative to (c) as habitat is maintained and erosion potential is not increased:
1. Straight cut eliminates meander
2. Drop weir or rock armoured riffle with pool, dissipates excess energy and stabilises upstream bed level
and velocities
3. Spoil fills part of old channel or is left as a flood/low-flow channel
4. Old channel developed as backwater refuge
Figure 3. Acceptable and unacceptable options for river diversion (adapted from
RSPB et al., 1994 by kind permission of the RSPB).
24
OUTLINE DESIGN
groundwater. The lining would then be hidden by gravel or soil and stabilised by
vegetation. The solution would depend on the morphology of the channel. For
example, this solution may not be appropriate for a geomorphologically active
channel where severe erosion could occur.
2.4.2. Flow rate

An estimate of the design flow rate is required at the outline design stage in order
to size the channel. The method for calculating the flow rate is given in Section 3.
In the design process, the following should be taken into account:
• what is the desired standard to which the channel should be designed? (this is
usually specified as a flood of a specified return period)
• the design flood could be exceeded by a more extreme event and the impact of
higher flows must be considered
• the flow for a flood of specified return period could increase in the future as a
result of climate change, development and other land use changes in the
catchment.
If the diversion is temporary, and only the contractor’s work will be affected by
inadequate provision for flow, then the contractor’s risk assessment should
balance the cost of providing a larger diversion against the risk of inundation of
the works. If other parties are likely to be affected by inadequate provision for
flow then the decision on the standard of design flood is likely to be made by the
river authority.
2.4.3. Hydraulic design

The size and shape of a permanent diversion to take all the flow should be as close
to the existing shape and size of the existing channel as possible. The exceptions
to this would be where the existing channel was over designed or where the
opportunity is taken to enhance an existing degraded channel. For example, a
smaller low flow channel together with berms on the adjacent floodplains to
provide the required flood capacity could replace an oversized channel. In these
situations, the geomorphological assessment would be taken into account in the
design of the channel.
Usually, the channel will be designed to provide the same flow capacity as the
existing channel. Possible exceptions include:
• requirement for a larger flood capacity, when the channel may be larger
• where the channel is designed for low flows and more frequent flooding is
permitted.
An example of a river diversion is the Wraysbury River, which was diverted

owing to construction of the M25 20 years ago. The diversion channel was made
25
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Figure 4. Wraysbury River – existing river downstream of the diversion
completely straight and over-wide. Over the past 20 years the channel has created
its own berms, which have become vegetated and the channel has begun to
meander within those berms. The existing river downstream of the diversion
channel was also affected by the construction and is trying to return to its more
natural condition as shown in Figure 4. The banks are now vegetated with small
trees and the banks are beginning to erode to a more natural shape. As Figure 4
shows, the return to a more natural state is taking a long time as the river is not
very active morphologically. This is an example where a geomorphological
assessment would have provided important design information on the stability and
rate of change of the channel.
The formula for the outline design of the channel is given in Equation 1 in
Section 4.4.1. This will provide a channel shape of the required cross-sectional
area and hydraulic radius (area/wetted perimeter). The shape can then be modified
to include environmental enhancements, such as variability in channel shape.
The outline design should include details of hydraulic structures associated with
the diversion. These might include:
• a weir, to avoid an increase in channel slope (see Figure 3(d))

• structures for controlling the discharge into flood relief and other diversion
channels
• bridges and culverts.
26
OUTLINE DESIGN
2.4.4. Environmental aspects

Environmental issues that need to be considered at the outline design stage are
discussed below. Where significant adverse impacts are identified, a description
of the mitigation measures envisaged should be prepared in order to avoid,
reduce or remedy these effects. If mitigation measures cannot be identified,
enhancement opportunities may be provided elsewhere on the site or at other
locations to offset the adverse impacts of the proposed design, although this will
not be appropriate where irreversible impacts are likely for critical
environmental features.
Local population
The impact on the population, housing, services and employment should be
investigated. The impact of the proposed river diversion on the local population
should be cross-referenced with other issues being considered, such as noise,
traffic and land use.
Noise and vibration

The noise and vibration associated with a river diversion will mainly be at the
construction stage when the level of noise may impact on people and livestock in
terms of quality of life and ability to work. Background noise levels should be
monitored prior to the project and the equipment used, especially for piling during
construction in an urban or populated area, should be kept to a minimum avoiding
noise and vibration at all opportunities. One example of reducing noise is the use
of vibrated sheeting instead of traditional percussion pile driving and there is plant
available with which to carry out silent piling. However, the choice of plant will
be determined in part by the soil type on site.
The timing of the works during the day in urban and residential areas may be
restricted to avoid excessive impact and disturbance to people.
Traffic and transport

As with noise and vibration, the increase in traffic and transport associated with a
river diversion will occur during the construction phase. The greatest impact is
likely to be caused by lorries transporting earth and construction materials. There
will be an increase in dirt and dust, greater danger to pedestrians, an increase in
the volume and type of traffic and the associated impact on local traffic network.
Provision will be required for vehicle parking, pedestrians and cyclists.
Background levels of traffic can be measured before the construction phase.
Based on this information, a prediction of construction traffic load and movement
can be made and thought can be given to precautions and mitigation measures to
be taken. The issues to be considered should include the access to the site, layout
of the site, and management of traffic on the site and to and from the public
highway. The description of existing traffic movement will incorporate the
volume, and daily and seasonal variations of traffic flow. Mitigation measures
may include erection of noise barriers and agreeing upon freight routes with the
local authorities and local residents.
27
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Land use and landscape

A river diversion channel presents an opportunity to enhance the local landscape.
The impact of the diversion and associated developments on local settlements and
their inhabitants needs to be addressed. As a general rule, mitigation measures in
the design of permanent diversions that satisfy ecological issues will also address
the majority of concerns for natural or semi-natural rivers.
A permanent diversion will result in the abandonment of the old river channel
and the way in which the existing channel and associated vegetation is landscaped
requires careful consideration. For example, it will be desirable to retain mature
and veteran riverside trees wherever possible both for landscape and wildlife
reasons. Sections of abandoned river channel could be retained and incorporated
into the landscaping of the area.
A different approach will apply in historic, designed or urban situations in order
to ensure that important features are retained. While urban rivers are easily
identified, historic or designed river features are not always readily apparent or
well recorded. Relevant information may be obtained by consulting historic map
sources, the relevant national historic landscape registers, the Garden History
Society, and specialists in historic landscape.
The outline design for the scheme should include landscape sketches to
illustrate the impact of the scheme on the landscape.
Impact on flora and fauna

The impact on flora and fauna may be assessed from the results of the river
corridor survey and consultations with local wildlife groups and the local or
county ecologist at the local authority offices. Any sites of special scientific
interest (SSSIs), environmentally sensitive areas (ESAs), which might be affected
by the scheme, should be identified. Outline design proposals should include
mitigation measures. The timing of the scheme should make allowance for such
issues as bird nesting.
Passage of fish
The scheme should not worsen conditions for fish, including allowing for the
passage of fish where required. The timing of the works should make allowance
for fish migration and spawning. Fish rescues and the transfer of fish from the old
channel to the new channel may be required.
Recreation
Access for fishermen and ramblers may be required, especially if there is an
existing public footpath. Moving a public footpath can be subject to rights of way
procedures and it would be necessary to consult the local authority. Other
recreation facilities, for example, use of the river for canoeing and sailing, may
need to be maintained or created as an enhancement resulting from the scheme.
Navigation
The new channel may be required to permit the passage of boats and canoes. In
such cases a channel of adequate width and depth for the boats in question must be
28
OUTLINE DESIGN
provided. The navigation authority should be consulted and, in the case of main
rivers, this will usually be the Environment Agency.
Archaeology
Archaeological sites that may be affected by the scheme should be identified. The
county archaeologist should be contacted in order to obtain this information.
2.4.5. Operation and maintenance

The design of the river diversion should take account of future operation and
maintenance requirements. These might include the following:
(a) Access to control structures, particularly during flood events where the
floodplain and local roads may be underwater.
(b) Access to screens, bridges and other locations where debris could accumulate
and cause blockages to flood flows.
(c) The requirements for river maintenance should be agreed with the river
authority before the design is carried out. Maintenance might involve
dredging, cutting of vegetation in the channel and, on the banks, the removal
of rubbish and repairs to structures, bank protection, etc. Provision should be
made in the design to permit access for maintenance using appropriate plant,
which could either be land mounted or floating plant.
29
Part B
Detailed design
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Part B covers the detailed design of the diversion channel. Figure 5 illustrates the
components of the detailed design procedure. The hydraulic and engineering
design, which concerns the layout and physical dimensions of the diversion, must
at the outset consider all other relevant aspects, including geomorphology,
environment, landscape and recreation. It may also be necessary to consider other
related issues, for example, river water quality.
Design flow
Chapter 3
Boundary conditions Plan form Channel shape Sizing the channel Channel size
Section 4.1 and Appendix 1 Section 4.2 Section 4.3 Section 4.4 and shape
Flow velocity Channel resistance Environmental features Channel

Section 4.5 Section 4.6 and Appendix 2 Section 4.7 hydraulics
Additional
In-channel structures Bank protection Sediment transport Environmental factors design
Chapter 5 Section 4.8 Chapter 6 Section 4.10 aspects
Design of river diversions
Figure 5. Design procedure for river diversions
32
Design flowrate
3
3. Design flow rate
The design flow rate for the diversion is normally based on the design flood flow:
(a) Replacing the existing channel: permanent, wet diversion channel. If the
diversion channel is to replace the existing channel then the flow capacity
should be at least the same as the existing channel. However, it is good
practice to design for a particular design flood in order to minimise the
possibility of the diversion channel causing flooding in areas that were not
previously at risk of flooding.
In this situation care must be taken to ensure that increasing the flow
capacity of the channel does not cause morphological or environmental
concerns. For example, an enlarged channel may silt up and revert to its
former natural size unless regularly maintained.
(b) Diversion of flood flows: dry diversion channel. The diversion channel may
be a dry channel, only required to take the flood flows during flood
conditions. In this case the design flow will be the difference between the
total design flow and the capacity of the existing channel.
(c) Diversion of part of flow: wet diversion channel. For a wet diversion channel,
which carries part of the total flow, the channel design will need to
accommodate only part of the overall flow at any time. However, the
diversion arrangements must permit some flow in the diversion channel for
the full range of flows. For normal flows, the flow split will be based on
morphological and environmental considerations.
For all these situations, the following decisions need to be taken:
• the range of flows that will be required in the diversion channel

• the impact of flows that exceed the design flood event – in many diversion
channels, there is a possibility of causing flooding in areas that were not
previously at risk
• the in-channel design flow
• the design low flow for wet diversion channels, which is required to ensure that
the channel provides acceptable conditions for fish, recreation, etc.
35
RIVER DIVERSIONS
3.1. FLOOD FLOWS

The standard procedures for estimating design flood flows are contained in the
Flood Estimation Handbook (FEH) (IH, 1999). For outline design the FEH
statistical procedures or gauged data can be used to provide a single design flow
of a specified return period.
For detailed design either:
• use the full FEH statistical procedure, calibrated using local data on flood flows
and water levels, or
• where there are no local data, use the FEH statistical and rainfall-runoff
methods and average the results.
In either case, reference must be made to the FEH, including the associated
software produced by the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology. Alternatively,
estimates can be made using methods presented in standard hydrological
textbooks on hydrology and flow estimation.
Hydrological estimates obtained using any hydrological procedure, including
the FEH, are subject to a considerable degree of uncertainty. Where possible the
estimates should be ‘calibrated’ using observed river flow and water level data.
The FEH procedures specifically apply to the UK. In other countries alternative
methods must be used. For example, the US Soil Conservation Service method is
widely used (US SCS, 1972).
3.1.1. Design flood

The first step is to decide the design flood return period. This is usually 1 in 100
years for an urban area and less for rural areas. The Ministry of Agriculture,
Fisheries and Food (MAFF) provide guidance on the level of protection required.
The normal design parameter required for river diversion design is the peak flood
flow. However, where the volume of floodwater passing through the channel is
also important, for example where flood storage is significant, a predicted flood
hydrograph will also be needed.
The FEH statistical procedure will provide an estimate of the design flood
peak flow. This procedure is based on calculation of a median annual flood and
the use of growth curves to estimate flood flows of different return periods. If a
flood hydrograph is required, it is necessary to use the FEH rainfall-runoff
method.
3.1.2. Use of gauged data

River diversions are often used in relatively small catchments where gauged data
are not available. However, where there is a convenient flow gauging station with
a sufficient length of record, flow data should be used to obtain the median annual
flood. These records may be obtained from the relevant river authority or the UK
Surface Water Archive at the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Wallingford. In
36
DESIGN FLOW R ATE
this case, an adjustment may be needed to take account of the difference between
the catchment areas at the gauging station and the site.
The accuracy of recorded flows at many gauging stations during floods is
variable because of uncertainties, such as flows bypassing the gauging site or lack
of check calibration flow gaugings at high flows. If the estimated median annual
flood obtained from local data is significantly less than the FEH prediction, the
cause should be investigated and, if in doubt, the FEH figure should be used.
3.2. BANKFULL FLOW

Where the flood flow exceeds the capacity of the river channel, an additional
design flow will be needed for the design of the channel itself. In this case the
excess flood flow would be accommodated on flood ‘berms’ adjacent to the river
channel. It is suggested that the channel is designed for the larger of:
• the capacity of the existing channel

• the mean annual flood.
3.3. TEMPORARY RIVER DIVERSIONS

For temporary diversions it is generally recommended that the above design flows
should be adopted. However, there are circumstances where lower design flows
than the 1 in 100-year flood could be accepted, for example:
• where a risk assessment indicates that a lower flood return period could be
accepted as the diversion will only be in place for a very short period compared
with the design life of a permanent diversion, and no other sites or properties
are at risk
• where additional capacity, for example, flow through the work site, could be
quickly provided with no great additional expense and danger.
3.4. LOW FLOWS

It is recommended that the channel design is checked for a design low flow rate in
order to ensure that an adequate depth of water is maintained for ecological,
fisheries, recreation and amenity reasons. It is suggested that the 95 percentile
flow (i.e. the flow that is exceeded for 95% of the time) is used, as data for this
flow are relatively easy to obtain. It may be obtained for the nearest gauging
station, either directly from the river authority or from the Hydrometric Register
and Statistics (IH, 1998). An adjustment would be needed to take account of the
difference between the catchment areas at the gauging station and the site.
37
RIVER DIVERSIONS
The maintenance of minimum flows, or sweetening flows as they are known, is

often a neglected area in design. This may be due partly to the fact that there is yet
to be a modelling tool developed that can successfully predict exactly what flow is
the crucial required amount to sustain the ecology of the river. In addition to the
use of the 95 percentile flow, other approaches include modelling, simple rules of
thumb and comparisons to similar rivers.
38
Detailed channeldesign
4
4. Detailed channel design
4.1. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Before the channel can be designed it is necessary to calculate the ‘boundary
conditions’, which consist of the design flow and the water level at the
downstream end of the diversion (referred to as the ‘tailwater elevation’).
Calculation of the design flow is given in Chapter 3. Calculation of the tailwater
elevation is given below.
4.1.1. Tailwater elevation

The tailwater elevation (TWL) is required for the design flow calculated in
Chapter 3. There are three principal methods for carrying this out:
• normal depth method

• backwater method
• observation.
The normal depth method may be used where the river downstream is
reasonably uniform in shape and slope for a distance of 07 D/s m, where D is the
channel depth and s is the water surface slope. This distance is referred to as the
‘backwater length’.
The backwater method should be used except where good observations of flood
flows and corresponding water levels are available.
Where available, observations of flood events may be used to construct a rating
curve (plot of water level against flow) and estimate the water level for the design
flood flow. Observed water level data should be used with caution because of
possible inaccuracies or failure to record the level at the flood peak.
4.1.2. Normal depth method

The depth of water at the downstream end of the river diversion is calculated by
applying Manning’s equation to a channel cross-section located just downstream
of the diversion channel entering the main channel. The method is given in
Appendix 1. The method assumes that TWL is not affected by any controls
downstream of where the diversion re-enters the main channel.
41
RIVER DIVERSIONS
4.1.3. Backwater method

The depth of water at the downstream end of the river diversion is determined by
calculating the water surface profile from a point some way downstream of the
end of the diversion channel up to where the diversion channel re-enters the main
channel. The backwater calculation should be carried out from either the first
control point downstream of the diversion channel outlet or a distance equivalent
to the backwater length downstream of the outlet. The backwater length (L) may
be estimated using the formula in Section 4.1.1 with s as the mean bed slope.
Several cross sections should be surveyed between the downstream end of the
diversion channel and the control point or downstream limit of the backwater
length. The most convenient way of applying the backwater method is to use
computer software.
To use this method manually, the cross sections should be simplified to a
common geometric shape for ease of calculation, for example, trapezoidal or
rectangular, over the length covered by the backwater calculation.
The procedure for calculating the backwater length is given in Appendix 1.
4.1.4. Observations
At some sites, where recent floods have occurred, information may be available
that relates the flow rate to the depth of water in the channel. If this technique is to
be used then the designers must be aware of two issues:
• accuracy of observed water elevation and flow rate

• difference between the design flow calculated in Chapter 3 and the maximum
observed flood flow at the site.
A rating curve (plot of water level against flow) should be constructed using the
observed data and should be used to estimate the water level for the design flood
flow.
4.2. PLAN FORM

General considerations regarding the layout of the diversion channel are given in
Section 2.4.1. From the engineering point of view, the length of diversion channel
should be as close as possible to the length of the existing channel. If the length of
the overall diversion channel is less than the existing channel it replaces, it should
be increased if possible. This can be achieved by the introduction of bends and
meanders. This will improve the morphological stability of the channel and will
help to maintain continuity of conditions of habitat for flora and fauna. Where it is
not possible to increase the channel length, a weir, or weirs, should be introduced
to avoid an increase in the river-bed slope.
The presence of bends or meanders in an open channel causes an additional
resistance to flow, over and above that found in an equivalent straight reach. The
42
DE TAILED CHANNEL DESIGN
ability to predict the magnitude of this effect is of importance in assessing both

the normal flow capacity and the performance of the diversion channel under
flood conditions. Guidance on assessing the resistance of channel bends and
meanders is given in Section 4.6.
Bends are more difficult to accommodate in design than straight channels but
they provide diverse habitats on the bed and banks of the river. On the outside of
bends there can be steep cliff banks and deeper water, providing good habitats for
fish and birds. On the inside of bends there is shallow water, and shoals and bays
are formed.
There can be potential difficulties with erosion due to bends, and bank
protection may need to be provided and incorporated into the design. Section 4.8
provides some techniques and examples of bank protection for use on bends to
protect against erosion.
4.3. CHANNEL CROSS-SECTION SHAPE

The cross-sectional shape of the channel must be sufficient to pass the design
flow. In general terms, it should be similar in size and shape to the existing
channel except where there is a change in design flow capacity. The cross-section
shape should also fulfil a number of other objectives including:
• stable bed and banks

• lateral and longitudinal variations to provide diversity of habitat – the cross
section at bends will typically be deep on the outside of the bend and shallow
on the inside of the bend and other environmental enhancements may include
such features as reed beds
• provision of berms to provide flood capacity
• low flow channel.
The general shape of the channel should be determined before the detailed
sizing of each cross section of the channel is carried out.
4.4. SIZING THE CHANNEL

The procedure for sizing the channel is as follows:
1. Undertake an initial design using the Manning equation to obtain a first

estimate of channel size.
2. Undertake a backwater calculation using the design downstream tailwater
elevation to determine water levels along the diversion. Any hydraulic
structures should be included in the design at this stage.
3. Refine the design to include environmental and other features.
43
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Steps 2 and 3 may be undertaken using a computational model depending on time

and cost constraints.
4.4.1. Hydraulic capacity

When the design flow has been selected an initial estimate of the size of channel
can be made based on steady state conditions using Manning’s formula, as
described below in Equation 1.
AR 2=3 s1=2
Q 1
n
where Q is the design flow
A is the cross-sectional area of flow
R is hydraulic radius ( A/P)
P is the wetted perimeter of the channel
s is the water surface slope
n is a roughness coefficient. Values are given in Appendix 2.
The process for applying the formula is as follows:
• decide the channel shape and design water level

• calculate flow
• is the flow approximately equal to the design flow? If not, change the channel
shape/water level and repeat.
The slope, s, is initially taken as the bed slope of the existing channel and the
initial estimate of roughness can be determined as described in Section 4.6 below.
A fuller description of the application of the Manning equation is given in
Appendix 1 (Section A1.1).
A river channel normally consists of the following:
• a main channel, with a maximum flow similar in magnitude to the mean annual
flood
• an area on either bank for flood flows which, combined with the main channel,
is able to carry the design flood flow
• in some cases there is a low flow channel within the main channel.
If the diversion channel is to completely replace the existing channel, estimates

of the channel size can initially be the same size and shape as the existing main
channel. The baseline geomorphological assessment of the existing channel will
describe the shape and size and bed gradient. Advice should be given in the
assessment on the impacts on the river channel of making changes, such as:
• different gradient
• different size or shape.
44
Decisions can then be made about any design changes or mitigation measures
that may be required to negate or reduce the impacts of the changes.
If the diversion channel is to take part of the total flow and is to be wet under
normal conditions, the split of flow under a range of conditions needs to be
determined and the size of channel designed to carry this range of flow.
The design flow for the main channel is usually close to bankfull flow. Once
the bankfull area of the channel is decided, consideration can be given to the
extremes of the flow range and to the channel shape in order to accommodate the
design and other flows. The low flow channel should be designed to provide
sufficient depth and velocities for water quality and environmental reasons.
Section 4.9 describes the requirements for water quality in more detail. Section
3.4 outlines methods for determining low flow conditions within channels to meet
ecological requirements.
The final hydraulic design of the channel should be undertaken using the
backwater method outlined in Appendix 1. The backwater method can be used for
the final design, as the channel is unlikely to be uniform and there may be little
observed flood data available. This method takes account of the water level for the
design flow at the downstream end of the diversion and the fact that the water
surface is not parallel to the bed. The final design should also include the impact
of structures, including control structures, bridges and culverts (see Chapter 5).
Computational hydraulic models are normally used to undertake backwater
calculations. Models of the existing river and diversion channels can be used to
determine the detailed design and size of the channel. Where flood storage is
significant, the models can be run in unsteady flow. In this case a flow hydrograph
is used as input data at the upstream end of the diversion and a rating curve
(relationship between water level and flow) is used at the downstream end.
The initial design of the channel can be entered into the model and tested for
the design flows. Modelling of the river diversion design has the following
advantages over manual methods of design:
• complex channel shapes can be used without the need to calculate section
properties by hand
• the design can be tested easily for a range of flow conditions
• dimensions can be changed easily to optimise the design
• the design can be tested under unsteady flow conditions, which takes account of
storage on the floodplain
• the shape and roughness of the channel can be changed easily to take account of
environmental features, such as vegetation.
4.4.2. Bed slope

The bed slope of the diversion channel should be kept as close as possible to the
slope of the existing channel. This assumes that the existing channel is stable
dynamically and is not eroding or accreting. The geomorphological assessment of
the channel will give an indication of the current stability and dynamic
45
RIVER DIVERSIONS
equilibrium of the channel. If the existing channel is in dynamic equilibrium, this

bed slope should be maintained as far as possible.
Where there is limited space, it may not be possible to maintain the same length
of channel through a diversion channel that is completely replacing an existing
channel. In this situation it would be important to try and maintain the slope of the
channel by other means. This could be achieved using weirs or drop structures as
described in Section 5.1.1. Natural materials can be used to create these structures.
When the bed slope of a previously dynamically stable river is changed there is
the possibility of accretion or erosion upstream or downstream of the site as the
channel tries to return to a dynamically stable condition. Care should be taken in
designing the bed slope to ensure morphological stability.
Smooth uniform channel beds do not encourage species diversity. To encourage
a range of flora, fauna and fisheries, the physical habitat of a diversion channel
should be varied. Pool and riffle sequences are a widely accepted way of varying
conditions and their rapid development after diversion work is completed is vital
to the restoration of fish stocks. The geomorphological assessment should give
indications of whether the pool and riffle features are natural to the channel.
Pools and riffles in a river channel locally cause the channel slope to deviate
from the average channel slope for a reach. This results in marked changes from
steep to shallow longitudinal slopes. At low river flows this change in profile can
lead to a shallow cascade flow over riffles, leading to a deeper tranquil flow in the
pools. Turbulence in riffles increases oxygenation, while the pools are more
stable, sheltered and rich in organic matter.
4.5. FLOW VELOCITY

Flow velocity influences rates of sedimentation and erosion, the grading of
substrate, and suitability of a site for certain types of fish, invertebrates and plants.
Depth also influences these variables and interacts with velocity to determine the
morphological and hydrological conditions within the channel. The relationship
between velocity and depth is vital to the maintenance of biodiversity. An
example of this can be seen in a natural channel where pool-riffle sequences
provide a variety of velocities and depths suitable for a range of fish to survive
and spawn in, as shown in Figure 6. If the pool-riffle sequence is lost, the
abundance and diversity of fish will decrease.
If the intention is that the diverted reach should reproduce the original reach,
then the velocities and depths in the diverted reach should match those in the
original reach. Changes to the velocity or depth may change the channel
morphology and habitats.
4.6. CHANNEL RESISTANCE

The channel resistance is represented in the Manning equation by the roughness
coefficient n. The definition of the roughness of the channel is important in
46
Maximum
velocity
Edge of
riffle or
shoal
Pool
Riffle
Pool
Riffle
(a)
Pool Pool
Riffle
Fine sediment
(gravel)
and some gravel
(b)
Figure 6. Water flow and structural components of pool riffle sequences: (a) plan
view; and (b) long profile (adapted from Horne and Goldman, 1994)
determining the overall capacity and size of the river channel. A major design
criteria for diversion is the ability of the channel to convey flood flows.
Determination of the flood conveyance of a channel is dependent upon values of
the roughness coefficient at bankfull flow. The values of roughness coefficients
under low flow conditions are generally higher than for flood flows. Therefore,
different values must be used for the design of the low flow channel. Roughness
coefficients are liable to vary seasonally depending on the type of vegetation
present in the channel and the maintenance carried out. If the amount of
vegetation in the channel varies significantly seasonally then different roughness
coefficients must be used for each season.
The roughness coefficient for a river channel may be determined using any
of the approaches detailed in Fisher (2000) with modification to take account
of bend losses if meanders or bends occur in the study reach. These methods
are all qualitative or semi-qualitative and involve the use of comparison of the
intended design channel with pictures or selecting the roughness values from a
list depending on the channel characteristics. As an initial estimate, the latter
of these two approaches is recommended and the list is reproduced in
Appendix 2.
If other environmental features, such as vegetation, are incorporated into the
channel design, this may alter the initial roughness estimate. Care must be taken
when evaluating channel roughness for vegetated channels as the n value is likely
47
RIVER DIVERSIONS
to vary seasonally. Fisher (2000) provides detailed methods for determining the
roughness of a channel with a range of environmental features.
Large-scale roughness elements, such as boulders, are sometimes used for the
creation of rock pools in steep streams in order to improve the spawning and
nursery areas for fish. The size of boulders is often similar to, or greater than, the
depth of flow in the channel under normal flow conditions. Standard equations for
small-scale roughness do not apply to large-scale roughness where, locally, the
flow is non-uniform with zones of separation, acceleration and deceleration
around the roughness elements. Fisher (2000) provides details of the methods of
analysis for these large-scale roughness elements.
4.7. ENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES

River diversion channels are often required to conserve and, possibly, enhance the
natural environment. Where a natural river channel is replaced by a diversion
channel, the new channel should be as natural and sustainable as possible. Even
where the diversion channel replaces a length of river channel where there is little
environmental interest, the new channel provides an opportunity for
environmental enhancement.
Environmentally sensitive river diversion schemes may include a range of
features, such as bends and islands. While these features are desirable from an
environmental point of view, the amount of land required is likely to be greater
than for a conventional scheme.
This Section describes features that can be incorporated into diversion channels
for environmental reasons. When using any of these options in the design of a
diversion channel, it is important to ensure that the resulting channel has sufficient
flood capacity. Methods for assessing the impact of environmental enhancements
on the hydraulic performance of the river are given in Fisher (2000).
4.7.1. Pools and riffles

Pools and riffles are found in many natural channels and provide variation in
depth and flow velocity. Pools and riffles are particularly important for fisheries
as they provide a suitable range of conditions for breeding. Research indicates that
the average spacing of pools and riffles should be between five to seven times the
width of the channel. A typical layout of pools and riffles in a straight channel are
shown in Figure 7. The Thalweg is shown in Figure 7 as the central flow path.
This frequency also applied to meandering streams but pools will generally
occur on the outside of bends where there is normally a natural area of relatively
deep water. This alternating pool riffle sequence, present in practically all
channels that have bed material larger than coarse sand, is characteristic of most
salmonid streams.
The location and spacing of the pool/riffle sequences and the type of material to
be used will be unique to each river. As a general rule, if there are pool/riffle
48
Thalweg Pool Riffle Pool
Pool
5 to 7 channel widths
Figure 7. Pool riffle sequence in a straight channel
sequences within the existing river, the spacing of these features and the type and
size of gravels on the riffles should be transferred to the diversion channel, as far
as is reasonable. In diversion channels they may be constructed or encouraged by
the use of current deflectors or groynes. The location of the pools and riffles
should match the existing channel.
A feature of riffles is that water flows through, as well as over, the gravel,
allowing fish eggs and small benthic invertebrates to obtain oxygen and protection
from predators.
4.7.2. Current deflectors/groynes

Groynes consist of structures that project from the river bank into the river. They
are used traditionally as engineering structures to concentrate the flow, thus
providing a deep main channel, and to protect the river banks. These structures are
commonly used for environmental enhancement in order to:
• alter flow direction and protect banks

• concentrate low flows, thus helping to maintain a low flow channel, and to
create scour pools and riffles.
Groynes constructed for environmental reasons are concerned primarily with

normal river flows but are less effective at bankfull flow. Groynes provide shelter
from fast flowing water as well as increasing velocities in other parts of the
channel. Additionally, they provide hard substrate for colonisation by algae and
mosses. During low flows, exposed groynes may simulate temporary shoal
habitats, suitable for colonisation by flowering plants. The introduction of groynes
may increase the biological productivity of the reach as they increase the length of
channel boundary where most biological activity occurs. Various plan forms of
groynes are shown in Figure 8 and an example of their use can be seen on the
River Skerne (Figure 9). The impact of groynes on maximum flood flows should
be considered. More information on the hydraulic impact of groynes can be found
in a report by Seed (1997) on river training and channel protection.
49
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Flow
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Figure 8. Plan shapes of groynes: (a) straight – perpendicular to the stream;

(b) straight – slanted upstream; (c) straight – slanted downstream; (d) T-head;
(e) bayonet – slanted upstream; (f) bayonet – slanted downstream
4.7.3. Low stone weirs

Low stone weirs are generally used to create or deepen pools and to collect and
hold spawning gravels in fast flowing streams. They also maintain water levels
during periods of low flow. Low stone weirs may either be submerged under all
flow conditions or only during high flows. They are useful devices for improving
river wildlife habitats and can make a distinct improvement to the visual
appearance of the river. They can also maintain the original hydraulic gradient
on a shortened diverted river. A low stone weir on the River Tawe is shown in
Figure 10.
Low stone weirs are usually very simple structures and relatively cheap to
construct. Natural block stone, preferably of local origin, is the most appropriate
material for weir construction, both from the aesthetic and wildlife point of view.
Stone filled gabion baskets, which may be the only feasible material in lowland
50
Figure 9. Groynes on the River Skerne
catchments, are a reasonable alternative. Care must be taken to construct good

edge detailing in order to prevent local bank erosion, resulting in outflanking of
the weir.
Low stone weirs can be beneficial in a number of ways. By breaking the pattern
of water flow, and by creating turbulent conditions, the water is oxygenated better
than in quieter reaches. Particles of organic matter, which are constantly swept
Figure 10. Low stone weir on the River Tawe
51
RIVER DIVERSIONS
over the substrate, provide food for larvae. The hard, stable substrate becomes
colonised by mosses, lichen and algae, which provide food and shelter for stream
invertebrates. These, in turn, provide food for fish and river birds.
Stone weirs have been used to enhance the fisheries and landscape value or the
water power potential of small rivers over many centuries. It may be preferable to
repair historic structures than to construct new structures.
4.7.4. Vegetation
There is lateral variation in the dominant plant type across natural channels due to
variations in depth, velocity and substrate. The type of vegetation present will
have an effect on the hydraulic performance of the channel. The designer should
be aware of the following;
(a) In mid-channel, broad and floating leafed plants will dominate if velocity is
low, and may significantly retard flow. This means more silt is trapped,
which smothers invertebrates.
(b) The edge of the channel is the most diverse area for plants if the bed is stable
and will be populated by stiffer species, such as reeds. In these edge zones,
silt is trapped, creating low berms, which are good habitats for invertebrates.
Their formation may be encouraged by the use of groynes.
(c) A proportion of both banks and flood berms should be vegetated in order to
provide shade, bank protection, and habitat for mammals and birds. This may
be achieved by constructing multi-stage channels, which permit hydraulic
connectivity between the channel and floodplain to be retained, and increase
floodplain storage.
(d) The intermediate vegetation established through natural succession is most
beneficial for flora and fauna. Therefore, it is important to specify a
maintenance programme. Selective pruning is a simple way to control
vegetation. It is possible to estimate the hydraulic impact of vegetation,
which depends on the amount of cover and type (Fisher, 2000).
(e) Wetlands may be established on the edge of the channel, and are rich sources
of nutrients and shelter for invertebrates and fish.
(f) The presence of trees helps provide shelter for fish and invertebrates.
(g) Topsoil should not normally be imported to the site. Local topsoil should be
reused as far as possible.
The riparian corridor bordering the channel should also be considered when
designing a new watercourse or when diverting an existing one. Mammals, such
as otters, voles, shrews and bats, all inhabit the riparian zone and require a variety
of bankside cover, including wetlands, in order to thrive. Riparian vegetation at
the edge of the channel is very important in increasing fish stocks and providing
cover, bank stability, and a source of food and shading. The ecological succession
that occurs after the creation of a diversion channel, from bare bank to fully
forested, is most beneficial for fisheries. Figure 11 shows a typical lateral
variation in vegetation across a channel.
52
Bankful WL
LWL
Bank top Bank side Channel edge Mid-channel Channel edge Bank top
Figure 11. Lateral variation in vegetation across the channel (Fisher, 2000)
4.7.5. River margins ± shallows, bays, backwaters and berms

Natural bays, backwaters and berms have often been lost in engineering works in
order to deepen and straighten rivers. They provide a range of different habitats
and shelter for fish and their fry. They also provide feeding areas for wading birds
and they allow the introduction of wetland plants, as a wetland habitat is
established. These habitats may increase the visual and aesthetic appeal and
provide greater access to the river. River/floodplain interaction is increased as the
river is brought back into contact with its floodplain. The creation of multi-stage
channels provides scope for these bays, backwaters and berms. Figure 12 shows
various options for preserving, enhancing and creating edge habitats.
4.7.6. Shoals and islands

Shoals and islands are important refuges for animals and plants. They are remote
from human disturbance and grazing animals, and vegetation is established naturally
giving shelter for animals and providing habitat for birds. By increasing the length
of riverbank, islands increase the richness and diversity of ‘edge’ habitats. There
are opportunities for island creation when flood diversion channels are created.
Figure 13 shows an island and edge habitats created during a river diversion.
53
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Before After
Bank excavated
and channel dredged
(a)
Partial dredging
(b)
Margin widened
No bankside
to create edge
margin
habitat
(c)
Figure 12. Enhancing (option a), retaining (option b) and creating (option c) edge
habitats (adapted from Brandon, RSPB et al., 1994 by kind permission of the RSPB)
4.8. BANK PROTECTION

Bank protection is often needed to stabilise riverbanks and to prevent erosion. In
addition, vegetation must be established on the channel edges to provide shading
and food for wildlife. Vegetation can also help to stabilise the riverbank and
should form a component of environmentally acceptable bank protection. This
may be achieved by using geotextiles to temporarily stabilise banks while plants
take root. Vegetation adds tensile strength to soil and distributes pressures more
evenly, increasing cohesion and strength by up to two times. Groynes may also be
54
Floodplain
Pool and
riffle
Eroding
cliff
High
ground
Incised
'by-pass'
Wooded
channel
'island' at
mid-channel
height
Willow
revetment
Consolidated
overspill
Alder
High ground
Bifurcated
channels
Figure 13. Edge habitats that can be created during river diversion (RSPB et al.,
1994 by kind permission of the RSPB)
55
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Figure 14. Grass-planted gabions with fibre rolls at the foot of the wall
used to deflect fast flows from banks (see Section 4.7.2). Figures 14–17 show
some types of bank protection that utilise both structures and vegetation. The
Environment Agency R&D publication Waterway bank protection: a guide to
erosion assessment and management (1999b) is a useful tool and a design guide
for channel revetments is also available (Escarameia, 1998).
Figure 15. Rock bank protection that is designed to become vegetated
56
Young plants
Eroded bank
Stakes
Fibre roll
Figure 16. Use of fibre rolls for bank protection (RRC, 1993)
0·1 – 0·3 m
Reed clumps
planted in
gabion basket
Willow stakes
Stone
Figure 17. Bank protection combining vegetation with stones in a gabion basket –
depending on the bed material, the channel is vulnerable to undercutting at the toe of
the gabion basket (adapted from Hemphill and Bramley, RSPB et al., 1994 by kind
permission of the RSPB)
57
RIVER DIVERSIONS
4.9. WATER QUALITY ASPECTS OF DESIGN

In a diversion channel design, the designer may have to consider water quality
aspects, including parameters such as the dissolved oxygen (DO) content, amount
of nutrients, turbidity and pollutants. In most cases, providing that the river
diversion is hydraulically sound and involves re-routing the total flow, the quality
of the water will be relatively unchanged. However, the situations where water
quality may need consideration include the following:
• if the diversion will have inflows from a sewage treatment works, the dissolved
oxygen content may be affected
• where the diversion route contains contaminated soils there is potential for the
watercourse to be polluted
• when the diversion channel has a ‘sweetening flow’ (a low flow intended to
maintain a minimum flow in the channel at all times), the impact of any
alterations to water quality is amplified.
Sections 4.9.1–4.9.4 below provide a discussion of water quality. Where there

are serious water quality concerns associated with a river diversion, specialist
advice should be sought.
4.9.1. Chemical water quality

Rivers pick up a variety of organic and inorganic materials and pollutants, in solid
and gas form, which are needed as sources of nutrients. Many of the materials
transported in water are vital, in small quantities, for the continued health of the
aquatic ecosystem. Nitrates and phosphates are the major inorganic nutrients, with
ionic silicon, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chlorine, iron and minor
metals also found in the watercourse. All of these elements are required to maintain
a healthy ecosystem but, in excess, may be harmful. Chemical pollutants in water
may be concentrated by aquatic organisms without affecting them, and may then
enter the human food chain. Mercury, lead, chlorinated hydrocarbons, insecticides
and detergents all affect aquatic species adversely and great care should be taken,
when constructing diversions, that chemicals are not spilt into the watercourse.
The elements below should be considered in river diversion work.
Sulphur
Atmospheric pollution is increasing the amount of sulphur in rivers and streams.
At times of low flow, when sediments are oxidised, hydrogen sulphide may be
released, which can kill fish and which has an unpleasant odour. Leaving dead
vegetation to rot in the channel also has this effect and it is therefore
recommended that this is removed after cutting.
Chlorine
Chlorine is vital for photosynthesis to occur but in its free form (chloramines) it is
highly toxic. Usually sunlight converts chlorine into harmless chloride ions but in
58
areas where sewage pollution is high there may be enough chloramines present to
damage fish. It is important to maintain a minimum flow during diversion work in
order to ensure enough dilution occurs.
Chelating agents
Chelating agents change toxic metals into a more stable form. The main source of
these agents is humic acid and citrate, which are both produced during leaf death. The
presence of overhanging vegetation is desirable in order to maintain a supply of leaves.
Sediments
Transported sediments can cause turbidity that impairs the respiration of fish,
buries plants and covers spawning gravel. Turbidity increases with velocity and
affects the amount of light reaching the river bed. Sediments act as a site for ion
exchange between the aqueous and solid phases of inorganics. Consequently,
when concentrations of inorganics are high, sediments absorb them, and when
they are low they release them. This dynamic equilibrium or ‘buffering’ may be
upset if sedimentation rates change or loading increases. During construction, care
should be taken to reduce dust disturbance, particularly when moving and
transporting material. Dust also contributes to nitrogen and phosphorous loading.
Straw bales can be used to intercept runoff from the site into the watercourse.
The major water quality parameters that can be affected by river diversion works
are oxygen and the amount of nutrients (nitrates and phosphates).
4.9.2. Oxygen
The dissolved oxygen (DO) content of water determines the type of aquatic
invertebrates that can survive in the channel. Oxygen levels can be affected by
changes in velocity and depth, and uptake by vegetation and organic matter, such
as sewage. At less than 10% saturation of oxygen, fish will not be able to survive
and a low DO content also reduces the potential for fish eggs to survive to maturity.
The DO content may be affected in the following ways:
• diverting flow may cause a decrease in velocity, which, in turn, reduces that
rate of re-oxygenation
• diverting flow may also reduce the dilution of organic pollutants that demand
oxygen
• organic pollution from sewage or slurry runoff uses oxygen as it decomposes
and this produces a DO sag curve downstream of the point of introduction of
the effluent – a minimum critical value of DO will be reached some distance
away from the source and designers should ensure that features are added that
keep this critical value above the level required by invertebrates and fish
• high levels of nutrients result in high levels of photosynthesis, which can cause
over-saturation at certain times of day
• creating a channel with meanders slows flow, reduces slope and turbulence and,
hence, re-oxygenation.
59
RIVER DIVERSIONS
To ensure DO content remains high, weirs, riffles and vegetation can all be
used to re-oxygenate water. However, there is little that can be done by the
designer of a diversion to reduce the effect of sewage inflows and agricultural
diffuse pollution.
4.9.3. Nitrates
Nitrates move easily through soils and are a major source of nutrients in streams
and rivers. The main source of nitrates is runoff from agricultural land and sewage.
Anoxic sediments provide a sink through the process of nitrogen fixing, creating a
nitrate equilibrium in the river. Dredging or draining during construction work may
upset this equilibrium, allowing the release of nitrogen back into the water.
The amount of nutrients in the channel has an impact on the biomass present, in
particular, conditions for algae growth. Agricultural use of nitrate-based fertilisers
means that in low flows the concentration of nitrates in water may be high,
allowing algae blooms to form. Algae can be toxic, use a lot of DO and are
unsightly. In large quantities, nutrients, such as nitrates, phosphates and organic
matter, can cause over-production, known as eutrophication. This ‘nutrient
enrichment’ is a very serious environmental problem in the UK and even small
amounts of eutrophication can cause a loss of species diversity.
4.9.4. Phosphates
The lack of phosphates often limits the growth of organisms. Sediments act as a
buffer system for phosphorous. Increases in sedimentation may upset the
equilibrium, making phosphorous scarce. As phosphorous is essential for all
living organisms, excess sedimentation should be avoided. Wetlands are useful in
keeping phosphorous levels up, as phosphates are released 1000 times faster in
anoxic sediments than in those that are oxygenated.
4.10. Environmental factors

The river ecological system can be severely disrupted by river diversion works.
Species display preferences for certain types of habitat and they are adapted for
particular flow conditions. Altering variables, such as velocity and depth, from
natural conditions will alter the range of species present. In rivers that have
become eutrophic (usually localised to slow moving sections and backwaters),
there will not be enough light or DO available for fish and vegetation.
Designs that aim to maintain or enhance habitat must produce variations in
physical conditions, which are similar to those that would occur naturally. Before
attempting to maintain, recreate or enhance a river environment in a scheme
including a diversion, it is important to establish what the natural conditions of the
river should be. In order to do this a baseline survey should be carried out, as
described in Section 2.3.5. This should include a geomorphological survey and a
river corridor survey (RCS) of the aquatic, marginal, bank and adjacent zones to
60
the river. Plant, animal, fish stock and invertebrate surveys should ideally be
carried out in addition to the RCS.
In considering the design of a diversion channel, it should be remembered that
the natural habitat in a watercourse at one location is not always the same as that
in another watercourse at another location. For example, in the UK, species
diversity decreases as you travel north and there is an absence of pools and riffles
in the steep streams of Scotland.
4.10.1. Fisheries
Fish are sensitive to velocity, depth, substrate, temperature and water quality.
From a fisheries point of view, stream habitat is seen as the space where fish
develop, including refuge and cover areas, spawning and egg hatching zones and
food supply areas. In designing a diversion channel there are five environs that
should be considered:
• spawning habitat, comprising well graded sediments that allow water to pass
through and oxygenate eggs
• food-producing areas that have a high macroinvertebrate diversity and mass –
riffles are the main food supply areas of this kind
• refuge areas that protect fish from strong currents and predation – vegetation,
boulders and pools provide sanctuary for fish, hence the importance of
backwaters and vegetation
• a requirement of fisheries is a varying flow regime, the magnitude of which
vary with age, species composition and season – of particular importance are
the minimum flow and flushing flows, the absence of which can lead to anoxic
and silted conditions
• water quality, including temperature, pollutants and DO content – poor water
quality produces an unbalanced population and low DO has a negative impact
on fry, trout and salmon.
In order to maintain or improve conditions for fish in diversion channels, the
following should be considered:
• impounding or modifying local flow conditions

• provision of cover similar to that provided by tree roots and overhanging banks
• improved spawning areas.
Possible design features include pools and riffles, current deflectors, low weirs,
river margins and the placement of boulders in the channel.
4.10.2. Flora and fauna

Rivers provide an important habitat for flora and fauna. Vegetation influences the
instream temperature, oxygen content, light penetration and food supply, as well
as providing shelter and stabilising banks. Care should be taken when designing a
61
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Table 4. Impacts on flora and fauna of diverting a channel

Change Effect
Destruction of vegetation Loss of existing habitat for birds and terrestrial mammals
Groundwater level rises as uptake by vegetation decreases
Increase sediment downstream of the diversion site
Invasion of non-native species
Decrease in photosynthesis and oxygen levels
Dredging Loss of large numbers of invertebrates
Loss of instream vegetation
Loss of pools and riffles Loss of refuge for invertebrates
Decrease in diversity
Loss of oxygenation
Decrease in velocity Increased siltation
Invertebrates smothered
More vegetation, increased risk of flooding
Decrease in depth Loss of edge habitat
Damage to floating and submerged vegetation
More instream vegetation, blocking flow
Earthworks adjacent Risk to established vegetation
Risk of disease spreading
Risk of weed spreading, e.g. Japanese knotweed
new channel, or diverting flow from an existing channel, to maintain vegetation.

The possible impacts on flora and fauna of diverting flow or creating a new
watercourse are shown in Table 4.
The interaction between plants, invertebrates and fish is complex and it is
important that a river diversion allows the re-establishment of flora and fauna as
quickly as possible, to allow this delicate balance to be restored. The relationship
can be seen in Figure 18.
Possible design features include pools and riffles, bays at the sides of the
channel, variation in channel cross-section and depth, and current deflectors.
Measures to mitigate environmental problems during construction are outlined in
Section 7.2.
4.10.3. Algae growth and eutrophication

Eutrophication refers to the excessive growth of vegetation and algae in water that
has been enriched with nutrients. It can lead to a reduction in species diversity and
to the disruption of community structures. When carrying out river diversion
work, flows may be lowered, thus allowing less dilution of nutrients, such as
nitrates and phosphates. If slow moving pools form, this will provide algae with
favourable conditions in which to grow.
During river diversion work it is possible to reduce the amount of algae growth
by submerging rotting barley straw in moving water in the channel one to three
months before algae growth could occur. This is most likely to be during the
warmer summer months.
62
Light
Large allochthonous
Bacteria particulate organics
Allochthonous
dissolved organics
and inorganics
Micro-meso macrophyte
Fungi, primary autochthonous
protozoans producers
Detritus
Dissolved organics
and tiny particulate Scrapers
organics grazers
Shredders
Predators Filterers
collectors Predators
Figure 18. Relationship between organics, inorganics, invertebrates, vegetation

and fish in the aquatic food chain (adapted from Horne and Goldman, 1994)
A sensitively designed diversion scheme can help reduce eutrophication by

including buffer strips along the riparian corridor to intercept agricultural runoff.
Wetlands are also very effective in removing nitrates. If the diversion channel
itself has relatively fast flowing water, algae will not be able to grow as easily.
Shading by bankside vegetation will also reduce the amount of growth that can
occur.
4.10.4. Wetlands
The creation of wetlands by river diversions should be encouraged where
possible, as they support a profusion of wildlife. In addition, they provide flood
storage, groundwater recharge and the ability to convert inorganic nutrients into
less harmful organic substances. Wetlands are the transitional zones between
terrestrial and aquatic habitats, and, therefore, can play an important role in
preventing pollutants leaching into rivers and streams. Wetlands are very effective
in removing nitrates by the process of de-nitrification. Wetlands can be provided
on the berms of two-stage channels. These are the areas adjacent to the normal
river channel that provide additional capacity for flood flows.
63
RIVER DIVERSIONS
4.10.5. Archaeology and cultural heritage

Under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979, scheduled
monuments and areas of archaeological interest are protected from any kind of
development. Records of all listed sites and monuments are held by the Royal
Commission on Historical Monuments, CADW (the Welsh Historical Monuments
Executive Agency) and Historic Scotland. These records are open to the public
and should be inspected to find out if there are any areas of archaeological interest
in the vicinity of the diversion channel. If such areas are identified, it is advisable
to appoint an archaeologist to advise the project. Other features with cultural
heritage value, such as listed buildings, conservation areas, registered parks and
gardens, should also be identified.
Local sites recorded on the Site and Monuments Records (SMRs) should be
made available to the designers so that they can avoid sensitive areas. PPG15
(DoE, 1994) requires prior investigation of potential sites, liaison with the county
archaeologist and agreement of a method statement for working in sensitive areas.
If work in sensitive areas cannot be avoided, mitigation measures can be taken
to ensure that due regard is given to sites of archaeological interest. An initial desk
study should be carried out to identify objects of historic interest before the works
are carried out and, if required, a geophysical survey should be carried out. A
method statement should be agreed at every stage of work. In addition, an
archaeologist should be present on site during stages of the work where sites of
archaeological interest might be affected.
If designers are aware of the position of sites of interest it may be possible that
the diversion can be routed so as to avoid the site.
4.10.6. Landscape and recreation

Route selection, detail design and mitigation measures all need to reflect
landscape requirements, which become more important the more the river is used
or enjoyed by people. There are opportunities to provide or enhance a range of
recreational facilities, including riverside walks, cycle paths and canoeing
courses. In addition, conflicts between recreational activities, such as between
anglers and walkers, can be resolved by the opportunities of redesign created by a
river diversion project.
A river diversion will often present an opportunity to enhance the landscape
and landscape design, including visualisations of the finished works, should form
part of the design process. Landscape works may place greater emphasis on the
value of traditional rather than native vegetation, such as conifers, grey poplar and
poplar cultivars, willow clones, planes and other non-native tree species. The
detailing of built structures and the use of boulders should reflect the local
landscape character, rather than strictly economic or ecological criteria. In the
urban situation, hard landscape detailing may be a primary consideration because
of limitations of space, although, increasingly, the most innovative schemes are
those that integrate ecological objectives with the more formal functional and
aesthetics of the urban landscape.
64
In-channel structures
5
5. In-channel structures
Structures may be required on diversion channels in order to control the flow and/
or water level, and to provide crossing points. In addition, where part of the flow
is diverted, a control structure may also be required on the existing river channel
downstream of the offtake to the diversion channel.
Structure types that may be required in the design of a river diversion are listed
in Table 5.
5.1. CONTROL STRUCTURES

A control structure is so called because it controls the relationship between river
flow and water level upstream of the structure. Types of control structures are
listed in Table 5.
Many types of control structure cause a step change in water level between the
upstream level and the downstream level. Therefore, where it is necessary to
Table 5. Structure types

Function Location Type
Control of flow/water level Diversion channel inlet Fixed weir

Diversion channel outlet Movable weir
Existing river downstream of Flume
diversion channel inlet Lifting gate
Diversion channel* Throttle pipe or orifice
Air-regulated siphon
Dam (temporarily or
permanently stopping flow
into the works)
Combination of structures
(for example, fixed weir
and movable weir or
lifting gate)
Crossing Diversion channel Bridge
Culvert
Maintenance of passage Adjacent to control structures Fish pass
Navigation lock
* For example, where the diversion channel is shorter than the existing channel, a control structure is
normally required so that the slope in the diversion channel is the same as the existing channel.
67
RIVER DIVERSIONS
maintain passage for fish or navigation, suitable structures should be provided

adjacent to the control structure.
5.1.1. Calculation of flow at a control structure

In the design of a control structure, it is necessary to calculate the relationship
between upstream water level and flow (‘rating curve’) in order to ensure that the
structure will pass the design flow with an acceptable upstream water level. If the
structure is too small for the design flow, the upstream water level will be too high
and flooding will occur at high flows.
Control structures have standard equations that relate upstream water level with
the flow. Under normal flow conditions the water level upstream of the structure
is not affected by conditions downstream and there is a unique relationship
between flow and water level. This is referred to as ‘modular’ flow. However, at
high flows the downstream water level will rise to the point where it affects the
upstream water level and there is no longer a unique relationship between flow
and upstream water level. This condition is known as ‘drowning’ of the structure.
Using the standard equation, it is possible to produce a rating curve, which
relates upstream level with flow under modular conditions. When the structure is
drowned, the equation is adjusted using a ‘drowning function’ which takes
account of the effects of drowning.
When producing a rating curve for design purposes, it is necessary to include
both modular and drowned flow. The drowned flow calculation requires the
downstream water level and this is obtained by calculating the level in the channel
downstream under design flow conditions.
Different types of control structure together with approximate modular flow
discharge formulae are shown in Figure 19. The term ‘free outflow’ for gated
structures refers to modular flow.
5.1.2. Fixed weirs

Weirs operate by obstructing the flow so that it is forced to pass over a crest that
has a known hydraulic characteristic. A hydraulic characteristic is a known
relationship between the height of the upstream water surface above the weir crest
and the rate of flow over the crest. The hydraulic characteristic may be expressed
either as a formula or in the form of a calibration curve. The generic formula for
flow over a weir is:
Q Cw Lhm 2
where Cw is the overall weir coefficient

L is crest length
m is the exponent
h is head over weir crest (for a weir in which the free surface width
does not change with depth over the crest, the value of m is 3/2).
68
IN- CHANNEL STRUC TURES
H
Y1
1:5
1:2 W
Q = 0·633 b g H 3/2 Q = C bw 2g Y1
(a) (free outflow)
(b)
Q = 0·46 b g H 3/2
Discharge depends on length, slope, inlet
(c) geometry and tailwater conditions
First approximation-control
treated as an orifice with Q = K H
L
(K obtained from known maximum values
of Q and H )
H
(d)
B b
Q = 0·544 b g H 3/2
(e)
Figure 19. Control structures and their approximate discharge formulae:

(a) triangular profile Crump weir; (b) vertical gate (the value C is taken from Figure
22); (c) rectangular profile weir; (d) culvert; (e) rectangular flume
Weirs may be either sharp crested or broad crested. Broad-crested weirs are by
far the most common type, as sharp-crested weirs are normally only suitable for
use on small channels.
There are several different types of weir, each of which have different
characteristics. One advantage of the use of weirs is that the crest can have a
variety of levels, allowing low flows to spill over through a notch and flood flows
to pass over a wider crest, minimising the rise in water levels upstream. Another
advantage of weirs is that floating debris can pass downstream without causing an
obstruction.
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RIVER DIVERSIONS
Weirs may be constructed using concrete with or without a stone facing. Stone
weirs have environmental benefits, as discussed in Section 4.7.3. Stone weirs
might also be more acceptable from an aesthetic point of view but there is greater
uncertainty in the hydraulic performance.
The weirs outlined in this Section are normally designed to be perpendicular to
the flow. However, weirs that cross the river at an angle or are V-shaped in plan
may be more visually attractive, although there is greater uncertainty in the
hydraulic analysis.
A side weir is a structure commonly used to divert flows, for example, at mill
sites. The hydraulic analysis of side weirs is more difficult than standard weirs
because the water level above the crest can vary significantly along the crest and
the approach flow is not perpendicular to the crest. Side weirs are, however, a
common type of inlet structure for ‘dry’ flood diversion channels, where water
passes over the side weir when the water level (and, therefore, flow) in the main
river reaches a certain critical point. In such cases, the weir can sometimes consist
of a length of embankment where the crest level is set lower than the adjoining
bank and the landward face is reinforced to protect against erosion.
Sharp-crested or thin-plate weirs

There are many types of sharp-crested weirs, including rectangular, vee notch and
compound. They are simple to construct, being made of a thin sheet, usually of
steel, set in a frame. The frame is connected to a diaphragm wall constructed
across the channel. Sharp-crested weirs are relatively small structures and are,
therefore, restricted in their use to moderate and small flows. They also have the
disadvantage of being particularly susceptible to damage by floating debris or ice.
Figures 20 and 21 show examples of a vee notch weir and a rectangular notch weir
respectively.
A compound weir is a weir formed by a rectangular notch with a vee notch
added at the centre of its crest. In this weir, larger flows can pass easily through
the rectangular part while small flows can be accurately measured since they will
be constrained to pass through the vee notch.
Flow formulae for thin-plate weirs are given by Ackers et al. (1978).
Broad-crested weirs
A broad-crested weir is generally considered to be one in which the thickness of
the diaphragm wall exceeds 60% of the thickness of the nappe (overfalling stream
of water). They have the distinct advantage of being more robust than plate weirs,
being usually constructed of concrete. They have little trouble in passing floating
debris, as they often extend across the entire width of the channel. They are also
the only option for weirs of large size and capacity.
The disadvantage of broad-crested weirs is that their hydraulic characteristic is
significantly influenced by the viscous boundary layer formed on the top of the
weir. This flow is very sensitive to changes in the roughness of this surface as well
as to small local changes in the geometry of its upstream edge. A common type of
broad-crested weir used for flow measurement is the Crump weir.
The theoretical equation for the broad-crested weir is:
70
Figure 20. Thin-plate vee notch weir

3=2
p U02
Q 0544 g L h 3
2g
where Q is the flow

L is the crest length
h is the upstream water depth above the crest
U0 is the approach velocity of the flow.
Figure 21. Thin-plate rectangular notch weir
71
RIVER DIVERSIONS
The exact value of the coefficient will vary depending on such factors as
friction losses, bed level and approach conditions. It is often more convenient to
allow for the effect of approach velocity as a velocity correction coefficient (Cv).
In this case, the generic equation for the broad-crested weir is:
p
Q Cd Cv g Lh3=2 4
Values of Cd for a wide variety of shapes of cross section are given in Ackers
et al. (1978).
The above formulae apply to modular flow conditions, where the water passing
over the crest is not affected by the water level on the downstream side of the
weir. If, however, the downstream water level becomes too high then it will begin
to affect the hydraulic characteristic of the weir, which is then said to be drowned.
The modular limit is normally assumed to have been reached when the height
of the downstream free surface above the weir crest reaches a specified proportion
of the height of the upstream free surface above the weir crest (75% for the Crump
weir). However, it is still possible to calculate the upstream water level if both the
discharge and downstream water level are known, and the hydraulic
characteristics for the partially drowned condition are available. These are
typically presented as a family of characteristic curves with non-dimensional
tailwater elevation as the parametric variable.
The Crump weir is designed to provide a reliable water level to flow
relationship in both modular and drowned flow conditions. It has two formulae,
one for modular operation and the other to provide a modified discharge Qs when
the weir is operating in the drowned condition. They are:
p
Q Cd Cv L g h3=2 5a
" 3=2 #0256

Qs hp
104 0945 ÿ 5b
Q h
where Cd 0.633
h is the upstream head over the crest
hp is the downstream head over the crest.
5.1.3. Moveable weirs

Moveable weirs perform the same function as control gates, see Section 5.1.5. By
raising and lowering the weir it is possible to regulate the flow while maintaining
a required upstream water level. In the case of floods, the moveable weir may be
fully lowered to provide the maximum discharge capacity for the structure.
The most common design of moveable weir incorporates bottom-hinged gates.
The bottom edges of these gates are connected by hinges to the floor of the
structure. Water passes over the top edge of the gate, which is raised or lowered to
achieve the required water level for the particular flow.
72
The standard form of weir equation given in Section 5.1.2 (Equation 2) applies
to moveable weirs.
5.1.4. Flumes
There are a variety of circumstances in which it is not acceptable to raise the bed
of the channel, for example, when the available upstream head is restricted. In
such cases, a flume might offer a suitable alternative. The flume also works by
restricting the passage of the flow but, in this case, the restriction is created by
reducing the channel width. The flow is forced to accelerate to get through the
narrow section or throat of the flume and is then returned to the channel via a
diverging transition. A streamlined hump may be incorporated in the throat of the
flume to further reduce the size of the flow passage.
Since the flow velocity through the flume is higher than in the parent channel, it
is less likely to suffer from an accumulation of sediment upstream than a weir.
Flumes are generally used on relatively small channels but flumes have been
installed on the River Tame in Birmingham in order to control the level flow
relationship at the offtake for flood storage areas. Like weirs, certain types of
standard flume can be used for flow measurement. These include the Venturi
flume and the Parshall flume.
The Venturi flume has the same general theoretical equation as a broad-crested
weir:
3=2
p U02
Q 0544b2 g h 6
2g
In this case b2 is the throat width.

The Parshall flume is a variation on the Venturi flume incorporating a reduction
in bed elevation in the throat.
5.1.5. Gated structures

This is the most common type of river regulation structure. Gates are raised and
lowered to permit the river flow to pass downstream while maintaining the
required upstream water levels. When a flood occurs, the gates are normally
opened fully to maximise the discharge while keeping the upstream level as low
as possible. Gated structures are used on such rivers as the non-tidal River Thames
in order to regulate the flow while maintaining water levels for navigation.
The basis for gated-control structures is that the rate of flow through a partially
open undershot gate can be related to the difference in level between the two sides
of the gate. The gate, in effect, acts as a rectangular orifice of known dimensions,
which may either be drowned or have a free outflow. The hydraulic characteristic
for a gate is given by the following equation:
p
Q Cd bw 2gy 7
73
RIVER DIVERSIONS
0·6
Free discharge
0·5
0·4
0·3
C
0·2
Experimental
Energy equation between
0·1 sections 1–2,
momentum equation
y3/w = 2 between sections 2–3
3 4 5 6 7 8
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
y1/w
Figure 22. Value of C for vertical sluice gates (adapted from Henry, 1950)
where Q is the flow

b is the gate width
w is the gate opening
y is the upstream depth over the sill
Cd is the coefficient of discharge.
Approximate values of Cd are given in Figure 22 where y1 is the upstream depth,

y3 is the downstream depth, w is the gate opening and C is the coefficient of
discharge or Cd in Equation 7.
If the gate is freely discharging, the coefficient of discharge Cd is a function of
y1/w only. If the gate discharge is submerged, then Cd will be a function of both
y1/w and y3/w, where y3 is the downstream depth over the sill.
5.1.6. Orifices, pipes and culverts

Orifices, pipes and culverts are widely used where a ‘throttling’ effect is required
in order to limit the amount of water passing downstream. These types of control
are often used in a temporary diversion channel where the flow into a downstream
channel needs to be restricted to allow construction work to be undertaken.
The general head-discharge characteristics for a submerged orifice are:
74
p
Q Cd ao 2gh 8
where Q is the flow (m3/s)

Cd is the discharge coefficient
ao is the area of orifice opening (m2)
h is the head of water above the invert level (m).
Orifices and short pipes are susceptible to blockage by debris. This can be
mitigated by the use of screens or small sumps upstream, although care is needed
in the design of screens to ensure that they do not block.
The determination of flow through a culvert is complicated as it is controlled by
many variables. For a more detailed analysis, refer to the Culvert Design Guide
(CIRIA, 1997b).
5.1.7. Air-regulated siphons

Air-regulated siphons can be used as alternatives to weirs and gates. The
advantage of using a siphon is that the upstream level can be maintained within a
few millimetres under conditions of flow that vary from zero up to a maximum
design capacity. They are ideal, therefore, for discharging excess stormwater from
a channel, provided there is sufficient fall available to entrain and evacuate air
before the water level reaches the upstream lip of the structure. A cross section of
an air-regulated siphon is given in Figure 23.
5.1.8. Dams for diversion purposes

A diversion dam may be used to build up a head of water at the upstream end of
the diversion channel in order to ensure a measure of control through an inlet
structure. Diversion dams are often used in a temporary river diversion, although a
more permanent structure with a spillway could be used on a permanent river
Priming level
Normal range h
of waterlevel
Breakflow level
Figure 23. Air-regulated siphon (adapted from Head, 1975)
75
RIVER DIVERSIONS
diversion. A temporary dam was used at the downstream end of works on the
River Colne at Wraysbury Mill (see Section A4.8 in Appendix 4).
5.2. CROSSING STRUCTURES

Crossing structures are required for access across the river diversion and normally
consist of either bridges or culverts. Crossing structures will cause a ‘head-loss’
(drop in water level across the structure), the magnitude of which will depend on
the amount of blockage of the channel. A bridge with slender piers in the channel
will cause minimal head-loss whereas a culvert that causes a large blockage can
introduce a large head-loss, particularly during floods when the culvert is likely to
be surcharged.
While bed and bank protection must be considered in the design of all hydraulic
structures, it is particularly important for crossing structures, as high local
velocities can occur. The main areas of concern are:
• adjacent to bridge piers and abutments

• downstream of culvert outlets.
5.2.1. Bridges
Bridges across small river diversions may consist of single span structures that
have no effect on the hydraulics of the diversion channel. Piers and possibly
approach embankments may be required and these will affect the flow. The
impact can be calculated using the method given by the US Bureau of Public
Roads (USBPR, 1978). The basic method is reproduced in the Highways Agency
Advice Note The effect of highway construction on flood plains (Highways
Agency, 1995).
5.2.2. Culverts
A culvert is a covered channel or pipeline, which is used to continue the diversion
channel under the crossing (or other obstruction). The structure may consist of one
or more barrels, constructed using pipes, concrete box sections or corrugated
metal arches. A culvert consists of an inlet structure, the barrel and an outlet
structure. Particular factors to consider in the design of culverts include:
• whether the culvert flows with a free surface or is surcharged at high flows –
the larger the culvert, the smaller the head-loss and risk of blockage
• the possibility of blockage of the culvert by debris – trash screens can be
provided to reduce this risk but they require careful design to avoid causing a
blockage in the channel.
76
These and other design aspects, together with hydraulic design formulae, are
contained in the CIRIA Report 168 (1997b).
5.3. MAINTENANCE OF PASSAGE STRUCTURES
5.3.1. Fish passes

Fish passes are required where the proposed works would be likely to interfere
with the migration patterns of fish moving up or down the natural river. A
separate structure called a fish ladder may be provided to allow the passage of
fish. These devices allow the fish to move upstream without exerting unusual
effort and without risk of injury.
When designing a fish ladder, provision must be made to guide the fish to the
entrance. The entrance should be located in the white water flow below the return
and must be wide enough to allow the fish to enter freely. The entrance should be
aligned in a direction parallel to the flow and there should be sufficient outflow to
attract the fish. Where the change in elevation is too great for a ladder, a long
ladder with sufficient resting places should be provided.
Types of fish pass most commonly used in the UK include the plain baffle
Denil and Larinier (super-active baffle) types. Figure 24 shows a typical Larinier
fish pass. Fish passage during a temporary diversion could be important especially
in spawning seasons. In this case, the temporary channels need to make provision
Flo
w
Figure 24. Schematic of a Larinier fish pass with plain baffles (Armstrong, 1994)
77
RIVER DIVERSIONS
for the passage of fish. At Brokenhurst (see Section A4.5) weir boards were
placed in the diversion channel to create pools upstream and turbulence
downstream, encouraging fish to migrate upstream. A good all round international
reference is Clay (1995).
5.3.2. Navigation lock

A navigation lock permits the passage of vessels past river-control structures. A
typical navigation lock is seen in Figure 25. A discussion of the requirements for
navigation locks is given in CIWEM (1989).
5.4. INLET STRUCTURES

An inlet structure is required at the upstream end of a river diversion channel to
take water from the main channel, either if the diversion channel is taking part of
the water or to divert the entire river flow on a temporary basis, while closing the
existing channel. In practice, inlet structures are rarely required on full, permanent
diversions.
The inlet structure must be designed to take the design flows calculated using
the methods outlined in Chapter 3. The design flows will be a range of flows from
low flows to high (flood) flows.
The main components of the inlet structure are:
• the transition and entrance to the structure from the river channel
• the structure
• the downstream stilling basin and sediment control works
• additional features, such as screens and fish passes.
The structure must be designed to pass the design flows with certain specified
upstream water levels. One possible design criterion is that the upstream level for
Flow
Guide wall
Lock wall
Upstream
approach
Downstream Lock gate channel
approach Lock chamber
channel
Lock wall
Figure 25. Components of a typical navigation lock
78
the design flood must not be increased by the river diversion works. In addition to
the upstream design levels, the downstream levels are required. These will be
obtained from the design of the diversion channel using the methods outlined in
Section 4.4.
The structure type should be selected based on the discussion in this chapter.
The structure could consist of a single type of structure or a combination of
structure elements (for example, a fixed weir for normal flows together with a
gated structure for high flows).
Having obtained upstream and downstream water levels for the design flows,
the hydraulic design can then be carried out. This will provide the basic
dimensions and levels of the structure that would then be used in the engineering
design.
5.4.1. Location and alignment

Bends are important river features where a diversion inlet may be sited. When
considering a site for an intake, the effects of bends on the velocity distribution
have an important bearing on the siting of the inlet structure. The bend causes
secondary currents and eddies within the river. The sediment within the river
is carried by secondary currents towards the inside of bends, as indicated on
Figure 26.
The outside of a bend is the more appropriate position for siting an inlet
structure where sediments are to be excluded as far as possible. The river should
be well established and banks should be stable in the region where the inlet
structure is proposed.
The intake should be aligned to the main flow to produce a suitable curvature of
flow into the inlet. If possible, the flow direction should be changed as little as
possible.
Surface current
Bottom current
Figure 26. Typical current path in a flow bend, showing variation in surface and
bottom current variation (adapted from Razvan, 1989)
79
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Figure 27. Attraction of near bed flows to a 90º intake, arrows indicating direction
of flow (adapted from Avery, 1989)
If the flow is diverted through a large angle, the flow patterns will be disturbed
and bed load will be attracted towards the intake, as indicated on Figure 27.
5.4.2. Transition and entrance

The transition for flow from the river channel to the diversion channel needs to be
controlled so that the head losses are as small as possible and the flow transition is
as smooth as possible. Often the flow is taken off the river channel into the
diversion channel through a structure perpendicular to the main flow direction.
The transition and entrance will require a concrete apron or sill and protected
abutments, which provide the transition between the river and the entrance to the
intake. The shape of the sill, both in plan and elevation, can improve significantly
the turbulence and head loss and sediment exclusion capabilities of the inlet
works. A curved upstream face can reduce the risk of secondary currents being
established and can allow the sediments to be swept through the structure and
downstream. Erosion at the abutments can also be reduced. It is good design
practice for the vertical walls of the structure to meet the sloping riverbanks by
way of a smooth, sweeping transition.
The entrance must be designed to allow the flood design discharge to pass over
or through the structure. It should provide support and access for screens and trash
racks that exclude floating debris, such as logs. The detailed design should ensure
a smooth acceleration of the flow into the structure, avoiding sharp corners or
sudden expansion or contraction. Large eddies and vortices at the entrance to
the inlet structure will cause big head-losses and will generate erosion around
the sill or abutments. Possible areas of sedimentation at intakes are indicated on
Figure 28.
80
Main flow
Bottom flow
separation line
Eddies, Surface flow

deposition separation line
occurs
Diverted flow
Figure 28. Hydraulic variation and areas of sedimentation around intakes
5.4.3. Outlet structures

Structures are not normally required at the downstream end of a river diversion.
The channel usually flows directly back into the river channel, although some
bank protection may be required at the outflow.
81
Sedimenttransport
6
6. Sediment transport
6.1. INTRODUCTION
The size and plan form of rivers is not random but depends upon the nature of the
flow, sediment and topography. Though our understanding of the physics is far
from perfect, there is a belief that, under particular conditions, there is a stable
river form. If a river reach does not conform to these stable conditions then it is
likely that morphological change will take place, which may lead to expensive
maintenance or remedial work.
The design of diversion works should consider the following issues:
(a) Sediment transport rate. A river diversion, by its nature, will only alter part
of the length of a river. As only a reach of river is affected, then the sediment
transport rate upstream and downstream will remain unaffected. If the design
does not ensure that the sediment transport rate in the diverted reach matches
that upstream and downstream, then either erosion or deposition is likely to
occur. Methods to calculate sediment transport are discussed in Sections 6.2–
6.6.
(b) Alluvial resistance. The design should take account of the hydraulic
roughness that is likely to develop in the diverted reach, see Section 6.7.
(c) Channel size and shape. For a given discharge, sediment load and sediment
size, there is a stable channel size and shape, often referred to as a regime
channel. If another size or shape is adopted, then it is likely that erosion or
deposition will take place in order to make the channel correspond more
closely to regime conditions. A discussion of the application of regime
theory to rivers is given in Section 6.8.
(d) Plan form. The design should take account of the natural plan form of the
river. Attempts to straighten a river are often difficult and, in the long term
fruitless, unless a large amount of effort is expended on river training or
maintenance.
(e) Bank stability. Diversion works that lead to increases in bank height may
lead to bank failure. This may introduce extra sediment into the fluvial
system and may result in further problems, either upstream or downstream.
It should be recognised that most natural rivers will change their plan form over
time, though the speed of such change may vary significantly from river to river.
85
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Thus, it is natural in rivers for some erosion and deposition to take place. A river
that does not change over time should be regarded as being unnatural in some
way. Thus, the diverted reach should change and develop, ideally, in the same
way as a natural reach of the river.
6.2. INITIATION OF MOTION

A fundamental requirement when considering a sediment problem is to estimate
whether sediment is moving and, if so, in what quantities. It may be necessary to
take specialist advice on this issue. It is generally acknowledged that for low shear
rates (and low velocities) effectively no sediment moves. As the shear stress
increases, a flow condition is reached at which sediment begins to move. This is
referred to as initiation of motion.
In order to determine at what depth of flow motion will be initiated, the
relationship between grain Reynolds number, X, and mobility number, Y, can be
used. The grain Reynolds number is given by Equation 9:
Du
X 9
v
where D is the sediment size
u* is the shear velocity
v is kinematic viscosity.
The mobility number is given by Equation 10 when X is greater than 70:

u2
Y 10
s ÿ 1gD
where s is the specific gravity of the sediment.
Usually, the relationship between the grain Reynolds number and the mobility
number is plotted as the familiar Shields’ curve. The Shields’ curve is not suitable
for use in design calculations as both the X and Y contain two independent
variables. To determine the depth of flow at which a particular particle size will
commence movement, the Shields’ curve can be re-plotted as shown in Figure 29
with the two dimensionless ratios:
s
gd 3 So3 gD3 s ÿ 1
XY and X 2 =Y 11
s ÿ 1v v2
where So is the mean bed slope

d is the depth of flow.
86
10 000
1000
Crests washed away

100 Pronounced roughwall
Saltation over crests type of flow around
(s –1) ν
gd 3 S03
grains
Bed undulations gradually
become shorter and deeper
XY =
10 Flat irregularities
in bed
Long oblique shoals
SEDIMENT TR ANSPORT
1 Short shoals
Ripples
0·1
102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 1011
X2 gD 3 (s –1)
=
Y ν2
87
Figure 29. Transformed Shields’ Curve (White, 1968)

RIVER DIVERSIONS
Example
For a channel with the following properties:
So = 110-3
s = 265
D = 0009 m
v = 1151106 (kinematic viscosity of water at 15º)
Substituting these values to find X2/Y:

981 00093 265 ÿ 1
X =Y
2
89 106
1151 10ÿ6 2
From Figure 29 the value of XY is then read off the plot. In this case XY = 40.
The depth of flow at which motion will occur can then be calculated:
s
981 d 3 1 10ÿ3 3
XY 40 ) d 083 m.
265 ÿ 1 1151 10ÿ6
6.3. SEDIMENT TRANSPORT IN NON-COHESIVE, UNIFORM SEDIMENTS

Sediment transport theories are based on the belief that the sediment transport rate
depends upon local flow conditions and the characteristics of the sediment. The
flow conditions are normally represented by the following variables:
• density
• kinematic viscosity
• velocity
• depth
• water surface slope or shear stress or shear velocity.
The sediment is normally described by the density and diameter of the
sediment.
All the equations referred to within this Section assume non-cohesive, uniform
sediments. A widely graded sediment should be treated differently and expert
advice should be taken as described in Section 6.5.
All sediment transport theories have an empirical content and an important
consideration is the quantity and range of data on which the theory was developed.
This has an impact on the accuracy and applicability of the theory.
To help in the analysis of sediment movement a number of different modes of
sediment movement are defined:
• bed load
• suspended load
88
SEDIMENT TR ANSPORT
• wash load
• total load.
6.3.1. Bed load

Bed load may be considered as the particles that are in successive contacts with
the bed and the processes are governed by gravity only, whereas suspension is
carried by upward diffusion of turbulence. The sediment transport rate is related to
the work done by the fluid.
6.3.2. Suspended load

After the threshold of motion has been passed, and sediment movement is well
established, some of the sediment will be carried in the form of suspended load. In
the case of strong flows and fine sediment, the amount of suspended load may be
substantial. The material is maintained in suspension by the action of turbulence.
6.3.3. Wash load

The wash load consists of very fine particles, usually in clay and fine silt range,
which are permanently in suspension and are not represented on the bed of the
stream or river.
6.3.4. Total load

Total load is the sum of material moving as bed load and as suspended load but
excludes the so-called wash load. Total load is sometimes referred to as bed-
material load.
6.4. APPLICATION AND USE OF SEDIMENT TRANSPORT FORMULAE

Equations are available to predict bed load, suspended load and total load. The
type of equation selected should depend upon the particular application. In
general, the division into bed load and suspended load is artificial and varies as
the flow condition changes. As a result, in most applications a total load
formula is the most appropriate. The range of sediment transport formulae for
predicting total load or bed load transport of sediment can be found in Raudkivi
(1998).
On most occasions, designers and engineers involved in the design of diversion
channels would be interested in the total load or transport rate of sediment. The
total load discharge is an integral part of any problem involving alluvial channels
because these channels do not carry just water but water and sediment. For
example, the stability or instability of the channel is frequently related to the
sediment load carried by the channel. Alluvial channels normally have to be
89
RIVER DIVERSIONS
designed to carry certain water and sediment rates. Thus, the movement of water
and sediment are inter-related and cannot be separated.
Sediment transport equations can be of use to the engineer in a variety of
problems. In the design of rivers or diversion channels, the capacity of the channel
to carry both water and sediment must be calculated. If the amount of sediment
entering the channel is greater than the capacity of the channel to transport that
sediment, the sediment will be deposited. If the reverse is true, the channel may
erode.
6.5. GRADED SEDIMENTS

For sediments with only a modest range of particle sizes, say d84/d16 < 4, the total
material transport should be calculated by the procedures recommended in the
equations for uniform sediments.
With widely graded sediments and bed narrowing occurring, it is more difficult
to analyse the transport rates and it is recommended that specialist advice is taken.
It is possible to use a procedure recommended by Einstein (1944) and others, in
which the bed material grading curve is used to consider a number of size
fractions separately.
6.6. COHESIVE SEDIMENTS

The mechanics of sediment transport theory relates almost exclusively to non-
cohesive sediments. The behaviour of cohesive sediment is controlled by a
complex array of physical, chemical and biological factors, which are only partly
understood. The usual methodology of engineering investigations which require a
knowledge of the properties of cohesive sediments has been to determine either in
situ or in the laboratory, the behaviour of the cohesive sediment. Accordingly, the
data obtained is site specific. However, the nature of cohesive sediment is
influenced by many processes, for example, deposition and consolidation history,
wave disturbance, tidal current erosion, bioturbation, and algal and organic inputs.
The properties of cohesive sediment will, therefore, vary spatially within a site
and to a greater extent between sites. At present, it is not possible to predict the
behaviour of a cohesive sediment from its physical and chemical properties alone.
For engineering problems that involve cohesive sediments, it would probably
be necessary to undertake a site-specific study involving the following:
• field measurements
• laboratory testing of sediment
• modelling of hydrodynamics and sediment transport.
90
SEDIMENT TR ANSPORT
6.7. ALLUVIAL FRICTION

If the flow conditions in the diversion do not match those in the original river
channel then the bed form that develops may be different. In these circumstances,
the hydraulic roughness of the new channel may be different from that of the
original channel. In this context grain roughness is that component of the
hydraulic roughness that is attributable to the surface roughness of the grains of
sediment. If the bed is flat then this predominates. However, if, in addition, there
are bed features then there is energy loss associated with the expansion and
contraction of the flow and eddies in the lee of the crests. This energy loss results
in form roughness and is so called because it is due to the ‘form’ or shape of the
boundary. In the presence of bed features, the total roughness is the sum of the
form and the grain roughness.
The bed forms in an alluvial channel are flow induced and affect directly the
roughness or flow resistance. Computation of river stage and flow velocity, as
described in Chapter 4, relies, therefore, on the determination of bed roughness.
Many terms are used to describe bed forms. The bed forms commonly found are
bars, flat bed, ripples, dunes, transition, anti-dunes and chutes.
The friction caused by alluvial channels can be estimated using the method of
White et al. (1980). This can be used to calculate either flow depth, mean
velocity and shear velocity or slope, mean velocity and shear velocity or
discharge, mean velocity and shear velocity, depending on the combination of
input data available.
6.8. REGIME THEORY

The problem of determining a stable cross-section geometry and slope of an
alluvial channel has been the subject of considerable research over 80 years and
continues to be of great practical interest. Ignoring plan geometry, an alluvial
channel can adjust its width, depth and slope to achieve a stable condition in
which it can transport a certain amount of water and sediment. Thus, it has three
degrees of freedom and the problem is to establish relationships that determine
these three quantities of width, depth and slope.
The various approaches to this problem fall into two broad categories: the
empirical regime and the analytical regime methods. The empirical method relies
on available data and attempts to determine appropriate relationships from the
data. The usefulness of this method depends on the quality of the data and the
validity of the assumed form of the relationships. It has always been
acknowledged that the various coefficients derived may not be truly constant
but may vary slightly and that the equations should only be applied in situations
similar to those for which the data were collected.
The analytical method relies on specifying equations that describe the dominant
individual processes, such as sediment transport, flow resistance and bank
stability. This approach can only be successful if the dominant processes are
correctly identified and appropriate equations exist to describe them adequately.
91
RIVER DIVERSIONS
These approaches represent two extremes and, obviously, it is possible to combine

aspects of both.
6.8.1. Application of regime theory

The original application of regime theory was to irrigation canals. A characteristic
of such canals is that the range of discharge is limited so that there is little inherent
difficulty in deciding the discharge to be used in the regime relations. More
recently, regime theory has been applied to natural rivers. By contrast, natural
rivers have a wide range of discharges varying throughout the year and from year
to year. It is, therefore, more difficult to know the discharge that should be used in
the regime theory.
It has been assumed that the dimensions of a river channel can be related to a
particular discharge, referred to as the dominant discharge. At this discharge,
equilibrium is most closely approached and the tendency to change is least. This
condition may be regarded as the integrated effect of all varying conditions over a
long period of time. There is no universally agreed method of determining the
dominant discharge.
Using ideas from regime theory, a method for predicting plan shape and the
impact of change on plan shape has been derived. The method is based upon the
principle that plan shape results as a compromise between the regime slope
required for equilibrium and the slope of the river valley (Bettess and White,
1983).
92
Part C
Construction
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Part C is divided into two chapters:
• construction issues
• health and safety on site.
Chapter 7 on construction issues is intended to provide designers and contractors

with an overview of the construction issues that must be considered. It is important
to ensure, for example, that adequate provision is made for access to the site in the
design of the diversion. The specification should also cover such items as specific
measures to protect the environment where these are required.
Chapter 8 on health and safety is intended to outline the particular health and
safety issues associated with river diversion work and indicate where the
responsibilities lie.
94
Constructionissues
7
7. Construction issues
7.1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with some of the issues that may arise during the construction
of a river diversion. Even though the issues are primarily related to construction,
the designer must be aware of them and take due consideration of them during the
design process. Most of these issues refer to both temporary and permanent
diversions, although the examples usually refer to one or the other.
7.2. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

During construction, the adverse effects of the construction process on the
surrounding environment should be kept to a minimum. The Environmental
Impact Assessment should have identified mitigation measures, including specific
controls over construction activity. For more complex projects it may be
appropriate to draw up an ‘environmental action plan’ to help translate mitigation
measures into practical actions on the ground. In addition, the following general
points should be observed to minimise environmental damage:
• carry out work during low flow periods to minimise silt disturbance
• put temporary silt traps downstream
• phase work to allow recolonisation and provide refuge for fauna
• dredge in an upstream direction to allow flora and fauna to float downstream
and recolonise
• avoid sensitive sites, for example Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs)
• transplant vegetation as work progresses
• use natural succession to revegetate the area wherever possible
• use natural gravels exposed by the work
• avoid removing mature trees
• once constructed, allow the new channel to stand with water in it – this will
give time for planted vegetation to become established before water flows
through the diversion and this will, in turn, provide protection for new
earthworks.
97
RIVER DIVERSIONS
7.3. DURATION AND SEASON

The duration and season of works is dependent on the project. In general, if the
duration of the construction phase is less than six months, the works should be
scheduled over the summer period when the flows are at there lowest. However,
the construction could stretch over several seasons and years depending on the
size of project. Works carried out during the wet season/winter months may
require significant dewatering facilities. Works may also need to be protected
against higher flood flows if they continue into the winter season. Environmental
issues, such as fish migration and the bird nesting season, can also influence the
season of works.
7.3.1. Permanent diversion channels

A permanent diversion channel is usually dug in the dry and water is released into
the new channel when it has been completed. The timing and phasing of the
release of water into a diversion channel is an important issue from an
environmental perspective. Ideally, it should be undertaken at a time when
disturbance of fish is not crucial and outside of the spawning season.
The release of water into a freshly cut earth channel may cause an increase in
sedimentation and turbidity and a resulting decrease in water quality for a time
until the channel bed and banks become more stable and the loose material is
washed through. There will be some increase in sediment load so the timing of the
breakthrough of water into a diversion channel dug in the dry should be when this
has the minimum impact on the aquatic environment.
7.3.2. Temporary diversion channels

The duration of temporary river diversions is generally up to six months in the UK
and is timed to be as far as possible during the summer. In some highly urbanised
catchments, the risk of flooding is greater during summer months because of
intense thunderstorms and high runoff from the urban areas and the size of a
temporary diversion should be designed by taking into account this possibility.
7.4. FORM OF CONSTRUCTION

The form of construction is one area where there are some differences between
permanent and temporary diversion channels.

Permanent diversion channels are usually dug in the dry. Cofferdams are often
used to keep water out of the works until completion. Often the temporary works
are incorporated into the permanent works. For example, the sheet piling for a
98
CONSTRUC TION ISSUES
structure may be left high to form a temporary cofferdam and then trimmed off to
the required level when the cofferdam is no longer required.
During wet periods where the groundwater levels are high, or in areas with
more permeable soil conditions, dewatering using pumps may be required. Sheet
piling is normally used to form the cofferdams. Silent piling techniques, for
example vibrated sheeting, may be required especially in urban areas.
Temporary works may be designed by the scheme designer to support the
permanent diversion. The buildability of these works must be considered under
the CDM Regulations. For example, if earth embankments are used between the
diversion channel and the existing channel to prevent overtopping from one
channel to another there may be space limitations.

The form of construction often involves a cofferdam, earth embankment, or a
temporary dam with a pipe, channel or pumped offtake at a similar or higher level
than the original channel.
At Wraysbury Mill a cofferdam and diversion pipe were constructed (see
Section A4.8). On the River Biss (see Section A4.3) water was pumped around the
diversion using automatic level controls to optimise the use of the pumps. The
purpose of a temporary diversion channel is to remove the water from the existing
channel for a period of time in order to carry out construction works on the
channel or a structure within the channel. Another form of construction is to
provide a separate diversion channel within the existing channel to one side of the
channel if there is sufficient space. This technique was used at Brockenhurst
gauging station (see Section A4.5).
7.5. GROUND CONDITIONS

In order to determine the ground conditions, soil types and hidden obstructions,
such as old buried structures in the vicinity of the proposed river diversion, a good
ground investigation is vital. A comprehensive survey can prevent or minimise the
risk of problems from occurring later in the project. The site investigation
normally involves boreholes across the site of the proposed diversion and across
the existing river where works are proposed. It is important to ensure that the
investigations cover areas adjacent to existing structures where there may be
debris, and the remains of older structures. Running sand is a particular hazard for
construction work in the vicinity of rivers.
During construction, especially in the winter months and wet periods, ground
conditions can become very difficult. This may, for example, prevent plant being
moved and thereby delay the works. Where possible, timber or flexible matting
should be used to protect the ground.
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RIVER DIVERSIONS
7.6. GROUNDWATER
The effect of a river diversion on groundwater flow depends very much on local
conditions such as soil type, vegetation cover and the position of the ground-
water table. Possible impacts of a river diversion on groundwater include the
following:
• in permeable areas, leachate from spoil may reach the groundwater – placing
spoil on impermeable membranes can reduce this potential problem
• if sheet piles are placed to stop the flow, water may seep around the piles and
re-enter the excavation
• artificial channels intercept groundwater and can lower or stabilise levels
• trenches backfilled with a more permeable material will act as conduits and can
be used to channel groundwater towards wetland areas
• when channels are dredged, surface water and groundwater are mixed – this
may cause the precipitation of calcium carbonate, which must be broken up
before water is introduced into the channel
• the lowering of the water table may be beneficial in some areas as it may reduce
waterlogging – however, this may have adverse environmental impacts.
Where there is a danger that the groundwater will affect the stability of
excavations, boreholes should be used to monitor and observe changes in
groundwater levels.
A particular issue is the interaction between contaminated groundwater and the
river diversion. Boreholes and permeability tests are required to determine
existing conditions. In most conditions continuity between groundwater and the
surface water of the diversion channel is acceptable. However, where the
groundwater and/or ground conditions through which a river diversion is proposed
are contaminated, an exclusion system should be used to break the continuity
between the river and the contaminated material. This may be achieved using a
skin lining, for example, bentonite. Liner technology is well established and an
example of the use of liners on the River Ash is given in Section A4.1. A
monitoring system may be required and structural engineering solutions are
available although they can be costly. Care must be taken to avoid uplift where the
groundwater level exceeds the water level in the channel.
7.7. WATER QUALITY

During construction there may be a danger of contamination of water due to the
spillage of diesel from pumps and the disturbance/stirring of silts increasing the
turbidity of the water. To mitigate against these incidents, booms should be used
across the end of a river diversion during construction in order to restrict the
spillage of diesel or chemicals in a particular site. Mats should be available
alongside the booms to be used in the event of a spillage in order to mop up the
excess diesel on the surface of the water.
10 0
Figure 30. Offline settling lagoons for contaminated groundwater on the River Ash
Offline settling tanks should be used to settle out sediments stirred up during
the construction process. These can be relatively crude arrangements. For
example, water and suspended sediments can be pumped into a skip that has an
offtake pipe in the top part to take off clean water back into the river, leaving the
sediment to settle in the skip. The skip will need to be cleaned of sediments from
time to time. Other settling tank arrangements that can be used include a series of
parallel pipes designed to settle the sediment and return clean water to the river.
An alternative arrangement is to dig a settling basin at the downstream end of the
diversion channel in order to catch suspended sediments. Offline storage may also
be used to store contaminated water on site. Figure 30 shows the offline lagoons
used on the River Ash to store contaminated groundwater from the excavation and
to pump this to the foul water sewer over 800 m away.
7.8. PUMPING
Pumping is often required in river diversions to dewater areas that need to be dry
during works. This often involves continual pumping from a cofferdam in order to
ensure dry conditions for construction. Pumping, therefore, can be a costly part of
the construction process. In areas where electricity supplies are not available,
generators can be used but the costs are reduced if an existing electricity source is
available. There should be a backup power supply system for pumps run from
electricity in case of failure in the power supply.
There can be problems with spillage and contamination from a diesel pump and
pumps should always be mounted on a tray to catch diesel spilt during filling and
leaks or drips during running. The trays should be drained regularly to ensure no
spillage into the river or surrounding ground where groundwater could become
contaminated.
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RIVER DIVERSIONS
Noise from pumps may be a problem, especially as pumps are often running
continuously. Security of the pumps should also be considered, as it has been
known for the general public to turn pumps off in the night due to the noise.

Pumps are often used to take water from behind a temporary diversion dam into a
pipe or series of pipes being used as a temporary diversion while work is being
undertaken on the existing channel or associated works, as on the River Biss (see
Section A4.3).
7.9. RISK AND INTEGRITY OF WORKS

The integrity of the works will be affected by the time of year and methods of
construction. Risks to the works include:
• structural failures during the construction phase

• failure of pumps or the electricity supply
• bad weather, such as extreme cold
• flooding exceeding the capacity of the river/diversion, so inundating the works.
Methods are available for assessing construction risks in river and estuary
engineering (DETR, 1999).
7.10. STORAGE AND DISPOSAL OF MATERIAL

If the diversion channel is replacing the existing channel, material removed from
the diversion channel may be reused if it is an appropriate material type to fill in
the existing channel. Storage of the soil should be as close to the channels as
possible in order to reduce transport costs. The disposal or removal of material
from the site can be expensive and should be avoided as far as possible. However,
contaminated material may need to be removed from the site if it is not possible to
dispose of it safely at the site. Soil removed for a permanent diversion channel
that is additional to the existing channel (for example, a flood relief channel) may
be used for embankments or landscaping rather than removing it from the site
completely.

Material removed to create a temporary diversion channel should, if possible, be
stored on the site and reused to backfill the temporary diversion. The material
102
should either be stored in an appropriate place on the site or used to create

embankments to protect against flooding if this was required. Top soil is usually
stored separately and reused. Soil to be reused may need to be kept moist,
especially during dry weather in order to prevent cracking or the breakdown of the
soil structure.
7.11. STABILITY OF BANKS

An assessment of soil properties will be needed to determine the stable bank
slopes that can be used for the channel and other earthworks. Sometimes a
permanent diversion may need to be lined, especially where it has been cut
through contaminated land, as on the River Ash (see Section A4.1). Lining may be
buried and covered with natural bed and bank materials for environmental
reasons. Soft and hard bank protection can be used as described in Section 4.8.

As with permanent diversion channels, tests should be undertaken on the soils in
order to determine the angle to which the banks can be cut without causing
collapse. Sometimes a temporary channel is lined to prevent water seeping into
the existing channel.
Figure 31. Temporary access over earth embankment
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RIVER DIVERSIONS
7.12. ACCESS
Footpaths for the general public and access for anglers may need to be provided
and maintained during the works as it is often difficult to close footpaths. Access
may be restricted to one side of the river. Sometimes the access needs to be from
the same side of the river as the diversion channel and, therefore, a bridge or other
form of temporary access is required across the diversion to the river.
The temporary works can sometimes be used to form part of the access for
pedestrians. Figure 31 shows the diversion works on the River Dever at Bransbury
Gauging Station, where the temporary earth embankment was used as access
across the river.
7.13. SECURITY
In low-risk areas a fence around the site is usually sufficient with a locked
compound to protect materials and plant. Pumps need to be protected to avoid
them being turned off. In high-risk, urban areas, a security guard may be required
in addition to fencing.
10 4
Health and safety on site
8
8. Health and safety on site
8.1. INTRODUCTION
In river diversion projects, health and safety is the responsibility of everyone on
site and must be an integral part of project planning. All works require a health
and safety plan to be drawn up that takes into account factors such as the legal
requirements, planning (risk, cost and noise assessments), company policy and
safe methods of work, including monitoring and reviewing, in order to meet site
specific rules and professional codes of conduct. All parties involved in the
diversion project have a statutory duty to protect not only their employees but also
the public from hazards associated with the works.
The basis of the regulation of health and safety in the UK is the Health and
Safety Act 1974 which provides a comprehensive legislative framework within
which to promote, stimulate and encourage high health and safety standards. Of
the subsequent legislation, the Construction (Design and Management)
Regulations 1994 are particularly relevant to river diversion projects. The CDM
Regulations apply to all design and construction work of over 30 days duration,
involving more than five people. However, they provide a useful framework for
works of any duration. CIRIA Report 145 (CIRIA, 1997a) provides a good basic
guide to the CDM Regulations. Health and safety in construction (HSE, 1995)
provides a general guide to regulations on construction sites.
The CDM Regulations place the duties of health and safety on clients,
designers, planning supervisors and contractors to focus on health and safety at all
stages of construction and demolition, from conception, design and planning to
commissioning and maintenance. To satisfy legal requirements, a designer must
carry out risk assessments and liaise closely with the planning supervisor
appointed by the client to ensure that all risks are minimised. A health and safety
plan is then drawn up which must be referred to and developed throughout the
project. A health and safety file, which is kept on site, must also be updated
regularly. The CDM Regulations include the relationship between the project
team parties, as shown in Figure 32.
Professional bodies, such as the Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE), have their
own codes of conduct that bind all members. Item 1 of the Rules for Professional
Conduct of the ICE state that members have full regard for the public interest in
matters of health and safety. Similar rules exist in the codes of other professional
bodies. There is numerous health and safety legislation that applies to river
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RIVER DIVERSIONS
Client
Principle contractor
Designer Planning supervisor
Main contractor
Risk Pre-tender Construction stage

assessments Health and safety plan Health and safety plan
Site-specific method statements
Figure 32. Relationship between project team parties
diversions and a list is provided in Appendix 3. This list is by no means exhaustive

but includes many of the relevant statutes.
8.2. THE HEALTH AND SAFETY PLAN – METHOD STATEMENTS

During the planning of a diversion project, significant risks should be identified
by the designer. These risks must then be either removed or reduced in order to
minimise potential hazards and make them easier to manage. If it is not possible to
remove risks, then provision must be made to protect both workers and the public.
The designer is in the unique position of being able to minimise risks at the design
stage rather than leaving a contractor to deal with managing them on site. A
structured method statement detailed in the health and safety plan should be
drawn up for each project and reviewed continually throughout the work, as
required by CDM recommendations.
The method statement typically details the following (CIRIA, 1997c):
• all potential hazards

• controls
• methods of control:
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HE ALTH AND SAFE T Y ON SITE
❍ safe means of access to all work areas

❍ how the work is to be carried out
❍ communications
❍ the equipment to be used
❍ protective equipment and clothing
❍ specific details of any lifting appliances
• residual risk:
❍ monitoring
❍ review.
In the case of high-risk activities, permits to work are required as part of safe
work systems. The employer issues the permit to employees after the risks
involved in working on a particular site have been explained. Permits are only
issued after safe working procedures have been incorporated into the health and
safety plan. A case study design guide to risk assessment can be found in CIRIA
Report 145 (CIRIA, 1997a).
8.2.1. Role of the designer

In health and safety planning, the designer has a key role and duty that is defined
in the CDM Regulations (part 13), as follows. Every designer shall:
• when preparing the design give consideration to the avoidance of foreseeable

risk to those involved in the construction process, including those who may be
affected by the works
• combat the risks at source
• give priority measures which will protect all those placed at risk over those
measures which only protect the individual
• provide adequate information on any aspect of the design that may affect the
health and safety of those involved in or could be affected by the construction
work.
The key to successful health and safety planning is risk assessment and control.
Health and safety must be monitored and implemented in a systematic and
controlled way throughout the design, construction, operation and maintenance of
the works. A heavy responsibility is placed on the designer to ensure health and
safety is maintained throughout the works.
8.3. WORKING ON, OVER OR IN WATER
8.3.1. Potential hazards

When working in close proximity to water there are many additional hazards and
controls to consider. Water presents a danger whether it is deep or shallow, and
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RIVER DIVERSIONS
health and safety provisions must be stringently applied in all cases. As well as the
risks associated with construction, additional hazards arise in river diversion work
owing to (CIRIA, 1997c):
• water (still or flowing)
• fluctuating flow rates and levels
• hydraulic structures, such as intakes, outfalls and weirs
• tides and currents
• rapid changes in weather, particularly in arid, urban or upland areas, which can
be prone to flash flooding
• waterborne diseases, such as Weils’ disease
• fixed structures, boats and rafts
• steep banks, which may be slippery or loose
• other water users.
For these reasons it is strongly recommended that personnel do not work alone
near water.
8.3.2. Common health and safety failings

In the UK, Health and Safety Executive Inspectors commonly draw attention to
several basic failures found in river engineering:
• failure to fence off excavations

• failure to fence off areas where earth moving vehicles are working
• failure to wear life jackets
• dangerous debris left in areas open to the public
• misuse of boats/untrained boat handlers
• inadequate emergency provisions (adequate provisions are detailed in Section
8.3.4).
8.3.3. Potential diseases

The possible consequences of working in, over or on water include drowning,
injury, hypothermia, sea-sickness (in tidal areas) and waterborne disease. A
number of diseases can be contracted while working near water, the most common
of which are as follows.
In the UK:
• leptospirosis (Weils’ disease)

• hepatitis
• legionnaires disease
• schistosomiasis
• e-coli
• salmonella
• cryptospopridiosis.
110
Overseas:
• cholera
• typhoid
• polio.
An increasing area of concern is the effect of blue green algae blooms on

humans. Blue green algae are capable of producing toxins, which can cause rashes
after skin contact and eye irritation, vomiting, diarrhoea, fever and muscle pain
after ingestion or swimming in affected areas. It is not possible to determine
visually which algal blooms are toxic and, therefore, all blooms should be
assumed to be toxic (Environment Agency, 1996b).
Further information regarding the above health hazards can be found by
contacting the Department of Health. Travel guides can often be a useful source of
information regarding the potential for diseases in particular areas.
8.3.4. Reducing water associated risks

In addition to health and safety measures that should be taken on all sites, in river
diversion works particular attention should be given to reducing the risk of
drowning both for the public and for workers. Precautions to be taken include the
following, depending on the particular circumstances of the diversion works
(CIRIA, 1997c):
• install safe working access, considering the impact of waves and debris on
working platforms, the undermining of supports by scour and corrosion of
equipment
• erect barriers, guard rails, toe boards and warning signs where there is a risk of
people falling into water
• provide life jackets conforming to BS EN 395 and safety lines for workers
• keep all ladders and platforms clean to avoid slipping
• ensure there are sufficient people present that are trained in rescue techniques
• pre-plan emergency procedures and assess the need for a fully equipped and
manned rescue boat
• install flood warning systems in areas known to be subject to flash flooding.
The Water Services Association produces advisory safety sheets, which are a
useful aid to risk assessment and planning for work in rivers.
8.4. LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS

As part of the preparation for method statements for river diversion works, checks
must be carried out on the impact of diverting flow with reference to legal
requirements. A discussion of some of the legal requirements for river diversions
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RIVER DIVERSIONS
in the UK is provided in Part D. In addition to the legislation applying to all

construction work, several other factors must be considered. For example, the
watercourse may be a sewer and it is necessary to determine whether it is a public
sewer or a private sewer as there are a different set of laws in each case. The status
of a sewer does not depend on the nature of effluent it carries and, therefore, a
channel may be a sewer although it carries clean surface water. This must be
checked prior to commencing any work that requires diversion of a sewer and the
necessary planning permission must be obtained.
8.5. EXCAVATIONS IN RIVER DIVERSIONS
8.5.1. Introduction
Three main types of excavation occur in river diversion work: trenches,
cofferdams and caissons. These all present specific problems for the designer.
No unsupported excavation can be considered safe no matter how shallow and it is
vital that the designer minimises the risks associated with excavation in order to
avoid serious accidents. The dangers of working below ground level are increased
by working in, near or on water, as ground and surface water can have a major
impact on the way ground behaves. Excavations must be made safe by designing a
safe slope angle or by installing side supports where necessary. Support may be in
the form of sheet piles, drag boxes or proprietary systems, which have the
advantage of being installed without requiring people to enter the excavation. A
quick and easy means of escape out of an excavation should always be provided in
case of sudden wall collapse.
8.5.2. Considerations prior to excavating

Risks can be reduced greatly at the design stage if a careful site survey and
analysis is carried out. Before starting excavation work the following measures
must be taken:
• consideration of ground conditions by examining site surveys including

groundwater levels – water can cause instability by affecting the behaviour of
soils and water pressure
• consideration of services, and the interaction of proposed excavations and
nearby structures
• provision of edge protection, such as fences and toe boards
• assessment of the risk of flooding and the possible presence of gases,
particularly when working near sewers.
During excavation work the working face and support system must be
examined daily.
112
8.5.3. Ground conditions

In order for the designer of a river diversion project to produce a safe design for
excavations, an accurate site survey is required, identifying all possible hazards.
The position of the groundwater table, type of soil, location of services, and
presence of contaminated soil should all be marked on the site survey. Guidance
on site investigations can be found in BS 5930 (British Standards Institution,
1981a) and CIRIA SP 25 (1983).
8.5.4. Surface and groundwater levels

In river diversion works water may pose a threat to the stability of excavated
trenches and cofferdams as the groundwater table may be high or surface water
could infiltrate the excavation. Water has a major influence on the geotechnical
behaviour of soils and should be carefully controlled and monitored. Problems
caused by water in excavations include:
• water flowing laterally into excavations destabilising slopes

• water flowing upwards into excavations destabilising the base
• erosion causing instability where water enters pores and fissures, weakening the
soil.
An example of a problem caused by groundwater is shown with the associated

solution below in Figure 33. Further information about how to control
groundwater can be found in CIRIA Report 113 (1988) and most good
geotechnical engineering books. Design examples can be found in CIRIA Report
145 (1997a).
Problem Solution
Header pipe
Sheet piling
GWL
GWL
Well point
Figure 33. Groundwater problem and potential solution (adapted from CIRIA SP
136, 1996)
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RIVER DIVERSIONS
Table 6. Different soil types and associated problems
Clay/silt/loose sand Stiff clay/silt/weak rock Rock excavation
Unstable slopes Unstable joints and fissures Unstable joint orientation

Equipment gets bogged down Swelling Vibrations and noise
Lateral squeeze on unsupported shafts Boulders Flying rock when blasting
8.5.5. Soil type

In order to design excavations safely, the designer needs to know the type of soils
that are present on site and hence their properties. The problems encountered due
to different soil types are shown in Table 6.
If the site survey shows ground conditions to be highly complex it is
recommended that a geotechnical engineer is consulted.
8.5.6. Contaminated sites

The presence of contaminated soils at the site of proposed works (for example,
the River Ash) presents several problems. If the material to be excavated is
designated ‘special waste’ it may only be deposited at a licensed landfill site, of
which there are few in the UK. The removal of contaminated soil is costly for
this reason and also because it can not be used as backfill. Care must be taken to
protect workers and the public from contaminated soil. The provision of vehicle
washing facilities prior to transportation off site may be necessary. For further
guidance see the Control of Pollution (Special Waste) Regulations 1980, CIRIA
SP 105 (1995), the EC Groundwater Directive 1980 and section 57 of the
Environment Act 1995.
8.5.7. Services
The list of services that may be found under and over the site include gas, water
and oil pipes, telephone cables and fibre optics, electricity, sewers and street
lighting. Note:
(a) It is important to note that all service locations are approximate. Damaging
any one of these services can be very costly to repair and may carry a
significant danger to life.
(b) Before work commences a plan of the services on site should be drawn
up.
(c) Additional information about the location of services can be obtained by
calling SUSIEPHONE (Standard Utilities Services Information for
Excavators, tel: 0800 800333) and by calling the Ordnance Survey (helpline
tel: 0845 6050505).
114
8.5.8. Trenches
Trenches less than 12 m deep may not require support if the ground is firm but
should not be considered safe unsupported. All trenches over 12 m deep must have
their sides supported sufficiently or they must be battered back to a safe angle that is
dependent on the soil properties of the site. Sharma and Lewis (1994) suggest that:
An unsupported cut in a dry cohesionless soil is not feasible. For such soils a stable slope can
be excavated at an angle where a factor of safety (F) is used and F is equal to tan/tan,
where is equal to the angle of internal friction of the sand. On the other hand, in cohesive
soils, having an undrained strength of c, an unsupported vertical trench can be excavated to a
height of H 4c= , where is the unit weight of the soil.
The above statement highlights the need for an accurate site investigation, as a
safe trench design must take into account soil type, which may vary rapidly along
the route of a river diversion, where old river channels are likely to be encountered.
Side support in trenches can be provided in a number of ways:
• struts and walling
• ground anchors
• fill.
Trenches should be inspected daily before use and a written record made of this
check once a week. For further information on the excavation of trenches consult
CIRIA Report 97 Trenching practice (1994a), BS 6031 Code of practice for
earthworks (British Standards Institution, 1981b) and the Construction
Regulations 1996.
8.5.9. Cofferdams
Cofferdams are used in river diversions to keep soil and water out of the original
channel or the diversion channel. It is often a temporary structure and can be a
land or water cofferdam, the former being excavated in a dry location and the
latter being surrounded by water. The most common type of cofferdam used in
river diversion work is the single walled dam, as opposed to the double wall as
shown in Figure 34.
WL
Lateral support Granular fill
WL
Ties
Excavation
Excavation
(a) (b)
Figure 34. Single and double wall cofferdams: (a) single wall; (b) double wall
115
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Table 7. Risks associated with cofferdam construction
Operation Risk Consequence Potential Potential Mitigation

impact on impact on measures
site project
Construction Noise from Excess noise Health risk Environ- Provide ear
of cofferdam plant to workers mental protection
health Work within
inspection certain hours
Select suitable
plant
Use of sound
barriers
Vibration Excess ground Structural Cost, delay/ Structural survey
from plant vibration instability public Selection of plant
of adjacent relations Selection of
property (PR) method
and work
High river Flooding of Collapse or Damage to Use protective
flow/flood works damage of works boom to stop
works/loss Delay to floating debris
of life works Flood warning
system
High wind Handling of Collapse of Blockage Meteorological
conditions piles in piles of river checks
difficult waves Warning system
Slippery Unstable Slips, trips Health, cost Warning signs,
surfaces footing and falls trip boards,
correct footwear
Working at Falls Injury/loss Health, Safety helmets,
height over of life cost, delays lifejackets, safety
water ropes
Construction High river Collapse of Damage to Delay, cost, Design of

inside flow/flood cofferdam structures PR cofferdam
cofferdam Severe Overtopping Injury/loss Flood forecasting
wave of life Weather
conditions Environ- forecasting
mental Means of quick
damage escape for
personnel
Confined Toxic Injury or Health, Provide
spaces chemicals, death cost, delay protective
gas, sudden clothing, have
inflow of warning and
water, slippery rescue systems in
surfaces place, use permit
to work system
116
Single walled cofferdams are constructed using sheet piling, cast in place bored
piles or diaphragm walls, and can be laterally supported by struts, ground anchors or
fill. It is the designer’s responsibility to ensure the trench has an adequate factor of
safety against collapse. The infiltration of groundwater into excavations reduces the
factor of safety. Cofferdams are mentioned specifically in the Construction (Health,
Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1996 and require the supervision of a competent
person throughout construction, installation, and dismantling. Cofferdams should be
inspected daily before use and a written record made of the inspection. Some of the
risks associated with the construction of cofferdams are shown in Table 7.
For further information refer to BS 8004: 1986 Code of Practice for
Foundations and CIRIA SP 95 The design and construction of sheet-piled
cofferdams (1993b).
8.5.10. Caissons
A caisson may be used in river diversion work as an alternative to coffer-
dams when working close to a structure or in weak ground where piling would
disturb the ground too much. The type used would be a box caisson as shown
in Figure 35.
The caisson may be constructed on land at its final location or floated into
position. Transportation of a caisson may require special permission. Caissons are
placed by using their self-weight to sink into the ground. In river diversions they
may be floated into position, in which case they must be held in position while
being lowered. Situations in which caissons may not be suitable include sites with:
• stiff or hard clays

• sloping bedrock
• boulders
Water level
Prepared surface
Figure 35. Box caisson (adapted from CIRIA SP 136, 1996)
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RIVER DIVERSIONS
• alternating weak strata

• high groundwater levels that will cause uplift.
It is possible to use jack hammers to overcome some of these problems.

During the sinking process verticality must be maintained, which can be
controlled several ways, including reducing air pressure with a compressed air
caisson, in which case reference should be made to CIRIA Report 44 Medical
code of practice for working with compressed air (1992).
Caissons should always be treated as a confined space (see Section 8.6). For
further guidance refer to Tomlinson (1995) and BS 8004: 1986.
8.5.11. Excavation-related monitoring

The type of impact excavations can have on surrounding ground is shown in
Figure 36.
In order to minimise the effect of river diversion works on adjacent structures,
the designer must evaluate the effect of construction methods and plant on the
surrounding ground. This may require:
Rotation
Settlement
Horizontal
displacement
Prop
Services
Heave
Foundation may be subject to
lateral and vertical movement
Horizontal
displacement
Figure 36. Impact of excavations on surrounding ground (adapted from CIRIA SP

136, 1996)
118
• an inventory of surrounding structures and evaluating their sensitivity to ground

movements
• estimating the size of expected movements with settlement calculations
• obtaining an up-to-date survey
• specifying methods to minimise the impact of construction on adjacent
structures.
Even if good construction practices are followed there will still be some
settlement outside the excavation unless inward movement of the wall is
controlled. To minimise movement a good understanding of site conditions must
be combined with detailed design and monitoring. By ensuring settlement is
minimised during river diversion work, the risk of structural failure can be
reduced.
8.6. CONFINED SPACES

Confined spaces are often found in river diversion works, particularly those
involving trenches, cofferdams, sewers and pipelines, service reservoirs, sumps,
overflows and culverts. A confined space is not necessarily small. The main
hazards associated with confined spaces in river diversion work are (CIRIA,
1997c):
• sudden influx of water

• suffocation due to lack of oxygen
• toxic atmosphere, particularly near sewers and contaminated sites
• flammable atmosphere near sewers and contaminated sites
• collapse of retaining walls while working in an excavation
• darkness
• slippery surfaces.
Generally, personnel should not enter confined spaces unless there is no

alternative. Protective equipment and warning systems must be available and
atmosphere tests carried out where there is a high chance of gases being present.
Rescue arrangements must be planned out and a written method statement in use,
involving a permit-to-work system (CIRIA, 1993a). Trained personnel should be
used in addition to the permit-to-work system.
8.6.1. Pipelines
Pipelines may be used in river diversion work to carry flow around the site.
Pipelines may be placed in a trench or alongside works if the diversion is
temporary. The main influences on the hazards caused by pipes are their size,
material, location and depth. Care should be taken in choosing a pipe that has a
large enough capacity to carry flood flows, otherwise water will bypass the pipe
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RIVER DIVERSIONS
Table 8. Risks in pipeline construction (CIRIA SP 137, 1997c)
Risks Possible consequences
Stacked pipes, particularly close to excavations Crush and impact injuries, death,
and lifting and lowering operations falling materials
Working at depth, trench collapse Crush and impact injuries
Dangerous atmospheres Fire and explosions, suffocation
Operation of equipment in a confined space Damage to hearing
Noise and dust (particularly from asbestos Risk to workers’ health
cement pipes)
Water and sewage Flooding, drowning and diseases
Groundwater Trench instability
and flow into the site, defeating the object of diverting flow around it. The main
risks in pipeline construction and repair are provided in Table 8.
A risk assessment and method of working must consider how hazards alter as
the pipe-laying process progresses. Points to consider include:
• delivery of pipes
• stacking
• lifting
• working with asbestos cement pipes
• maximum carrying capacity of the pipe and design flow
• action in case of flood flows.
8.7. WORKING NEXT TO ROADS AND RAILWAYS

When working next to roads or railways it is essential that personnel are protected
from the dangers of road and rail traffic. Construction traffic must be kept
separate from live traffic by erecting barriers, lane or line closures, and
diversionary routes, permission for which must be obtained from the Department
of the Environment, Transport and the Regions, Railtrack and the Police. Work
must not cause any subsidence to existing roads or railway, no materials
(including mud) must be on roads and no plant should overhang.
The public must also be protected from the dangers of a river diversion site next
to roads and railways. Pedestrian routes must be fenced off (with tape or barriers)
from the site and safe alternative routes provided. Suitable warning signs must
also be posted.
When working close to road and railway lines, high visibility clothing must be
worn at all times. For further information refer to the HDE leaflet IND(G) 22L
Danger, transport at work, BS 873 The Building Advisory Service: Construction
Safety, the HMSO/DoT publication Safety at street works and road works, the
HSE’s Transport kills, and the Highways Act 1971.
120
Part D
Legislation
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Part D covers aspects of UK legislation (excluding Northern Ireland) that are

relevant to river diversions. In particular, planning permission may be required
together with an Environmental Assessment, and this is covered in Section 9.8.
Part D should be used as a guide but not as an exhaustive checklist. In each case of
river diversion it is vital to check what permissions are required before
commencing work. A more complete coverage of relevant issues is given in the
ICE’s Land drainage and flood defence responsibilities, 3rd edition (1996).
Legal requirements relating to river diversion works should be identified early in
the specification and design stages. Legislation applying to diversion work covers
two general areas:
(a) The requirements for consents, permits and authorisations, e.g. planning
permissions. Breach of these requirements is usually a criminal offence.
(b) Civil or criminal liability in respect of the carrying out of work with regard to
such things as nuisance caused by noises, the disposal of waste (section 34,
Environmental Protection Act 1990) and the common laws.
Part D also outlines the responsibilities of organisations in England, Wales and

Scotland who might be involved in the planning of river diversions.
12 2
Legalresponsibilities and
planning
9
9. Legal responsibilities and planning
9.1. THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES AND FOOD

The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) has overall responsibility
for policy regarding flood defence and coast protection in England, and the
National Assembly for Wales has similar responsibilities in Wales. Where MAFF
is referred to subsequently it should be taken to mean that in Wales the reference
refers to the National Assembly of Wales. In the case of Scotland, reference to
MAFF should be taken to mean the Scottish Executive.
MAFF promotes and administers the statutory framework for flood defence and
coastal protection and provides grants for flood warning and the improvement of
flood defences. MAFF also initiates and funds research related to flood defences.
The overall objectives of MAFF are as follows:
• to encourage the provision of adequate and cost-effective flood warning

systems
• to encourage the provision of adequate, technically, environmentally and
economically sound and sustainable flood and coastal defence measures
• to discourage inappropriate development in areas at risk from flooding or
coastal erosion.
MAFF must approve flood defence schemes carried out by flood defence
operating authorities if the scheme is either grant aided or would cost over
£05 million. The Water Resources Act 1991 contains several provisions of
relevance to river engineers including:
(a) MAFF designates ‘main’ rivers and holds a definitive map (as does the
Environment Agency, section 193 of the Water Resources Act 1991).
(b) MAFF can give grants for engineering schemes to operating authorities
including the Environment Agency.
(c) MAFF must authorise compulsory purchases of land made by operating
authorities.
125
RIVER DIVERSIONS
9.2. DEPARTMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT, TRANSPORT AND THE

REGIONS
The Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR) also has
important responsibilities and influence in relation to land drainage and flood
defence. Responsibilities include:
• being responsible for the Environment Agency

• ultimate responsibility for the town and country planning system
• negotiating and acting upon international environmental agreements, such as
the EC Directives.
9.3. THE SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE

The structure of bodies responsible for waterways, flood and coastal defence in
Scotland is different from that of England and Wales. However, the role of the
Scottish Executive in water policy responsibilities is similar to that of MAFF and
the DETR in that it implements UK and EC policies and imposes duties and
functions on authorities with responsibility for water management and flood
defence. The Scottish Executive also sponsors the Scottish Environmental
Protection Agency (SEPA). For more detailed information about legislation in
Scotland refer to Howell (1994). Note that since the publication of Howell, SEPA
has been given a role in assessing flood risk and advising local authorities on
planning and flood prevention activities. Additionally, since the advent of the
Land Drainage and Flood Prevention (Scotland) Act 1997, local authorities have
an increased role in assessing/alleviating flood risk.
9.4. THE ENVIRONMENT AGENCY

The Environment Agency has many responsibilities in England and Wales,
including the following:
• preserving and improving the quality of rivers

• acting to conserve and secure proper use of water resources
• supervising all flood defence matters
• maintaining and improving fisheries
• conservation and enhancement of the water environment, including areas of
outstanding natural beauty or environmental sensitivity.
The Environment Agency has a general supervisory duty for all flood
defence matters regardless of the status of the river. The Environment Agency
then has specific operational and regulatory powers for main rivers and default
powers on ordinary watercourses. The Environment Agency’s approval is
necessary for temporary and permanent diversions on main rivers and also
126
LEGAL RESPONSIBILITIES AND PL ANNING
ordinary watercourses where there is any obstruction to flow, for example,

culverting.
The Environment Agency has specific powers, which directly affect river
diversion works:
(a) The supervisory duty of the Environment Agency is stringently applied to all
river works.
(b) Section 165 of the Water Resources Act 1991 gives the Environment Agency
permissive powers in respect to maintenance, improvement and construction
on main rivers.
(c) The Environment Agency is a statutory consultee in the planning process for
planning applications and development plans, including those applications
that involve works in, adjacent to or within the floodplain.
(d) Highways authorities must obtain consent from the Environment Agency or
drainage bodies before any work is carried out on a river or drainage channel
(Highways Act 1980). Note that work related to bridges could be exempt and
works carried out under an order may not require Environment Agency
consent. However, the Environment Agency should be consulted in all cases.
(e) Section 109 of the Water Resources Act 1991 states that no one may erect a
structure in/over/on a main river except with the consent of and in
accordance with plans approved by the Environment Agency.
(f) Proposals to construct or alter a culvert require consent from the
Environment Agency (or Internal Drainage Board if in their area) or local
authority. (Note that there may be an exemption for highway authorities
regarding ordinary watercourses and that works done under an Order will
normally also be exempt.)
(g) The Environment Agency has the powers to improve any existing
watercourse, including deepening, widening, placing structures, etc. In the
case of river diversions the Environment Agency may actually be the
promoter of works, e.g. for flood defence purposes.
(h) No alterations may be made to a structure in, over or under a main river
without Environment Agency consent (unless it is in an emergency).
9.5. INTERNAL DRAINAGE BOARDS

There are 250 Internal Drainage Boards (IDBs) in England and Wales
comprising local authority representatives and members elected by agricultural
landowners. They are located in low-lying areas where agriculture and
development influence flood protection and land drainage. IDBs supervise all
land drainage in their district and may carry out work on watercourses and
designate those works that are to be maintained. In cases where a river
diversion is carried out in an IDB area, consent from the IDB to carry out the
works will probably be required.
127
RIVER DIVERSIONS
9.6. LOCAL AUTHORITIES

The term ‘local authorities’ encompasses county councils, county borough
councils (Wales), borough councils (England), metropolitan and non-metropolitan
district councils, and London boroughs. This group is known, along with the
Environment Agency and IDBs, collectively as drainage bodies. The local
authority should be consulted for a wide range of purposes (planning, scoping
environmental studies, local plan status regarding protected routes, potential
housing, mineral extraction, etc., rights of way and liaison with local community
groups).
Local authorities have the power to carry out drainage works in certain
circumstances on ordinary watercourses but they will usually need the
Environment Agency’s prior consent. They have the power to take action to
maintain the flow of ordinary watercourses in their area but must notify the
Environment Agency (or the relevant IDB) first.
Local authorities also have powers under the Public Health Act 1936 in relation
to all watercourses. They may deal with watercourses that are in a state prejudicial
to health or non-navigable watercourses where flow is impeded to the extent there
is a nuisance or conditions arising that are prejudicial to health. They may also
require culverting or the repair and cleaning of culverts on a watercourse.
However, before exercising any of these powers granted under the Public Health
Act 1936 in relation to a watercourse within the Environment Agency’s
jurisdiction, they must consult the Environment Agency.
9.6.1. London authorities

The London boroughs and city councils hold similar powers as other local
authorities with several additional specific duties. London boroughs under
authority from the Environment Agency may exercise permissive powers over
ordinary watercourses. In the case of diversion works being carried out in a
London borough, permissions that county councils control are in the remit of the
boroughs.
9.7. PARTICULAR CIRCUMSTANCES

In the case of river diversion works there are two areas of legislation that are
particularly relevant: those that are concerned with culverts and powers of
diversion.
9.7.1. Culverts
Permission from the Environment Agency must be granted before a main river
may be culverted and an Environmental Statement may be required. Before
culverting any watercourse, including ditches, if that culverting is likely to affect
flow (which is usually the case), the consent of the Environment Agency (or IDB
128
LEGAL RESPONSIBILITIES AND PL ANNING
in an IDB district) is required. Note that the key word is ‘affect’, not restrict, and,
as such, the Environment Agency consent is required for practically all culverting.
As river diversion works may involve temporary culverts, the above requirements
must be taken into account at the planning stage.
9.7.2. Powers of diversion for highway authorities

The Highways Act 1980 grants certain powers to highway authorities. The critical
points relate to whether the watercourse is navigable, and whether the work is
being carried out under an Order confirmed by the Secretary of State. Therefore,
depending on the circumstances, Environment Agency consent may or may not be
required.
9.8. PLANNING PERMISSION

Obtaining planning permission from the local planning authority is a key stage in
river diversion works. It is important to note that obtaining planning permissions
does not remove the need to obtain particular permissions, such as consents or
licences, where these are required, for example in the case of culverting where
consent is required from the Environment Agency or IDB regardless of the status
of the river.
The main piece of legislation governing planning is the Town and Country
Planning Act 1990. Planning permission is required for development, which can
be summarised as the carrying out of any building, mining, engineering or any
other operation in, over, or under land. There are certain exemptions or ‘permitted
developments’.
All major engineering works, including diversion channels, are subject to
planning control and a proposal for such a development is likely to require
consent from a local planning authority. If the diversion channel is temporary, it
may be part of a wider scheme that requires planning consent. It is difficult to
determine whether a temporary river diversion would require planning consent but
it is likely to do so if it forms part of a larger project. Each case should be
considered separately and should be referred to the local planning authority for
advice.
The issues that the designer should consider are covered in Section 2.2. A
planning application will require the details of the physical characteristics, land
use requirements (during and after construction), nature and quality of materials to
be used and impact of the river diversion. It is advisable to contact the local
planning authority at an early stage in the project in order to take directions on the
planning procedure and requirements. It is required that the planning authority are
aware of the other options being considered at the feasibility stage and the reasons
for choosing the development proposed.
129
RIVER DIVERSIONS
9.8.1. Environmental Impact Assessment

In general, a permanent river diversion will be subject to planning control and
may require an Environmental Statement under the legislation covered by the
Town and Country Planning (Environmental Impact Assessment) (England and
Wales) Regulations 1999 (SI 1999 No. 293).
Under the Environment Act 1995, the Environment Agency has a duty to assess
the impacts of all its activities on the environment. An appropriate level of
Environmental Impact Assessment will be required for all permanent diversion
channels. In the case of work that will be carried out in a site of special scientific
interest (SSSI) or within two kilometres of such a site, English Nature, the
Countryside Commission for Wales or Scottish Natural Heritage will also be a
statutory consultee.
This area is likely to become increasingly important throughout Europe as EC
Directives on Conservation (1994) and the Habitat Regulations (1994) come into
effect. Other environmental designations, such as national and local nature
reserves, national parks, areas of outstanding natural beauty, SSSIs and listed
buildings may be encountered during river diversions, all of which have
implications for the permissions required before work can begin (ICE, 1996).
The Environmental Impact Assessment (Land Drainage Improvements Works)
Regulations 1999 (SI 1999 No. 1783) places an obligation on any drainage
authority to consider whether to carry out an Environmental Impact Assessment
for drainage works undertaken under Town and Country Planning (General
Development Procedure) Order 1995 (SI 1995 No. 419). The drainage authority
must consider whether, by reason of its nature, size or location, the proposed
project is likely to have significant effects on the environment. If it is considered
to be significant, an Environmental Statement will be required. It is the
responsibility of the drainage authority to determine if an Environmental
Statement is required.
If the environmental impacts are considered to be significant when identified at
the feasibility stage during the scoping assessment, a full Environmental Impact
Assessment reported in an Environmental Statement will be required. Guidelines
are given by the DETR (then the DoE) on the preparation of Environmental
Statements (DoE, 1995) and the procedures for Environmental Assessment (DoE,
1989).
9.8.2. Procedure
In order to obtain planning permission, an application is made to the local
planning authority where the land is situated. The authority has a discretion to
refuse planning permission or to grant it (including granting it subject to
conditions) under the Town and Country Planning Act 1990. The legal
requirements for applicants are found in the legislation. An applicant is required
to serve notice on owners of land and on any tenants. Publication of the planning
application is required by the authority, which allows any interested party a period
of six weeks to comment before a decision is taken on the application.
130
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135
Appendices
Appendix 1.
Methods for calculating the tailwater
elevation
A1.1 NORMAL DEPTH METHOD

The tailwater elevation (TWL) at the downstream limit of the river diversion is
calculated by applying Manning’s equation to a channel cross-section located just
downstream. The method assumes that the TWL is not affected by any controls
downstream of the culvert.
The cross section should be typical of the channel downstream of the
downstream limit of the river diversion:
AR 2=3 s1=2
Q 12
n
where Q is the design flow
A is the cross-sectional area
R is the hydraulic radius (A/P)
P is the wetted perimeter
s is the water surface slope (assumed equal to the bed slope)
n is the Manning’s n value for the channel, estimated from Appendix 2 or
Hicks and Mason (1991)
For channels where the design flow is contained within the banks, A and P are
calculated as shown in Figure A1.1(a). For channels where the design flow
exceeds the channel capacity as shown in Figure A1.1 (b), Q is calculated using
the following formula:
( ! ! !)
2=3 2=3 2=3
AC R C AL R L AR R R
Q s1=2 13
nC nL nR
where nC, nL and nR are Manning’s n values for the channel, left floodplain and
right floodplain respectively.
139
RIVER DIVERSIONS
A AL AR
AC
P PL PR
PC
(a) (b)
Figure A1.1. Definitions of A and P for Manning’s equation
The procedure for calculating the tailwater for a given design flow can be
iterative, as follows:
• guess the TWL in metres above datum

• obtain slope from OS 1:25 000 scale maps or site surveys
• calculate A and P
• estimate n from Appendix 2
• calculate Q – if it is not equal to the design flow, guess a new value of tailwater
and try again.
A1.2. BACKWATER METHOD

The depth of water at the downstream limit of the river diversion is determined by
calculating the water surface profile from a point some way downstream up to the
diversion outlet (see Figure A1.2).
The backwater calculation should be carried out from the first control point
downstream of the diversion outlet or, where there are no control points, the water
surface profile should be calculated for at least the ‘backwater length’ (Lbw):
Lbw 07y=s 14
where y is the channel depth

s is the water surface slope (or bed slope where water surface slope is not
available).
Water surface
profile
Control point
E
D
C
B A
Proposed location
of diversion outlet
Figure A1.2. Backwater method for calculating tailwater depth
14 0
APPENDIX 1
Several cross sections should be surveyed between the downstream limit of the
river diversion and the control point or downstream limit of the backwater length.
The most convenient way of applying the backwater method is to use computer
software.
To use this method without the need for a computer the cross sections should be
simplified to a common geometric shape, e.g. trapezoidal channel, rectangular
channel, etc. over the length which the backwater calculation will take place.
The object of the backwater method is to calculate the water surface elevation
at the upstream limit of a length of channel. The backwater method involves
calculating a water surface profile starting at the downstream end and working
upstream. Thus, the starting points will be at the downstream control point or limit
of backwater length.
The most efficient method for calculating the required upstream elevation is to
make use of Figure A1.3. The first row in the table corresponds to the section
where the start depth is ys and all the data for columns 1 to 9 are known. The total
head in column 14 for the first row is equal to the value in column 7. The chainage
at the start depth is 0, which can be entered into column 1.
To complete column 9, the friction slope, Sf, use will need to be made of a
Manning’s roughness value. If, however, the bed and culvert walls/channel banks
are not of the same roughness then a compound roughness will need to be
determined. Determine the compound roughness using the method in
Section A1.3.
The value of n0 (compound roughness) can then be used in place of n in the
calculation of Sf. Each of the rows after row 1 will correspond to a reach between
two of the stations where the water depth is to be determined.
The next step is to calculate the depth of flow at the first station along the
channel, a distance x upstream from the starting point. Initially a trial value of
the depth y is guessed and entered into column 3 and columns 2 and 4 to 9 are
calculated as in the first row. Column 10 is then the mean between the friction
slope at the start depth (in row 1) and that for the trial depth in column 9, row 2.
The head loss due to friction, hf, (column 12) is then the product of Sf and x.
If a bend has occurred in the culvert/channel reach the head loss due to the
bend, hb, should be entered into column 13. The final column is then the sum of
total head, H, for the previous reach (row 1 in this case) and hf and hb in row 2.
If columns 14 and 7 are equal then the initial depth guessed was correct. If they
are not equal then a second value for the depth at the first station has to be
selected. To help reduce the number of guesses required before column 14 and 7
agree, a correction factor, y, can be calculated:
e
y 15
3S f x
1 ÿ Fo
2
2R
where e is the difference between column 7 and column 14 for the first trial
depth
x is the distance from the last station
141
142
RIVER DIVERSIONS
hb
v 12
hf
2g
v 22
z = zstart – S (∆x)
2g
y1 Q
V=
A
y2 v2
Slope S H1 = z + y +
2g
Q 2n 2P 4/3
Sf =
∆x A10/3
z1 Sf (prev) + Sf
Sf =
z2 2
x hf = ∆xSf
Datum
H = H prev + hf + hb
x z y A v v2 H1 P Sf Sf ∆x hf hb H
2g
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14)
Figure A1.3. Tailwater calculation sheet

APPENDIX 1
R is the hydraulic radius of the first trial depth

Sf is the friction slope of the first trial depth V
Fo is the Froude number of the first trial depth = p and D = A/T
where T is the width of the free surface gD
ynew yinitial ÿ y 16
If y is negative then the value should be added to the depth of flow guessed in
column 3, whereas if y is positive the value should be taken from y. With a new
depth, y, calculated using the correction factor columns 2 and 4 to 14 can be
recalculated and the process outlined above repeated until columns 7 and 14 agree
within an acceptable tolerance.
When a depth of flow at the first station has been determined this then becomes
the start point for the next reach in order to calculate the depth of flow at the
second station, etc.
A1.3 COMPOUND ROUGHNESS

A compound roughness is a form of equivalent roughness that can be used to
represent all of the different roughnesses over a particular cross section of
channel. The compound roughness, n0 , can be determined as follows:
PR 5=3
n0 " # 17
X
N
Pi R
5=3
i
1
ni
for river channels.
143
Appendix 2.
Roughness coefficients for natural
channels
Table A2.1 provides initial estimates of values of Manning’s n to be used in the

sizing of diversion channels (Section 4.4.1) and in the calculation of tailwater
elevation (Appendix 1). Manning’s n is a coefficient used to describe the
roughness of the channel and floodplains and the corresponding resistance to
flow. The values are approximate and vary with flow rate and season, depending
on the type of vegetation present and maintenance carried out. This is discussed
further in Section 4.6.
Note that roughness coefficients will vary seasonally if the channel is not
maintained, i.e. in summer roughness may be higher depending on the type of
vegetation present. If regular cutting of vegetation is carried out the roughness of
the channel should not vary a great deal seasonally.
145
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Table A2.1. Roughness coefficients for natural channels
Manning’s n value
Type of channel and description Minimum Normal Maximum
Natural streams (top width at flood stage < 30 m)

Clean, straight, full stage, no rifts or deep pools 0025 0030 0033
Same as above but more stones and weeds 0030 0035 0040
Clean, winding, some pools and shoals 0033 0040 0045
Same as above but some weeds and stones 0035 0045 0050
Same as above but lower stages, more ineffective 0040 0048 0055
slopes and sections
Same as above but more stones 0045 0050 0060
Sluggish reaches. Weedy deep pools 0050 0070 0080
Very weedy reaches, deep pools or floodways with 0075 0100 0150
heavy stand of timber and underbrush
Mountainous streams, no vegetation in channel, 0030 0040 0050
banks usually steep, trees and brush along
banks submerged at high-water levels. Bed:
gravels, cobbles and few boulders
Mountainous streams, no vegetation in channel, 0040 0050 0070
banks usually steep, trees and brush along
banks submerged at high-water levels. Bed:
cobbles with large boulders
Floodplains (examples only)

Pasture, no brush
Short grass 0025 0030 0035
High grass 0030 0035 0050
Cultivated areas
No crop 0020 0030 0040
Mature row crops 0025 0035 0045
Mature field crops 0030 0040 0050
Brush
Scattered brush, heavy weeds 0035 0050 0070
Light brush and trees in winter 0035 0050 0060
Light brush and trees in summer 0040 0060 0080
Medium to dense brush in winter 0045 0070 0110
Medium to dense brush in summer 0070 0100 0160
146
Appendix 3.
Legislation and statutes
The lists below cover the legislation and statutes that may be relevant to the
planning, design and implementation of river diversions. While the most
commonly referred to items of legislation are covered in the text, the list
provides a source or reference for the range of legislation that might have to be
considered. Legislation is periodically improved and updated, and users of this
guide should be aware of the most recent relevant legislation.
A3.1. GENERAL
• Highways Act 1980
• Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981
• Local Government Act 1985 and 1992
• Agriculture Act 1986
• Water Act 1989
• Environmental Protection Act 1990
• Water Resources Act 1991
• Land Drainage Act 1991
• Local Government (Wales) Act 1994
• Environment Act 1995
A3.2. HEALTH AND SAFETY STATUTES

• The Public Health Act 1936
• The Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994 (SI 1994/3140)
• Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1996
• Control of Pollution (Special Waste) Regulations 1980
• The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974
• The Highways Act 1971
• The Highways Act 1980
• Control of Pollution (Special Waste) Regulations 1980 (SI 1980/1709)
147
RIVER DIVERSIONS
A3.3. TOWN PLANNING

• Town and Country Planning Act 1990
• Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1972
• Local Government Act 1992
• Planning and Compensation Act 1991
• Planning (Consequential Provisions) Act 1990
• Noise and Statutory Nuisance Act 1993
• Town and Country Planning (Environmental Impact Assessment) Regulations
1999 (SI 1999/293)
• Town and Country Planning (General Development Procedure) Order 1995
(SI 1995/419)
A3.4. ENVIRONMENTAL
• Environment Agency (1996) Blue-green algae P13/9/96 AN-15k-APRI
• EC Directive 1994, Conservation Regulations
• EC Directive 1994, Habitat Regulations
• Food and Environmental Protection Act 1985
• Habitat (Water Fringe) Regulations 1994 (SI 1994/1291)
• Habitat (Former set-aside-land) Regulations 1994 (SI 1994/1292)
• Habitat (Salt-Marsh) Regulations 1994 (SI 1994/1293)
• Conservation (Natural habitats etc.) Regulations 1994 (SI 1994/2716)
• Habitat (Water fringe) (Wales) Regulations 1994 (SI 1994/3064)
• The Environmental Impact Assessment (Land Drainage Improvement Works)
Regulations 1999 (SI 1999/1783)
A3.5. SCOTTISH LEGISLATION

• Salmon Fisheries (Scotland) Act 1862 and 1866
• Land Drainage (Scotland) Act 1930, 1935, 1941 and 1958
• Diseases of Fish Act 1937 and 1983
• National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949
• Rivers (Prevention of Pollution) (Scotland) Act 1951 and 1965
• Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries (Protection) (Scotland) Act 1951
• Flood Prevention (Scotland) Act 1961
• Spray Irrigation (Scotland) Act 1964
• Countryside (Scotland) Act 1967
• Sewerage (Scotland) Act 1968
• Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1972
14 8
APPENDIX 3
• Nature Conservancy Council Act 1974

• Control of Pollution Act 1974
• Freshwater and Salmon Fisheries (Scotland) Act 1976
• Import of Live Fish (Scotland) Act 1978
• Water (Scotland) Act 1980
• Agriculture Act 1986
• Salmon Act 1986
• Electricity Act 1989
• Water Act 1989
• Natural Heritage (Scotland) Act 1990
• Local Government Act (Scotland) Act 1994 – new local, water and sewerage
authorities
• Environment Act 1995 – creation of the Scottish Environmental Protection
Agency
A3.6. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY DIRECTIVES

• 75/440/EEC on the Quality of Surface Water for Drinking
• 76/464/EEC on Pollution caused by Certain Dangerous Substances Discharged
into the Aquatic Environment of the Community
• 78/659/EEC on the Quality of Fresh Waters needing Protection Improvement in
Order to Support Fish Life
• 79/409/EEC on the Conservation of Wild Birds
• 80/68/EEC on the Protection of Groundwater Against Pollution Caused by
Certain Dangerous Substances
• 85/337/EEC as amended by 97/11/EC on the Assessment of the Effects of
Certain Public and Private Projects on the Environment
• 91/271/EEC concerning Urban Waste Water Treatment
• 91/676/EEC concerning the Protection of Waters against Pollution Caused by
Nitrates from Agricultural Sources
• 92/43/EEC on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and Wild Flora and Fauna
149
Appendix 4.
Examples of river diversions
A4.1. RIVER ASH
A4.1.1. Description
Permanent diversion channel and associated structures to increase the capacity of
the River Ash (a ‘main’ river) to carry increased discharge from Ashford Common
water treatment works. The scheme was promoted by the Environment Agency
and funded by Thames Water Utilities.
A4.1.2. Design
A 300 m section of the existing river channel upstream was dredged to increase
hydraulic capacity. A 325 m diversion channel with capacity of 1 m3/s was
constructed on a landfill site to convey extra flow from the upgraded works.
The new trapezoidal channel was lined in order to prevent contaminated
groundwater entering the channel and river water leaking out. The lining of the
channel consisted of puddled clay overlayed by an HDPE (High Density
Polyethylene) liner and a geotextile overlayed with a cellular geotextile that could
be filled with topsoil. The lining is shown in Figure A4.1. Once the lining was in
place a layer of gravel was placed on top to provide substrate.
Figure A4.1. Lining of the permanent diversion channel
151
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Figure A4.2. Intake with trash screen, low-flow weir and boom
The inlet structure to the diversion channel was a reinforced concrete culvert
with a trash screen, low-flow weir and boom as shown in Figure A4.2.
A4.1.3. Bed and bank protection

The toe of the diversion channel and the junction with the main channel were
protected against scour with rock armouring (Figures A4.3 and A4.4). The
channel bed was protected at the culvert outlet by the use of a rock filled
geotextile.
Figure A4.3. Initial completed channel showing rock toe protection
152
APPENDIX 4
Figure A4.4. Outlet bank protection
A4.1.4. Groundwater
As the diversion was constructed on a landfill site the groundwater on the site was
contaminated and had to be pumped to a foul sewer 800 m away. Groundwater
from the workings was pumped into lagoons (Figure A4.5) in order to settle and
be mixed with river water. The resulting mixed water was then tested and
measured amounts released back into the river. In addition, the lagoons allowed
the storage of groundwater for gradual release to the sewer.
Figure A4.5. Lagoons for contaminated groundwater settling and mixing
153
RIVER DIVERSIONS
A4.1.5. Contaminated land

As the diversion was built on a refuse site the material excavated during
construction had to be disposed of at a licensed tip off-site. Of the contract cost for
the construction work, half was spent on the disposal of contaminated material.
A4.1.6. Environmental issues

The design chosen for the diversion was selected despite being the most expensive
option as it caused least disturbance to local residents, was acceptable to all the
landowners and provided a new section of channel for flora and fauna. No
planting was carried out at the site other than grass seeding. One year after
construction the flora and fauna were establishing well (Figure A4.6) and local
schools were using the channel as a study site. Note the riffle in the foreground of
Figure A4.6.
A4.17. Access
During construction a temporary road from a nearby lane was utilised to access
the works. Pedestrian access to the finished channel was provided by a timber
footbridge. Vehicular access was provided over a 3 m box culvert.
A4.1.8. Contractual
None of the land was owned by the Environment Agency or by Thames Water.
Permission for entry to carry out works was obtained by agreement with the
individual freeholder and leaseholders.
Figure A4.6. Vegetation growth one year after construction
154
APPENDIX 4
A4.1.9. Risk assessment

The final scheme was ‘passive’, i.e. no moving parts or machinery and there were
no extraordinary maintenance hazards other than working by open water.
A4.1.10. Safety precautions

The Environment Agency safe systems of work guidelines from the Register of
Safe Systems were followed.
A4.2. MAIDENHEAD, WINDSOR AND ETON FLOOD RELIEF CHANNEL
A4.2.1. Description
A flood relief channel was designed to carry a maximum of 215 m3/s of flood
water from the River Thames in order to provide flood protection to a 1 in 65
year standard for Windsor, Eton and Maidenhead. The Environment Agency
promoted the scheme and it was partly funded by a MAFF grant. The scheme
involved the construction of a channel that carries a sweetening flow all year
round and begins to receive flood water once the flow in the River Thames
exceeds 200 m3/s. Flow into the diversion channel is controlled manually by
radial gates while the other gates on the channel are operated automatically on
the upstream water level. The scheme is one of the largest of its kind to have
been undertaken in the UK.
A4.2.2.Route
The diversion route was influenced by archaeological sites, local land use,
topography and farming practices.
A4.2.3. Design
The relief channel comprises an 11 km section of channel running from
Maidenhead to beyond Windsor. The majority of the channel is trapezoidal,
unlined with a bed width of 30–35 m, side slopes of 1:15 and a depth of 5 m.
Channel width varies however, from 25 m under structures to 102 m in areas
of environmental enhancement. The channel design capacity is 215 m3/s. The
split of flows between the total flow and flow in the new channel is shown in
Table A4.1.
The hydraulic design of the flood relief channel was undertaken using
computational river models based on the ONDA and HEC2 software. Modelling
was undertaken for a range of floods up to a 1 in 200 year flood scenario. The
hydraulic modelling incorporated all the structures and environmental features on
the relief channel.
155
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Table A4.1. Flow split for the Maidenhead, Windsor and Eton flood relief channel
Total flow: m3/s Flow in new channel: m3/s
Above 40 10
40–15 One third of the flow or 10, whichever is lesser
15–10 5
Below 10 Half the total flow
Morphological modelling was carried out to ensure the regime of the river
would not be adversely affected by the diversion. Modelling showed that
maintained dredging of the new channel would not be needed for many years and
no monitoring was suggested, as the entire channel was dug 500 mm deeper than
design to provide sufficient capacity for at least 20 years of siltation.
Structures along the length of the flood relief channel include manually
operated radial gates at the upstream end. There are broad crested weirs along the
length of the diversion, the first being a three-gated weir with radial and flap
gates. There are also five road bridges, six footbridges, five hydraulic controls and
two inverted syphons, which carry local watercourses under the channel.
A4.2.4. Construction
A computerised system controlling the depth of dig and excavation profile was
developed for the scheme. Excavation took place mainly underwater using
hydraulic backhoes connected to this system. All the structures were built in
cofferdams or within diaphragm walls and silent sheet piling was used.
Dewatering was required at the cofferdams.
A4.2.5. Season of works

As the project was so large, including one contract of 46 weeks, the project is not
defined by seasons except by planning considerations. For example, tree clearance
was required to be completed by the end of March 1997.
A4.2.6. Disposal of materials

17 million m3 of aggregate was excavated from the site and sold. 800 000 tonnes
of the aggregate was moved by conveyor to minimise disturbance to locals while
the remainder was transported directly via the M4.
A4.2.7. Contaminated land

There was some contamination of land around Slough sewage works. Historically,
effluent was deliberately distributed on the land and was allowed to leach away.
The soil and hence groundwater were polluted due to this and contaminated
156
APPENDIX 4
material was stripped and placed in a sealed cell. The cell was lined with clay and
capped with clean material.
A4.2.8. Water quality

Water quality modelling was undertaken and initially looked at a no flow
situation. In this case, a high level of contaminants would build up behind the
weirs. During floods this would be flushed downstream decreasing water quality.
A sweetening flow of 10 m3/s was selected unless the total flow was less than
30 m3/s, in which case the flow will be split between the River Thames and
diversion channel.
A4.2.9. Groundwater
Groundwater modelling was undertaken especially around the Dorney and Slough
sewage works. Weir sites were chosen to maintain existing groundwater levels
with a head drop of approximately 1 m across each weir.
A4.2.10. Access
Consultation was required with the local highways authority to obtain permission
for the movement of lorries. It was important to minimise disruption to the local
people. The size of plant was determined by the magnitude of the loads that the
bridges and access roads could tolerate. Full diversion of the M4 was required
when building the motorway bridge over the diversion channel. Public footpaths
were diverted or maintained where possible. New footpaths and cycle paths along
the diversion channel linked with existing routes. Access was also provided for
wheelchair users of the paths.
A4.2.11. Contractual
Most of the land for the relief channel was obtained through compulsory purchase
orders (CPO) authorised by MAFF. Eton College said that they would only lease
land and this caused a delay until April 1996. Four types of land may not be
purchased under CPO: Crown land, common land, allotments and National Trust
land. In this scheme, both common land and allotments were swapped for
equivalent land. There were many councils involved in the planning of the scheme
and good consultation was essential.

Protection was required downstream of some of the sluices. A mixture of concrete
block revetments, sheet piling and natural protection (reed margins) were utilised
for bank protection.
157
RIVER DIVERSIONS
A4.2.13. Environmental and landscape features

All major weir structures incorporated Larinier type fish passes. Environmental
features include soft banks, islands and reed beds. The removal of trees was kept
to a minimum. Planting regimes for native trees were agreed with the
Environment Agency. A survey was carried out for badgers and bats. Badgers
were excluded from setts down the line of work following English Nature
guidelines. Otter holts were built.
A4.2.14. Health and safety

Health and safety was enforced by the contractor in accordance with the CDM
Regulations, and general health and safety legislation.
A4.2.15. Risk assessment

A designer’s risk assessment was carried out for each contract.
A4.2.16. Maintenance
Ongoing maintenance is initially being carried out by the landscape contractors.
This will then revert to the Environment Agency for five years and eventually
back to the riparian owners.
A4.2.17. Legislation invoked

The following legislation were invoked:
• Commons Act 1999

• Local Government Act 1972
• Highways Act 1980
• Acquisition of Land Act 1981
• Water Act 1989
• Town and Country Planning Act 1990
• Compulsory purchase by non-ministerial agencies
• Water Resources Act 1991.
A4.3 RIVER BISS, TROWBRIDGE
A4.3.1. Description
A permanent wet diversion channel was constructed so that a supermarket could
be built on land owned by the district council. In addition, a temporary pumped
diversion was used on a stretch downstream of the permanent diversion to allow
river works. The scheme was promoted and funded by the developer.
158
APPENDIX 4
A4.3.2. Design
The river length of the diversion is shorter that the original length. Pool and riffle
sequences were used in the diversion channel to provide regions of low velocity.
Flood defences were required downstream to ensure the works gave a 1 in 100
year flood protection. Environmental features were designed, including an offline
amenity pond, meanders, rock pools, low stone weirs and islands (Figures A4.7
and A4.8). Deflectors were used to force flow through the low-flow channel at
higher velocities.
Steady state hydraulic modelling was undertaken for the hydraulic design of the
channel. The hydrology was modelled taking into account possible future
developments.
Figure A4.7. Weirs and rock pools being constructed
Figure A4.8. The completed permanent diversion
159
RIVER DIVERSIONS
The temporary diversion was pumped (Figure A4.9) using automatic level
controls to cut in more pumps as required. Flow information was limited but the
work was undertaken in summer when flows were low. A clay sheet piled bund
was used to stop flow at the upstream end and a cofferdam at the downstream end.
The bund crest height was designed so that there would be little backwater effect
upstream. At breakthrough for the permanent diversion, water was allowed to
pond back from the downstream end (Figure A4.10).
Figure A4.9. Piled cofferdam and pumps for the downstream temporary diversion
Figure A4.10. Initial breakthrough of the permanent diversion channel
160
APPENDIX 4
A4.3.4. Material
Excavated material was used for infilling and also by the developer on their
parking area.
A4.3.5. Contractual
A private developer undertook the work but the Environment Agency was keen to
see the work carried out. The involvement of the Environment Agency was vital
in obtaining cooperation from landowners.
A4.3.6. Environmental features

Pool and riffle sequences, low weirs, current deflectors and islands were built. The
extensive planting of trees and reeds was carried out and vegetation was
transplanted from the old to the new bank in top soil from the old bank.

Blockstone was used as a retaining structure and the pools were infilled with
gravel to stabilise the bed.
A4.4 LOWER COLNE IMPROVEMENT SCHEME

This scheme included the Staines bypass channel, Accommodation Lane transfer,
Trout Lane Flood Carrier, Tanhouse farm diversion, Lower Horton Flood
channels and Colne Brook.
A4.4.1. Staines bypass channel

Flood water from the River Colne flows across Staines Moor and into the
Wraysbury River. If levels are high an automatic tilting gate takes water into the
diversion channel (Figure A4.11). The flood water passes through a normally dry
channel and then through a siphon (Figure A4.12) under the A30 road. A siphon
was used due to the carriageway levels. Flood water then passes across the fields
through another dry channel and over Thames Water’s water supply aqueduct.
The channel crosses the aqueduct onto a spillway protected by blocks and
geotextiles and into a lake (former gravel workings).
Water is released from the gravel pits over a weir (Figure A4.13) and sluice,
and flows through a culvert into the County Ditch and out again into a short
wide channel. The flow then enters the River Thames over a control spillway.
Although the channel is essentially a dry bypass, it is often semi-wet or filled
with water from the County Ditch, groundwater flow or excess water from the
lake.
161
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Figure A4.11. Tilting intake gates from the Wraysbury River
Figure A4.12. Siphon on the Staines bypass channel under the A30 road
162
APPENDIX 4
Figure A4.13. Weir with low-flow notch
All parts of the Lower Colne Improvement Scheme were promoted and funded
by the Environment Agency with MAFF grant aid.
A4.4.2. Accommodation Lane transfer

Accommodation Lane transfer is a small channel from the River Colne to the
Wraysbury River. The offtake from the River Colne is a spillway section/weir in
the bank, reinforced with concrete block and geotexile. There is no control at the
downstream end and the channel will fill from this end, forming a backwater
initially until water enters from the River Colne. This has been described as an
integral part of the parkland in which it is located.
A4.4.3. Trout Lane flood carrier

The channel takes water from the Frays River and flows across a field in a shallow
wide channel into a box culvert, under a road and into an existing fishing lake
before entering the River Colne. The water level is controlled in the River Fray by
a flume placed downstream of the offtake and only excess flows are diverted. Part
of the new channel route is through contaminated land, where a liner was used.
A4.4.4. Tanhouse Farm diversion

Colne Brook at Tanhouse Farm has been identified as an important channel habitat
and a diversion channel was planned to avoid deepening and/or widening of Colne
Brook. The bypass channel is 300 m long and three new structures have been built:
two for splitting the flow between the river and the flow diversion, and a new weir
163
RIVER DIVERSIONS
structure on the Colne Brook downstream of the mill. The two control structures at
the upstream end of the diversion channel have fixed widths and crests, although one
of the weirs at the head of the diversion channel can have stop logs installed. This
structure also has a fish pass. The structure in the Colne Brook is a Crump weir,
which determines the flow split. The new mill structure has a fish pass.
The diversion channel is a permanent feature cut through low-grade agricultural
land of little ecological value. The flood bypass channel was created with a
meandering profile, marginal shelves and a variable depth to provide a variety of
aquatic and wetland habitat types. The marginal shelves were planted with aquatic
and emergent vegetation including branched bur-reed, sweet flag and flowering
rush.
A4.4.5. Lower Horton flood channels–Colne Brook

This is a semi-dry river diversion, which is used in the event of flood. A
temporary diversion tube was used by the contractor. The flood bypass channels
upstream are in two parts. The upstream channel leaves the main channel via a
spillway/side weir into a large channel with a steep bank on the Colne Brook side
and a more gently sloping bank on the opposite side. This channel returns to
Colne Brook with no structure controlling flow. The bypass channel at the
downstream end acts as a backwater channel with the water backing into it from
the main Colne Brook and water only flowing when the water level at the
upstream end is high enough for the water to flow over the side spill weir. The
flood diversion channel flows back into the main river for approximately 50 m and
then out to another bypass channel by way of a side spill weir, in order to avoid a
major electricity pylon.
The flood diversion channels are cut into sand and gravels and are lined with
clay to prevent the water seeping into the groundwater and causing flooding
problems elsewhere. The channels were cut in the dry. There was no requirement
for pumping because the weather during the construction period was cold and dry,
and groundwater levels were consequently low.
A4.5 BROCKENHURST GAUGING STATION, LYMINGTON RIVER
A4.5.1. Description
The gauging station lies on a remote small river in the New Forest with limited
access. The existing weir was to be replaced as it is inaccurate for gauging flow.
Migratory fish are present in the river.
A4.5.2. Design
A diversion channel 900 mm wide with straight trapezoidal sides (Figure A4.14)
was used in conjunction with a pipe over which an access track was laid. The
16 4
APPENDIX 4
Figure A4.14. Temporary open channel diversion
channel had weir boards at regular intervals to create pools upstream and
turbulence downstream to allow fish to pass. The Environment Agency specified
the normal water level and maximum level of working so that any damming
would not elevate upstream water levels above set levels. The temporary diversion
channel ran into a backwater/creek at the side which needed desilting at the end of
the work. The new weir was constructed with a fish pass through the centre.
The construction of the new weir used the permanent works as temporary works.
Sheet piles were driven in upstream of the structure to prevent flow under and
around it. The sheet piles were left high to form a temporary cofferdam and then
trimmed at the end of the project. The trimming was done underwater, which was
expensive.
An air percussion hammer was used to drive piles through the clay on site with
a vibro hammer being used in gravels. As the area is remote, piling was allowed
between 9 a.m. and 5 p.m. on weekdays. Problems arose during construction with
rubbish and debris upstream of the existing structure, so a trench was dug across
the face of the piles to allow the rubbish to be collected and removed.
A4.5.4. Season
The diversion was scheduled to take place over a summer period of ten weeks.
Work was delayed into the autumn resulting in flooding of the site once.
165
RIVER DIVERSIONS
A4.5.5. Material
Diversion material from the channel was stored and then used as backfill above
the pipe. Some fill material was brought onto the site to backfill behind the
headwalls.
A4.5.6. Access
A temporary road had to be built as the site was remote. The access road was
made of geotextile covered with stone and local gravel. Once work was completed
the road was taken up. A landscaper then used local stone to construct a
permanent road.
A4.5.7. Sediments
The diversion took place in the summer so sediment loads were low. Scour was
not considered a problem as flows were very low.
A4.5.8. Maintenance
The piped section of the diversion was left in place with a penstock at the
upstream end and a grille at the downstream end. The penstock can be opened if
maintenance is needed on the weir, diverting flow for a short period of time.
A4.5.9. Water quality

All pumps used during construction had spill trays to avoid diesel spills. An oil
boom was placed downstream to intercept any spills. Absorbing mats and
granules were available on site.
A4.5.10. Environmental
Two old oak trees on the left bank were worked around. The contract specified
that the fish pass must be in place before the existing weir was demolished.
During construction the fish pass in the diversion channel was used by many large
fish.
A4.5.11. Risk
As the work was delayed by six weeks into the autumn, a claim was put in when
the works were flooded.
166
APPENDIX 4
A4.6 BRANSBURY GAUGING STATION, RIVER DEVER
A4.6.1. Description
The existing road bridge at the site was removed and a new one built
incorporating an electromagnetic gauging station. A temporary diversion channel
was cut into the right bank and an earth bund built around the bridge.
A4.6.2. Design
The temporary diversion channel was a similar width to the existing river – 4 m
wide. The crest level of the bund was taken as 450 mm above normal water level
based on flow and level information given to the contractor.
A temporary cofferdam was proposed around the bridge but this was expensive
and would involve piling close to housing. An earth bund was built around the
structure with continuously pumped well points and a perforated land drain
300 mm below the surface.
A4.6.4. Access
Temporary crane mats were laid over the diversion channel to provide access for
plant and pedestrians/horses. A footbridge was not required as pedestrians used
the earth bund as access across the river.
A4.6.5. Groundwater
There were some problems dewatering the excavation owing to the high
groundwater levels and seepage.
A4.6.6. Material
The excavated material from the diversion channel was used to build the bund and
was topped off with material from off-site.

No bed and bank protection was placed in the temporary diversion but there was
some concern about erosion and the channel was widened.
The pumps utilised were silenced and there were no problems with noise or spills
of oil or diesel.
167
RIVER DIVERSIONS
A4.6.9. Sediments
At breakthrough sediments were flushed. Breakthrough was timed to take place in
the late afternoon/early evening to ensure the least disturbance to fishermen
downstream. By morning the sediment plume had dispersed.
A4.7 HAMBLEDON LOCK
A4.7.1. Description
Reconstruction of the lock took place using the permanent main channel as a
temporary diversion. The work took place over two winters to cause least
disturbance to navigation and involved enlarging and repairing the lock structure.
A4.7.2. Design
A temporary cofferdam was constructed round the lock over two winter work
periods. In the first contract period, 14 m piles were driven through 13 m of gravel
and chalk on either side of the lock. During the second contract period of four
months, pile were installed across the head and tail of the lock to allow demolition
of the old lock chamber and construction of the new one. The work carried out can
be seen in Figure A4.15.
Figure A4.15. Works at Hambledon Lock
168
APPENDIX 4
Figure A4.16. Cofferdam around Hambledon Lock
The length of piles was determined from borehole information. During the first
period of work, piles needed to be installed with the minimum of noise and vibration
owing to the poor condition of the tail structure and proximity of the lock house. In
difficult ground conditions a water jetting hose was used to assist penetration. The
system was so successful that noise levels were lower than those generated by the
weir close by. In construction of the new lock structure, 14 m long piles were used to
ensure no props below ground level were required. The cofferdam is shown in
Figure A4.16.
A4.7.4. Seasonality
Work was confined to the winter months when river traffic is at a minimum and
inconvenience to river users is reduced.
169
RIVER DIVERSIONS
A4.7.5. Contractual
The use of the permanent river channel as a diversion saved the contractors time
and money.
A4.8. WRAYSBURY MILL CHANNEL IMPROVEMENTS
A4.8.1. Description
Channel improvements for flood protection including localised dredging and
lining of the channel with reinforced concrete.
A4.8.2. Design
A temporary cofferdam was constructed at the upstream end of the channel
(Figure A4.17) with a flexible pipe diverting water alongside the works (Figure
A4.18). The flexible tube had a carrying capacity of 24 m3/s and the level of the
pipe inlet was specified by the Environment Agency. At the downstream end, a
Portadam was used to temporarily dam the channel (Figure A4.19). The channel
was lined with reinforced concrete and the banks were stabilised using a
geotextile.
Figure A4.17. Cofferdam and inlet
170
APPENDIX 4
Figure A4.18. Flexible pipe diverting flow while concrete reinforcing was placed
Figure A4.19. Portadam at downstream end of diversion
A site of archaeological significance was located next to the works and care was
taken not to disturb the site during the diversion.
A4.8.4. Access
A temporary access road was constructed for anglers and a tenant farmer.
Owing to the work being carried out from September to December there was some
flooding during the construction. The Environment Agency specified maximum
upstream cofferdam levels but did not give a specific method of working.
171
Index
access shape 43, 85

construction sites 104 size 25, 43–6, 85
health and safety 111 stability 18
operational requirements 29 types 5–7
recreation 28 checklist, design considerations 16
site selection 22 chelating agents 59
Accommodation Lane transfer 163 chlorine 58–9
air-regulated siphons 75 cofferdams 98–9, 115–17
algae 60, 62–3, 111 Colne Brook 164
alluvial friction 85, 91 compound roughness 143
archaeological sites 29, 64 compulsory purchase 125, 127
confined spaces 119–20
backwater method 41, 42, 140–3 Construction (Design and Management)
backwaters 53 (CDM) Regulations 107
bank protection 43, 54–7, 76 construction issues 97–104
bank stability 85, 103 approvals 126–7
bankfull flow 37 dust 59
bays 53 feasibility study 20–1
bed water quality 100–1
forms 91 see also health and safety; risk assessment
load 89 consultations, feasibility study 15
protection 76 contamination
slope 42, 45–6 groundwater 100, 101
bed-material load 89 land 23–5
bends 42–3, 79 pollutants 58
berms 37, 53 soil 58, 114
biodiversity 46, 62 control structures 67–76
birds 28, 98 crests, weirs 69–71
boundary conditions 41–2 cross-section shape 43, 85
Bransbury Gauging Station 167–8 crossing structures 76–7
bridges 76, 127 cultural heritage 64
Brockenhurst Gauging Station 164–6 culverts
consents 127, 128–9
caissons 117–18 flows 74–5, 76–7
capacity current deflectors 49–50
flood 25–6
hydraulic 44–5 dams 75–6
catchment management 16–17 data collection 14, 20–2
CDM see Construction (Design and Department of the Environment, Transport
Management) and the Regions 126
channels depth 46, 62
design flow 35, 37 detailed design
detailed design 41–64 channels 41–64
length 42 environmental factors 60–4
resistance 46–8 environmental features 48–54
173
RIVER DIVERSIONS
flow rate 35–8 flood flows 19, 36–7

principal considerations 16 flood relief channels 7
risk assessment 108–9 flora and fauna 28, 52, 61–2
water quality 58–60 flows
diesel spillage 100, 101 control structures 68–76
discharge formulae 69, 71–2, 73, 75 crossing structures 76–7
disease 110–11 data collection 19–20
disposal, material 102–3, 114 design rate 25, 35–8
dissolved oxygen 59–60 groundwater 100
diversion channels see channels inlet structures 78–81
drainage works 127, 128, 130 passage structures 77–8
dredging 60, 62 pools and riffles 48
drowning sediment 85–92
control structures 68, 72 velocity 46, 48, 62
see also hazards flumes 73
dry channels 5, 35 fluvial audit 18
dust 59 free outflow 68
friction, alluvial 91
ecological system 60–1
edge habitats 53–4, 55 gated structures 73–4
emergency procedures 111 gauging stations 36–7
engineering data 20–1 geomorphology 17–19, 60–1
environment gradient 45–6
construction phase 97 grain Reynolds number 86
design factors 60–4 ground conditions
design features 48–54 construction issues 99
Environmental Impact Assessment 21, 130 excavations 112, 113
Environmental Statement 15, 130 layout selection 23
feasibility study 15, 21–2 groundwater
Local Environment Agency Plan 17 construction issues 100, 101
outline design 27–9 excavations 113
statutes 148 groynes 49–50
Environment Agency 17, 126–7
erosion 43, 80 habitats
estimation, flood flows 36 bends and meanders 43
European Community directives 149 EC directives 130
eutrophication 60, 62–3 fisheries 61
examples 151–71 river margins 53–4
Bransbury Gauging Station 167–8 variation 46, 60–1
Brockenhurst Gauging Station 164–6 Hambledon Lock 168–70
Hambledon Lock 168–70 hazards
Lower Colne Improvement Scheme cofferdams 116
161–4 confined spaces 119–20
Maidenhead, Windsor and Eton Flood excavations 112–19
Relief Channel 155–8 pipelines 120
River Ash 151–5 water 109–11, 113
River Biss 158–61 health and safety 107–22
Wraysbury Mill Channel Improvements excavations 112–19
170–1 statutes 147
excavations 112–19 water 109–11
highway authorities 129
feasibility study 13–16, 129 historic features 23, 28, 52, 64
fish 61, 98 historical changes, channels 18–19
fish passes 28, 77–8 hydraulic design
flood defence 125–7 capacity 44–5
174
INDEX
design factor 25–6 operational requirements 29

fixed weirs 68 orifices, flows 74–5
outflow structures 81
IDBs see Internal Drainage Boards outline design 22–9
impacts, river diversions 13–14, 27, 62 principal considerations 16
in-channel structures 67–81 oxygen 51, 59–60
initiation of motion, sediment 86–8
inlet structures 78–81 passage structures 77–8
Internal Drainage Boards (IDBs) 127 permanent channels
islands 53, 55 construction issues 98–9, 102, 103
design flow rate 35
land types 5–7
availability 22 permits to work 109, 119
compulsory purchase 125, 127 phosphates 60
contaminated 23–5 piling 99
use 28 pipelines 7, 119–20
landscape 28, 64 flows 74–5
layout, factors 22–3 plan form 42–3, 85
LEAP see Local Environment Agency planning considerations
Plan feasibility study 15
legal considerations 111–12 planning permission 129–30
feasibility study 15 statutes 148
legislation 147–9 pollutants 58
responsibilities 125–30 see also contamination
length, diversion channel 42 pools 46, 48–9
liners 100, 103, 151 population, diversion impacts 27
load, sediment 89 Potentially Destabilising Phenomena 18
local authorities 128 public access 28, 104
Local Environment Agency Plan (LEAP) 17 pumping 101–2
locks 78
low flows 20, 37–8, 47 railways 120
Lower Colne Improvement Scheme 161–4 rating curve 68
Lower Horton Flood channels 164 records, flow data 36–7
recreation 28, 64
MAFF see Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries references 133–5
and Food regime theory 85, 91–2
Maidenhead, Windsor and Eton Flood Relief regulations, health and safety 107
Channel 155–8 return period 36, 37
maintenance requirements 29 Reynolds number 86
Manning’s n value 145–6 riffles 46, 48–9, 60
material, disposal 102–3, 114 rights of way 22, 28
meanders 42–3, 59 risk
method statements 108–9 assessment 108–9
methodologies, data collection 22 cofferdams 116
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food confined spaces 119–20
(MAFF) 125 construction phase 102
mobility number 86 pipelines 120
modular flow 68 river corridor surveys 21, 60–1
river margins 53
National Assembly for Wales 125 rivers
navigation 28–9, 78 Ash 151–5
nitrates 60 Biss 158–61
noise 27, 102 Colne 161
normal depth method 41, 139–40 Dever 167
nutrients 58–9, 60 Lymington 164
175
RIVER DIVERSIONS
Thames 155 in-channel 67–81

Wraysbury 161 inlet 78–81
roads 120 outflow 81
see also access passage 77–8
roughness 46–8, 91 sulphur 58
coefficients 145–6 supervision 127
compound 143 surface water 113
route selection factors 22–3 suspended load 89
sweetening flows 38, 58
safety see health and safety
scoping exercise 15 tailwater elevation (TWL) 41–2, 139–43
Scotland, legislation 148–9 Tanhouse Farm diversion 163–4
Scottish Executive 125, 126 technical feasibility 14
seasons 98 temporary channels
security 102, 104 construction issues 98, 99, 102–3
sediment design flows 37
cohesive 90 types 6–7
fluvial audit 18 topography 22–3
graded 90 traffic 27
inlet structures 81 transport, sediment 85–92
modelling 19 trenches 115
non-cohesive and uniform 88–90 Trout Lane Flood Carrier 163
properties 20 TWL see tailwater elevation
settling tanks 101 types, diversion channels 5–7
transport 85–92
turbidity 59 unsteady flow conditions 45
services, excavations 112, 114
settling tanks 101, 153 vegetation
sewage 58, 59 bank protection 54
sewers 112 environmental feature 52–3
Shields’ curve 86–7 new channels 97
shoals 53 oxygenation 60
siphons 75 roughness coefficient 47–8
site selection 22–5 vibration 27
sites of special scientific interest (SSSI) 28,
130 Wales 125
size, channel 43–6 wash load 89
slope, river-bed 42, 45–6 water
sluice gates 73–4 hazards 109–11, 113
soil 102–3, 113, 114 level 68–75
spillage 100, 101 quality 58–60, 98, 100–1
spoil 100 Water Resources Act 1991 125
SSSI see sites of special scientific interest weirs
stability, banks 85, 103 environmental features 50–2
Staines bypass channel 161–2 fixed 68–72
statutes 147–9 movable 72–3
structures oxygenation 60
bank protection 54–7 wet channels 5, 35
control 67–76 wetlands 63
crossing 76–7 Wraysbury Mill Channel Improvements 170–1
hazards 110
176

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River diversions

Distributors for Thomas Telford books are

First published 2001

ISBN: 0 7277 2959 4

Typeset by MHL Typesetting Ltd, Coventry

Karen Fisher joined HR Wallingford in 1987 following graduation from

Reg Andrews J. Murphy and Sons Ltd

The assistance and contribution provided by the Steering Group is gratefully

Address: Howbery Park, Wallingford, Oxon, OX10 8BA, UK

Part A Feasibility and planning 1

Part B Detailed design 31

4. Detailed channel design 39

7.11. Stability of banks, 103

8. Health and safety on site 105

Part D Legislation 121

9.7.2. Powers of diversion for highway authorities,

10. References 131

Figure 8. Plan shapes of groynes: (a) straight –

Figure 31. Temporary access over earth embankment 103

1.2. TYPES OF RIVER DIVERSION

Control structure may be

Diversion Existing Diversion Existing

Diversion Diversion Existing river

Figure 1. Different types of diversion channel: (a) permanent diversion channel

1.3. SCOPE OF THE GUIDE

How to use this guide

Part A: Feasibility and planning

Summary of the design

Design flow rate

Determination of Detailed channel design

Part B: Detailed design Chapter 6

Construction Health and safety

Legislation and Legislation

Figure 2. How to use the design guide

1.4. HOW TO USE THE GUIDE

• Part A – Feasibility and planning

Part A provides an overall view of the issues to be addressed in river diversion

• loss of established landscapes and features

Where possible, it is generally advisable to avoid river diversion works.

2.2. GENERAL PROCEDURE

• baseline data collection to determine the present conditions, including:

Criteria Content Section

Data collection 2.3 2.3

Table 1 provides a checklist of the principal design considerations, which need

2.3. DATA COLLECTION

2.3.1. Catchment management

• erosion and sedimentation

The documentary evidence includes examining flood defence schemes, land

Historical changes analysis

2.3.3. Hydrological and hydraulic data

2.3.4. Engineering data

Another main element of engineering data is that related to the practicalities of

• timing and duration of the works

• environmental impact of construction works (e.g. passage of fish)

2.3.5. Environmental data

Table 2. Baseline data (information from Environment Agency, 1996a)

Water quality Fisheries ecosystem class, potable supply, discharges

Table 3. Standard methodologies for data collection (information from

Water quality Fisheries ecosystem classification

2.4. OUTLINE DESIGN

2.4.1. Site selection and layout

Site availability and access

One of the main design criteria of a permanent diversion would be to ensure