ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is a great pleasure to remind and show our gratitude to some people who gave us a
chance and helped us to complete our fifth-year internship in ET&S Import Export
Engineering Company.
First of all, we would like to thank our parents who support us everything for studying
at Institute of Technology of Cambodia (ITC). They encourage us for both financial support
and good advices until we complete our study of engineer degree at Institute of Technology of
Cambodia. Exactly, we have these days because of our parents and family.
Secondly, we would like to thank His Excellency Dr. OM Romny is the director of
ITC who lead all of the departments in the institute with a good quality and discipline.
Moreover, his Excellency tries to have good cooperation with local partner universities,
companies and oversea universities.
Thirdly, Mr. PAN Sovanna, Head of Department of Industrial and Mechanical
Engineering, who has good relation with many partner companies that make many students
easier to find a place for internship.
Most importantly, we would like to express our deepest thank to Dr. CHAN Sarin is
our advisor who accepts to guide us during the internship. He always provides us a lot of good
advices and good experience to complete our thesis successfully. Furthermore, we also respect
his guidance and corrections of writing our thesis.
Especially, we would like to thank also to Mr. IM Chinith, General Manager of ET&S
Import Export Engineering Company who accepted us as an intern to train for three months
and giving good advice to complete this thesis. Also, we really thanks to Mr. KEAT Sovadeth,
Mechanical Design Manager who always gave us good advice and technical knowledge. He is
kindly to share the knowledge and warmly to answer all of our questions. Additionally, we
would like to thank to all the staffs at ET&S Company for gracious hospitality during we stay
there for three months.
Finally, we’re really happy that the internship provides us a lot of knowledge and
show me the difference between working at school and working at company. One more thank
to all teachers at Department of Industrial and Mechanical Engineering who taught me and
provided theory during studying that is the advantage before taking the internship.

i
 អត្ថបទសង្ខេប

ុ នចុះក្ម្មសិក្ាពៅក្ក្ុម្ហន អ៊ី ធ៊ី ខអន ពហ េស

ក្នុងក្ំឡុងពេលចុះក្ម្មសិក្ារយុះពេល៣ខែ ែ្ំបា

ខែលពៅទ៊ីព ុះពយើងបានសិក្ាពលើគពក្ោងម្ួយអំេ៊ី ការឌ៊ីហាញក្រេនធរំព ុះែលន

ួ ពេលោនអគគ៊ីភ័យ (ជព្ត ើ

រអគគ៊ីភ័យ)។ ទូពៅពៅក្នុងអាគារែពសៗដែូចា អាាតមម្ិន អាគារាណ្ិជ ជកក្ម្ម ខមងខមោនក្រេនធេនលមអ

ៗ គគ៊ី

ភ័យ ពមើពហមអេ៊ីពយើងក្មូវពធេស
ើ ិក្ា អំេ៊ីជព្ត ើរអគគ៊ីភ័យពទៀម? ពក្ចើនា ង៨០%ននការស្លលរៗររសៗម្នសសពៅ

ពេលោនអគគ៊ីភ័យគឺរណ្តតលម្ក្េ៊ីេលខសសង។ ព យស្លរពហមសលទំងពនុះនឹងពលើក្យក្រពរៀរក្គរៗក្គង

ខសសង និងស្លរុះក្រពោជន៏ររសៗវា ម្ិនខមរ៉ាពណ្តណុះពយើងនឹងសិក្ាអំេ៊ីបា៉ារ៉ាខម្៉ាក្មសំខានៗម្ួយចំនួន ក្នុងការ

ក្ំ្មៗរខក្ម្រក្ម្ួលសោពធទររំសម និង ែពសៗរំសម, ការក្ំ្មៗរ រិោឌ ែយលៗជព្ត ើរ, ការក្ំ្មៗនសៃរ្តូ

រសោពធ និង នសៃរំព ុះខសសង ។ ចំពាណុះការគ្ ពយើងអនពោម្តាម្វិធ៊ីស្លស្តសតេ៊ីររពរៀរគឺ៖ ការគ្

ទូពៅ និង តាម្សតងៗ រអងៗពគលស (រ៊ី ពអស ៥៥៨៨ ភាគ៤) ។ រ ៃ រៗេ៊ីពធេើការគ្ និងពធេើការពក្រៀរពធៀរ

ពយើងព ើញថាមក្ម្ូវការររិោ្ែយលៗ ខែលក្ំ្មៗព យសតងៗ រអងៗពគលស គឺពៅចព ល ុះោធែយលៗម្ធយម្

និង ែពសៗ ខែលក្ំ្មៗព យការគ្ ទូពៅ ខែលពនុះសររញ្ជជកក្ៗថាការសិក្ាតាម្សតងៗ រអងៗពគលស គឺសនស ំ

សំនច និងសវមថិភាេ ។

ពយើងអាចសនមមៗថា សតងៗ រអងៗពគលសអាចពក្រើក្បាសៗក្ុង

ន ការឌឺហាញក្រ័េរធ ំព ុះែលន
ួ ពេលោនអគគ៊ី

ភ័យពៅក្រពទសក្ម្ពា
ុ បាន ។

ii
 RESUME

Pendant notre stage de trois mois à ET & S Engineering Import-Export. Nous avons
étudié un projet sur la conception du contrôle de la fumée. En général, les bâtiments
commerciaux, les appartements et les immeubles de grande hauteur disposent toujours d’un
système de lutte contre les incendies. Pour quoi avons-nous besoin d'étudier la pressurisation
des escaliers?

Ily a 80% des décès sont dus à une intoxication par la fumée de fumée. Pour cette raison,
cette thèse présentera la méthode de contrôle de la fumée et ses avantages. En outre, nous
présenterons un paramètre important pour déterminer le différentiel de pression minimal et le
différentiel de pression maximal et le dégagement de fumée. Pour le calcul, nous avons suivi 2
méthodes telles que la méthode manuelle et la norme d’anglais (BS 5588, partie 4, 1998). Après
calcul et comparaison entre la méthode manuelle et la norme d’anglais, le débit requis par la
norme britannique BS 5588 est compris entre le débit moyen et le débit maximal déterminé par
la méthode manuelle. Ce résultat indique que la norme d’anglais est économique et sûre.

Nous pouvons supposer que les normes britanniques peuvent être utilisées au
Cambodge pour concevoir la pressurisation des escaliers dans des conditions de sécurité et de
qualité.

iii
 ABSTARCT

During our three months internship at ET&S Engineering Import Export. We studied a
project about designing of smoke control (Staircase Pressurization). In general for commercial
buildings, apartment and high buildings always have firefighting system. Why do we need to
study on staircase pressurization?

There are 80% of people's deaths are due to smoke poisoning. For these reason this
thesis will present about Smoke Control method and its benefits, additionally we will present
some important parameter to determine minimum pressure differential and maximum pressure
differential and air smoke relief. For calculation we followed by 2 methods such as Manual
method and British Standard (BS 5588 Part-4:1998). After calculation and Comparison
between manual method and British Standard the required of flow rate set by the British
standard BS 5588 is between the average flow rate and maximum flow rate determined by
Manual method.

The result indicates that the British Standard is economical and safe. We can assume
that British standards can be used in Cambodia to design Staircase pressurization in safety and
quality.

iv
 ABBREVATIONS AND SYMBOLS

Symbols Definition Units

A Flow area m2

C flow coefficient, dimensionless -

FR flow area factor, dimensionless -

FT temperature factor, dimensionless Pa/m

g acceleration of gravity m/s2

H stairwell height m

Hm height limit m

m mass flow kg/s

N number of specific paths

Patm atmospheric pressure Pa

R gas constant 287J/Kg.K

0
T temperature or absolute temperature C or K

y elevation above the bottom of the stairs m

 Heat transfer factor -

 Density Kg/m3

∆P Pressure different Pa

v
 CONVERSIONS

1Psi 0.068948Bar

1Psi 6894.6Pa

1ft 0.33m

1in 25.4mm

vi
 Definitions

Accommodation area area of a building where the main work function of the building is
carried out

Air release means by which pressurizing air is able to escape from the
accommodation area or other unpressurized space to external air
Atrium space within a building, not necessarily vertically aligned, passing
through one or more structural floors
depth (of a building) distance to the surface of the lowest point of the floor of the lowest
storey, measured at the centre of that face of the building where the
measurement is greatest from the level of the footway or paving in
front of that face, or if there is no such footway or paving, from the
level of the ground
Escape route route forming part of the means of escape from any point in the
building to a final exit
Evacuation lift lift that may be used for the evacuation of disabled people in an
emergency
final exit termination of an escape route from a building giving direct access to
a street, passageway, walkway or other open space sited to ensure the
rapid dispersal of persons from the vicinity of a building so that they
are no longer in danger from fire and/or smoke
Fire compartment building or part of a building, comprising one or more rooms, spaces
or storeys, constructed to prevent the spread of fire to or from another
part of the same building, or to an adjoining building
Firefighting lift lift designated to have additional protection for firefighting use,
directly controllable by the fire service when fighting a fire
Firefighting lobby protected lobby providing access from a firefighting stair to the
accommodation area and to any associated firefighting lift
Firefighting shaft protected enclosure containing a firefighting stair, firefighting lobbies
and, if provided, a firefighting lift together with its machine room
Firefighting stair protected stairway communicating with the accommodation area only
through a firefighting lobby
height for buildings, the distance to the surface from the highest point of the
floor of the highest storey (excluding any such storey consisting
exclusively of plant rooms), measured at the centre of that face of the
building where the measurement is greatest to the level of the footway
or paving in front of that face, or if there is no such footway or paving,
to the level of the ground
HVAC heating, ventilation and/or air conditioning

vii
Inherent leakage paths gaps or cracks in the construction or around doors and windows etc.
which provide a path for air to flow between the
pressurized/depressurized space and the external air
Means of escape structural means whereby a safe route is provided for persons to travel
from any point in a building to a place of safety
Neutral pressure plane point in a building where the internal air pressure due to wind and
stack effects is equal to the external ambient pressure
Phased evacuation system of evacuation in which different parts of premises are
evacuated in a controlled sequence. Those parts of the building
expected to be at greatest risk are evacuated first
Place of safety place in which persons are in no danger from the consequences of a
fire within the building
Pressurization smoke control using pressure differentials, where the air pressure in
the spaces being protected is raised above that in the fire zone
Pressure containment lobby lobby provided at fire access level to reduce the loss of pressure
from a stair due to a final exit door being constantly open
Pressure differential system system of fans, ducts and vents provided for the purpose of
creating a pressure differential between the fire zone and the protected
space
Pressurized space shaft, lobby, corridor or other compartment in which the air
pressure is maintained at a higher value than that of the fire zone
Protected corridor circulation area consisting of a corridor enclosed with fire-resisting
construction (other than any part that is an external wall of a building)
Protected escape route escape route having an adequate degree of fire protection
Protected lobby circulation area consisting of a lobby enclosed with fire-resisting
construction (other than any part that is an external wall of a building)
Protected space fire-resisting shaft or compartment within a building which is
protected against the ingress of smoke by a pressure differential
system
Refuge area that is both separated from a fire by fire-resisting construction
and provided with a safe route to a storey exit, thus constituting a
temporarily safe space for disabled persons to await assistance for
their evacuation
Simple lobby lobby that does not give direct access to lifts, shafts or ducts that could
constitute a significant leakage path for smoke to spread to other
storeys within the building. A simple lobby may be either
unventilated or naturally ventilated

viii
smoke control technique for influencing the production, movement or removal of
smoke from a building in order to protect the means of escape,
contents or structure, and/or to assist firefighting operations
Smoke control zone sub-division of a building for smoke control purposes
Smoke shaft enclosed space in a building provided for venting smoke from a
firefighting stair or one or more firefighting lobbies or other protected
areas
Vent window, roof-light, door, louver, grille or other ventilating device
either open or capable of being opened to permit the passage of air
between a part of the building and the external air
Zoned smoke control system that combines depressurization of the fire zone and
pressurization for all contiguous spaces requiring protection.

ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS

x
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................................................................................. i

RESUME ......................................................................................................................iii

ABSTARCT .................................................................................................................. iv

ABBREVATIONS AND SYMBOLS ........................................................................... v

CONVERSIONS........................................................................................................... vi

Definitions....................................................................................................................vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................... x

LIST OF FIGURE....................................................................................................... xiv

LIST OF TABLE ........................................................................................................ xvi

1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1

1.1. Company .......................................................................................................... 1

1.2. Project description ............................................................................................ 2

1.3. Objective .......................................................................................................... 2

2. SMOKE CONTROL............................................................................................ 3

2.1. Smoke control method ..................................................................................... 4

2.2. Activation of smoke control ............................................................................. 4

2.2.1. Automatic ..................................................................................................... 4

2.2.2. Manual .......................................................................................................... 5

2.2.3. Firefighter`s Smoke Control Station............................................................. 5

3. PRESSURIZATION ............................................................................................ 7

3.1. Components...................................................................................................... 8

3.1.1. Fan ................................................................................................................ 8

3.1.2. Motorized volume damper............................................................................ 8

3.2. Operation .......................................................................................................... 9

3.2.1. Stairwell smoke control detection and activation ......................................... 9

3.2.2. Response Time ........................................................................................... 10

xi
 3.2.3. Power systems ............................................................................................ 11

3.3. Classification of pressurized stair case........................................................... 11

3.3.1. Class A ........................................................................................................ 13

3.3.2. Class B System ........................................................................................... 14

3.3.3. Class C system ............................................................................................ 17

3.3.4. Class D System ........................................................................................... 19

3.3.5. Class E System ........................................................................................... 21

3.4. Smoke venting ................................................................................................ 23

4. FIRE ALARM ................................................................................................... 27

4.1. Basis fire alarm............................................................................................... 27

4.2. Type of system ............................................................................................... 28

4.3. Manual station ................................................................................................ 28

4.4. Classification of building fire alarm............................................................... 29

4.5. Fire detector.................................................................................................... 31

4.5.1. Heat detector ............................................................................................... 31

4.5.2. Smoke detector ........................................................................................... 31

5. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................ 34

5.1. Leakage Area of the path ............................................................................... 34

5.2. Pressure loss in shaft ...................................................................................... 35

5.3. Manual calculation ......................................................................................... 38

5.3.1. Bidirectional flow ....................................................................................... 38

5.3.2. Design pressure difference ......................................................................... 40

5.3.3. Flow calculation ......................................................................................... 44

5.3.4. Height limit ................................................................................................. 48

5.4. Calculation by British Standard- BS 5588 ..................................................... 49

5.4.1. Select class of building ............................................................................... 49

5.4.2. Flow to select fan ........................................................................................ 49

xii
 5.4.3. Air release area ........................................................................................... 54

5.5. Exhaust ventilation ......................................................................................... 56

5.6. Pressure required ............................................................................................ 58

6. CALCULATION ............................................................................................... 59

6.1. BUILDING DATA ........................................................................................ 59

6.2. MANUAL CALCULATION ......................................................................... 59

6.2.1. Area of leakage ........................................................................................... 59

6.2.2. Pressure difference ..................................................................................... 61

6.2.3. Staircase supply air flow............................................................................. 62

6.2.4. Height limit ................................................................................................. 63

6.3. STANDARD BS 5588 CALCUATION ........................................................ 64

6.3.1. Flow calculation ......................................................................................... 64

6.3.2. Exhaust area determination ........................................................................ 65

6.4. Pressure loss ................................................................................................... 65

6.5. Smoke exhaust................................................................................................ 67

7. RESULT AND SELECTION ............................................................................ 68

7.1. Comparison manual method with British Standard- BS 5588 ....................... 68

7.2. Duct sizing...................................................................................................... 69

7.3. Grill selection ................................................................................................. 69

7.4. Fan selection ................................................................................................... 70

8. Accessory and control system ............................................................................ 71

1.1 Pressure relief damper .................................................................................... 71

8.1. Grill` ............................................................................................................... 71

1.2 Wired mesh .................................................................................................... 72

9. Conclusion. ........................................................................................................ 74

ANNEX........................................................................................................................ 76

xiii
 LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 3.1: Elements of a pressurization system ........................................................... 7

Figure 3.2 Motorized damper ...................................................................................... 9

Figure 3.3: Schematic of pressurized staircase (www.CEDengineering.com) ............ 10

Figure 3.4 Mode of pressurized staircase (Brithish Standard, 1998) ........................ 12

Figure 3.5: Design conditions for class A systems ...................................................... 14

Figure 3.6: Design conditions for class B systems ...................................................... 15

Figure 3.7: Design conditions for class C systems ...................................................... 17

Figure 3.8: Design conditions for class D systems ...................................................... 21

Figure 3.9: Design conditions for class E systems ...................................................... 22

Figure 3.10: Flow pattern due to smoke venting ......................................................... 24

Figure 4.1 Basic fire alarm ........................................................................................ 27

Figure 4.2: Single-stage-system Figure 4.3: Two-stage-system ............................. 29

Figure 4.4: Video image smoke detection (VISD) ...................................................... 32

Figure 5.1 Parallel path ............................................................................................. 34

Figure 5.2 Seri path ................................................................................................... 35

Figure 5.3: Continuous opening path ........................................................................... 39

Figure 5.4: Two opening path ...................................................................................... 39

Figure 5.5 Minimum clear height above escape route .............................................. 57

Figure 5.6 Default values of design fires .................................................................. 58

Figure 7.1: catalog of supply air diffuser (PRUDENTAIRE) ..................................... 69

Figure 8.1: Simple of grill ............................................................................................ 72

xiv
xv
 LIST OF TABLE

Table 3-1 Classification of Buildings for Smoke Control using Pressure Differentials .......... 12

Table 3-2: Minimum pressure differentials between specified areas for class B systems ....... 16

Table 3-3: Minimum pressure differentials for class C systems.............................................. 18

Table 3-4: Minimum pressure differentials for class D systems ............................................. 20

Table 3-5: Minimum pressure differentials for class E systems .............................................. 22

Table 4-1: Classification of building for fire alarm ................................................................. 30

Table 5-1: Duct roughness factors (ASHRAE, Odor, 1997) ................................................... 37

Table 5-2: Values of K ............................................................................................................. 54

Table 7-1: Comparison result between Manual method and BS 5588 .................................... 68

Table 0-1: Air leakage data for doors ...................................................................................... 76

Table 0-2: Air leakage data for walls and floors...................................................................... 77

Table 0-3: Air leakage data for windows ................................................................................. 78

xvi
1. INTRODUCTION

In Cambodia in the last 10 years, there has been significant economic growth. Present
of high building was rise faster especially capital city Phnom Penh. Thus building are: offices,
supermarkets, club, etc. It`s show that those places were densely populated, thus demand the
protection on property and occupant incidental cases (in case building have fire). However
properties protected by firefighting, how about people? In this situation many percent of
occupant did not died fire burn their body only but the main reason is they was poison by
smoke. According the reason we need the Safeway for evacuate that we called stairwell or
pressurization.

1.1. Company

During semester 2 of year 5 at Institute of Technology of Cambodia, we was do

internship at ET&S ENGINEERING IMPORT EXPORT (ETS). ETS is a Cambodia company
based on (MEP) building services Mechanical-Electrical and Plumping, operating since the
year of 2008.

1
1.2. Project description

The SOTHEAROS Apartment is a commercial building, that collection of office,

apartment, supermarket, spa, etc. This construction build on area about 2000 m2 which we can
called the height-rise building whit 202m of tail, there are 55floor (GF to F-52th and 2 basement
floor). Because of large area and high rise so that architect design two escape. Likely other
height-rise building, The SOTHEAROS is required smoke control system too.














 




















 

 


















































 



























 

 


1.3. Objective

The main purpose of this thesis is:

 Introduce smoke control system especially smoke control using pressurized staircase
because the high-rise building in Cambodia has been increase.
 Calculation air flow supply by manual method
 Calculation air flow supply follow British Standard
 Comparison both method

2
2. SMOKE CONTROL

The most of combustion issue to given smoke that have present of CO2 or CO, those
are air pollution and sometime it make us are felling bed when you stay in the fire zone. In case
building have fire people was poisoned because smoke is too much in fire floor. Below is the
effective of some pollute gas on heath,

Effect of CO2

Level Effect

250-350ppm Normal background concentration in outdoor ambient air

3501,000ppm Concentrations typical of occupied indoor spaces with good air exchange

1,000-2,000ppm Complaints of drowsiness and poor air.

Headaches, sleepiness and stagnant, stale, stuffy air. Poor concentration,

2,000-5,000 ppm
loss of attention, increased heart rate and slight nausea may also be present.

5,000 Workplace exposure limit (as 8-hour TWA) in most jurisdictions.

Exposure may lead to serious oxygen deprivation resulting in permanent

>40,000 ppm
brain damage, coma, even death.

Effect of CO

Level Effect

9 ppm CO Max prolonged exposure (ASHRAE standard)

35 ppm CO Max exposure for 8 hour work day (OSHA)

800 ppm CO Death within 2 to 3 hours

12,800 ppm CO Death within 1 to 3 minutes

3
2.1. Smoke control method

In zoned smoke control, a building is divided into a number of zones, each separated
from the others by barriers. In the event of a fire, the zone with the fire is called the smoke
zone, and the others are called the nonsmoke zones. The zones that border on the smoke zone
are called the surrounding zones. Smoke control methods are often defined as active or passive
systems.

 An active smoke control system uses mechanical equipment to control the spread of
smoke in a structure. It includes pressurization method, airflow method and exhaust
method.
 A passive smoke control system uses building construction materials to limit the
spread of smoke in a structure. Typical passive smoke control systems include
compartmentation, fire rated walls, barriers, smoke vents, smoke shafts etc.

2.2. Activation of smoke control

Smoke control systems can be activated automatically, manually, or from a firefighter’s

smoke control station (FSCS). It is necessary to understand the differences between these
activation methods because the smoke control strategy will differ according to how the system
is activated. Not every building code requires all three of these methods, so it is important to
understand the requirements of the applicable code.

2.2.1. Automatic

The most common way of activating a smoke control system is through automatic
activation. In this approach, the smoke control system is activated without manual intervention,
in response to one or more fire detection devices.

Regardless of the type of devices used to automatically activate the smoke control
system, the devices must be arranged so that all devices in a zone of fire-protective devices are
contained within one smoke control zone. If this were not the case, and the devices within one
zone of fire-protective devices spanned across multiple smoke control zones, the smoke control
system would not have enough information to reliably activate the correct smoke control zone.
Even though a one-to-one correspondence between fire-protective zones and smoke zones is
often used, it is not absolutely necessary. Multiple fire-protective zones could all activate the
same smoke control zone without problems if all of the fire-protective zones were contained

4
within the one smoke control zone. For example, if a floor in a building is divided into multiple
fire-protective zones to allow pinpointing the location of a fire, but the smoke control zone
encompasses the entire floor, there would not be any conflict if all fire-protective zones for that
floor were assigned to activate the same smoke control zone.

2.2.2. Manual

Manual activation of smoke control systems is often misunderstood, possibly because

the same term has very different meanings in different codes and standards covering smoke
control. Some codes and standards use the term “manual activation” to describe actions
performed at the FSCS.

NFPA 92A-2000 (NFPA 2000) provided a very suitable definition, stating that manual
activation “includes all means whereby an authorized person activates one or more smoke
control systems by means of controls provided for the purpose.” Examples of manual activation
of a smoke control system include commands received from an authorized operator at a
workstation connected to the smoke control system, or activation signals received from a key-
operated switch located within a smoke control zone, where only an authorized operator holds
the keys. When using this definition, it should be readily apparent that activation of a manual
fire alarm pull station does not constitute manual activation for the purpose of smoke control,
because the activation signal does not necessarily come from an authorized user. The building
codes most widely used in North America do not have specific requirements for the manner in
which the smoke control system should respond to manual activation signals.

2.2.3. Firefighter`s Smoke Control Station

The firefighter’s smoke control station (FSCS) is a device that provides status
indication and manual control of all smoke control system components installed within the
building. The fire-fighter's control panel shall provide control capability over the complete
smoke control system equipment within the building as follows:

 ON-AUTO-OFF control over each individual piece of operating smoke control

equipment that can also be controlled from other sources within the building. This
includes stairway pressurization fans; smoke exhaust fans; supply, return and exhaust
fans; elevator shaft fans; and other operating equipment used or intended for smoke
control purposes.

5
 OPEN-AUTO-CLOSE control over individual dampers relating to smoke control and
that are also controlled from other sources within the building.
 ON-OFF or OPEN-CLOSE control over smoke control and other critical equipment
associated with a fire or smoke emergency and that can only be controlled from the
fire-fighter's control panel.

6
3. PRESSURIZATION

Stairshafts, which are the principal means of escape during a building fire, must be
maintained tenable while occupants are leaving the building. One means of preventing smoke
from entering a stairshaft is by pressurizing the stairshaft with outside air using a supply air
fan. Designing such a system to maintain a required level of pressurization is straightforward
if all stair doors are assumed to be closed. However, during evacuation, stair doors are opened,
resulting in intermittent losses of effective pressurization and allowing smoke to enter the
stairshaft. On the other hand, supplying air in sufficient quantities to cope with open-door
situations can result in overpressurization of the stairshaft when all doors are closed, thus
making door opening difficult. To prevent such overpressure, stairshaft pressurization systems
usually are designed with relief openings (exit door relief, barometric damper) or variable-
supply air systems with feedback control (fan bypass, variable-pitch blade fan, variable-speed
fan).

Figure 3.1: Elements of a pressurization system

A pressurization System has two main components as illustrated in Figure 3.1

a) A Supply Air System designed to blow into the protected spaces a sufficient quantity
of air to maintain the required pressure level or air velocity. This will always be fan
powered.
b) An Exhaust Air System to enable the pressurizing air to escape from the unpressurised
areas of the building via the fire floor.

Those method will explain in next section, the supply air system into escape will has
been called pressurized staircase and an exhaust air/smoke system has been called smoke spill.

7
3.1. Components

3.1.1. Fan

There are two primary varieties of fan, axial fan and centrifugal fan. The both are used
in different operation.

Axial Fan:

The firs electrically powered fans introduced in the 1880 were axial fan. Axial fan is
named for the direction of the air flow they create. Blades rotating around an axis draw air in
parallel to that axis and force air out in the same direction. Axial fans create airflow with a high
flow rate, meaning they create a large volume of air flow. However the flows they create are
of low pressure. They required low power input for operation. Because of the low-pressure
high-volume airflows, axial fans are best suited for general purpose applications.

Centrifugal Fan:

The centrifugal fan was invented in 1832 by military engineer Lieutenant General
Alexander Sablukov of the Russian Empire`s Imperial Russian army. Often called blowers,
centrifugal fans very differently from axial fans. The pressure of an incoming airstream is
increased by a fan wheel, a series of blades mounted on a circular hub. Centrifugal fans move
air radially, the direction of the outward flowing air is charge, usually 900 from the direction
of the incoming air. The airflow created by centrifugal fans is directed through a system of
ducts or tubes. This help create a higher pressure airflow than axial fans. Despite a lower flow
rate, centrifugal create a steadier flow of air than axial fans. They also required a higher power
input. Because of the high pressure, centrifugal fans are ideal for high pressure application such
as drying and air-conditioning systems.

3.1.2. Motorized volume damper

Motorized damper is a damper connected with electrical motor for control flow rate
adjustment so that the damper bland can be blocked from opening or closing 100%. Motorized
damper has a 24 or 120 volt motor option. This damper is built with aluminum opposed bland
and provide minimum weight with maximum strength.

8
 Figure 3.2 Motorized damper

3.2. Operation

3.2.1. Stairwell smoke control detection and activation

Stairwell smoke control activation occurs on an alarm signal from any device, including
sprinkler water flow switches, heat detectors, smoke detectors, and manual pull stations (pull
boxes). Most stairwell smoke control systems operate in the same manner regardless of the
source of the alarm signal. Typical sequence of operation for a stairwell pressurization system
is depicted below:

1. Any fire alarm in any zone of the building initiates smoke control mode.
2. System turns on the motorized damper on the air intake and the damper actuator signals
pressurization fans to run.
3. A pressure sensor installed in the stairwell shall control the bypass damper to maintain
a constant pressure of 50Pa within the stairwell.
4. A smoke detector (SD) is installed on the supply air intake. If it senses smoke, it must
shut down the stairwell pressurization fan.
5. The fan should be wired for manual stopping.
6. It should be possible to override all controls and run the system through the fireman’s
smoke control panel (FSCP).

9
 Figure 3.3: Schematic of pressurized staircase (www.CEDengineering.com)

3.2.2. Response Time

Smoke-control system activation shall be initiated immediately after receipt of an

appropriate automatic or manual activation command. Smoke control systems shall activate
individual components (such as dampers and fans) in the sequence necessary to prevent
physical damage to the fans, dampers, ducts and other equipment. For the purposes of smoke
control, the fire-fighter's control panel response time shall be the same for automatic or manual
smoke control action initiated from any other building control point. The total response time,
including that necessary for detection, shutdown of operating equipment and smoke control
system startup shall allow for full operational mode to be achieved before the conditions in the
space exceed the design smoke condition. The system response time for each component and
their sequential relationships shall be detailed in the required rational analysis and verification
of their installed condition reported in the required final report.

 Fan operation: 60 seconds

 Completion of damper travel: 75 seconds
 Smoke Management Systems: Full operational mode shall be achieved before
conditions exceed design smoke conditions

Example: When the fire alarm system detects the presence of smoke, it responds by
activating the appropriate alarms and sending notification to the smoke control system
regarding the location of the fire. Under NFPA 92 (NFPA 2012), which contains specific timing

10
requirements, the smoke control system is allowed up to 10 s to issue the first command in the
smoke control strategy. If the strategy is to pressurize a zone, the smoke control system will
command the zone’s supply damper OPEN. The standard allows up to 75 s to fully open the
damper, measured from the time the damper is commanded. Once the damper is open and it is
not necessary to wait the full 75 s if the damper opens in less time the smoke control system
commands the fan ON. The standard allows up to 60 s for the fan to reach full speed, measured
from the time the fan is commanded. So, if every component took the maximum allowed time
to complete its operation, the fan would reach full speed 145 s (10 + 75 + 60 s) after the smoke
control system received the activation command. If any operation completed in less time than
it was allowed, then the total strategy would be completed in less time because there is no
allowance in the standard for one component to be given more time if another component takes
less than its allotted time. Most current systems can reach the fully operational state in much
less than the time specified in NFPA 92 (NFPA 2012), but extremely large equipment may
require the full allotted time.

3.2.3. Power systems

The smoke control system shall be supplied with two sources of power. Primary power
shall be from the normal building power systems. Secondary power shall be from an approved
standby source. The standby power source and its transfer switches shall be in a room separate
from the normal power transformers and switch gears and ventilated directly to and from the
exterior. The room shall be enclosed with not less than 1-hour fire barriers. The transfer to full
standby power shall be automatic and within 60 seconds of failure of the primary power system.

3.3. Classification of pressurized stair case

A pressurization system has 3 modes of operation:

Mode 1 - DECTECTION PHASE - To raise a pressure differential in the protection space -

staircase, corridor etc., by the required amount (50Pa in the UK) when all doors are closed.

Mode 2 - ESCAPE PHASE - To maintain a specified AIR VELOCITY (0.75m/sec) through

the OPEN DOOR(S) onto the fire floor with various other doors open, OR a PRESSURE
DIFFERENCE OF 10+ Pa with the fire floor door(s) closed and various other doors open.

Mode 3 - FIRE FIGHTING PHASE – To maintain a specified AIR VELOCITY (2.0 m/sec)
through the OPEN DOOR(S) onto the fire floor with various other doors open.

11
 All pressurization systems for SMOKE CONTROL have a Detection Phase (Mode 1)

Figure 3.4 Mode of pressurized staircase (Brithish Standard, 1998)

Smoke control using pressure differentials can be implemented in several different

types of buildings, with differing requirements and design conditions. For the purposes of this
standard, the design conditions have been placed into five separate systems (classes A, B, C,
D and E) and are detailed in Table 1.

These five classes of system are outlined in Table 1 below - detailed in Figure 3.5 to
Figure 3.9.Class A, B, C, D &E (Standard BS 5588)

Table 3-1 Classification of Buildings for Smoke Control using Pressure Differentials

System Class Area of use Requirement of System

A Residential, sheltered housing To maintain pressure of 50Pa when all

& Buildings with three door doors are closed

protection. To maintain velocity of 0.75m/s

through open Fire Floor Door

B Protection of firefighting shafts To maintain pressure at 50Pa when all

doors are closed

To maintain velocity of 2.0m/s through

open Fire Floor Door

12
 C Commercial premises (using To maintain pressure of 50Pa with all
doors closed
simultaneous evacuation)
To maintain velocity of 0.75m/s through
open Fire Floor Door

To maintain pressure of 10Pa with final

exit Door Open

D Hotels, hostels and institutional- To maintain pressure of 50Pa with all

type doors closed

buildings, excluding those in To maintain velocity of 0.75m/s through

Class A open Fire Floor Door

To maintain pressure of 10Pa with final

exit Door Open

E Buildings using phased To maintain pressure of 50Pa with all

evacuation doors closed To maintain velocity of
0.75m/s through open Fire Floor Door

To maintain pressure of 10Pa with final

exit Door Open

3.3.1. Class A

The prime objective of the class A system is to maintain the staircase free from smoke
when there is a fire in a dwelling. The system would offer equivalent or better arrangement for
the protection of the staircase compared with natural smoke ventilation systems. Therefore a
class A system does not provide a form of smoke control to the front entrance door of the
flat/dwelling. It is unlikely that more than one door onto the protected space (either between
the stair and the lobby/corridor or the final exit door) will be open simultaneously.

The airflow through the doorway between the pressurized stair and the lobby or corridor
should be not less than 0.75 m/s when:

 the door between the lobby/corridor and the pressurized stair is open on any one storey,

13
  the air release from the lobby/corridor on that storey is open,
 all doors between the pressurized stair and the lobbies/corridors are closed on all other
storeys,
 all doors between the pressurized stair and the final exit are closed; or
 the final exit door is closed.

The design conditions for class A system are Shown in Figure 3.5

Figure 3.5: Design conditions for class A systems

The pressure difference across a closed door between the pressurized stair and the
lobby/corridor should be not less than 50 Pa ± 10 % when:

 the air release from the lobby/corridor on that storey is open;

 on all other storeys the doors between the pressurized stair and the lobby/corridor are
closed;
 all doors between the pressurized stair and the final exit are closed;
 the final exit door is closed.

3.3.2. Class B System

A pressure differential system can be used to minimize the potential for serious
contamination of firefighting stairs by smoke during fire service operations. It is common
firefighting practice that the first crews arriving at an incident in a building with a firefighting

14
shaft obtain information about the floor involved and set up a bridgehead/forward control. The
velocity of hot smoke and gases from a fully developed fire can reach 5 m/s. Although
firefighting operations, such as the use of a jet, can contribute significantly to the holding back
of hot smoke and gases, it is impractical to provide sufficient through-flow of air in order to
prevent ingress of smoke into the firefighting lobby. It is, however, essential that the stair shaft
is kept clear of serious smoke contamination. To limit the spread of smoke from the fire zone
to the lobby and thence into the stair an air velocity of at least 2 m/s through the open door
between the firefighting lobby and the accommodation area should be provided.

The design conditions for class B system are shown in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6: Design conditions for class B systems

To achieve the recommended flow of 2 m/s through the open stair door, sufficient
leakage should be ensured from the accommodation area to the exterior of the building. In the
later stages of fire development more than adequate leakage is generally provided by breakage
of external glazing. However, it should not be assumed that windows will have failed before
the arrival of the fire service, and it is therefore essential to ensure that sufficient leakage area
is available, via the ventilation ductwork or specifically designed air release paths.

The system should be designed to keep the firefighting stair and firefighting lobby and,
where provided, the firefighting lift well, clear of smoke. In the event of smoke entering the

15
lobby, the pressure within the stair should not drive smoke into the lift well or vice-versa. This
should be achieved by providing separate pressurization of the firefighting lift well, lobby and
stair.

The fan/motor units for a firefighting lift well may be common with its associated stair,
providing that:

a) the air is provided through separate ductwork;

b) the distribution of air to each duct is controlled so that sufficient air is provided to each
space at all times.

The air supply should be sufficient to maintain the pressure differential given in Table
2 when all doors to the lift, stair and lobby, and the final exit doors are closed and the air release
path from the accommodation area is open.

Table 3-2: Minimum pressure differentials between specified areas for class B
systems

Pressure differential to be
Specified area
maintained

Across lift well and accommodation area with all doors 50 Pa ± 10 %

closed

Across stairway and accommodation area with all doors 50 Pa ± 10 %

closed

Across closed doors between each lobby and 45 Pa ± 10 %

accommodation area with all doors closed

The air supply should be sufficient to maintain an airflow of 2 m/s through the open
door between the lobby and the accommodation area at the fire-affected storey with all of the
following doors open between:

1) the stair and the lobby on the fire-affected storey;

2) the stair and the lobby on the adjacent storey;

16
 3) the firefighting lift well and the lobby;

4) the stair and the external air at the fire service access level;

5) the air release path from the accommodation area, on the storey on which the airflow
is being measured.

Any air supply system serving a firefighting shaft should be separate from any other
ventilation or pressure differential system.

The maximum force required to open any door within the escape route should in no
circumstances exceed 100 N, applied at the door handle.

3.3.3. Class C system

This classification applies to systems other than classes A, B or D using simultaneous

evacuation and with one of the following:

a) With lobbies, no restrictions in height

b) Without lobbies, a single stair up to 11 m
c) Without lobbies, more than one stair up to 18 m

The design conditions for class C system are shown in Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7: Design conditions for class C systems

17
 Table 3-3: Minimum pressure differentials for class C systems

Position of other doors Pressure differentials to be maintained

i) Doors between accommodation area and the

pressurized space are closed on all storeys

ii)All doors between the pressurized stair and the final

exit are closed
50 Pa ± 10 %
iii)Air release path from the accommodation on the
storey where the pressure difference being measured
is open

iv)Final exit door is closed

v) Final exit door is open and other items i) to iii)

10 Pa
above

In the event of a simultaneous evacuation it is assumed that the stairways will be

occupied for the nominal period of the evacuation, and thereafter will be clear of evacuees.
Consequently, the evacuation will occur during the incipient stages of fire development, and
some smoke leakage onto the stairway can be tolerated.

The airflow due to the pressurization system should clear the stairway of this smoke.
The occupants being evacuated are assumed to be alert and aware, and familiar with their
surroundings, thus minimizing the time they remain in the building. The airflow through the
doorway between the pressurized space and the accommodation area should be not less than
0.75 m/s when:

1) The doors between the accommodation area and the pressurized stairway and any
lobby on the fire floor are open;

2) The air release path from the accommodation area on the storey where the airflow
being measured is open;

18
 3) All other doors other than the fire floor doors are assumed to be closed. The pressure
difference across a closed door between the pressurized space and the accommodation area
should be as given in.

3.3.4. Class D System

This classification applies to systems used in the following:

a) Hotels, hostels and institutional-type buildings, excluding buildings designed to meet

class A system classification;

b) Any building where a discounted stairway has not been provided because a pressure
differential system is installed;

c) any buildings more than 18 m high where the pressure differential system has been
adopted in lieu of the provision of lobbies (not including residential-type buildings or
firefighting shafts).

Class D systems are appropriate in buildings where the occupants may be sleeping, e.g.
hotels, hostels and institutional-type buildings. The time for the occupants to move into a
protected area prior to reaching the final exit can be greater than that expected in an alert or
able-bodied environment, and occupants may be unfamiliar with the building or need assistance
to reach the final exit/protected space.

Class D systems are also appropriate when the presence of a pressure differential system
has served to justify the absence of a discounted stairway and/or lobbies that would normally
be required under the appropriate building regulations (England and Wales, Scotland, Northern
Ireland).

The airflow through the doorway between the pressurized space and the
accommodation area on the fire floor should be not less than 0.75 m/s when:

1) the door between the accommodation area and the pressurized space on the fire storey
is open;

2) all doors within the pressurized spaces on the fire floor to the final exit which cross
the escape route from the accommodation area are open;

3) all doors between the pressurized stair and the final exit are open;

19
 4) the final exit door is open;

5) the air release from the accommodation area on the fire floor is open;

6) the doors on the other floors are closed.

The design conditions for class D system are shown in Figure 3.8

The pressure difference across the closed door between the pressurized space and the
accommodation area on the fire storey should be as given in Table 3-4.

Table 3-4: Minimum pressure differentials for class D systems

Position of other doors Pressure differential to be maintained

Door between accommodation area and pressurized

space on the fire storey is closed

All doors within pressurized space that cross the

escape route from the accommodation area to the
final exit door are open

All doors between the pressurized stair and the final 10Pa
exit door are open

The final exit door is open

The air release path from the accommodation area on

the storey where the pressure difference is being
measured is open

The doors between the accommodation area and the

pressurized space are closed on all storeys
50 Pa ± 10 %
All doors between the pressurized stair and final exit
door are closed

20
 The air release path from the accommodation area on
the storey where the pressure difference being
measured is open

The final exit door is closed

Figure 3.8: Design conditions for class D systems

3.3.5. Class E System

This classification covers systems used in buildings with phased evacuation, and where
the expected total evacuation time exceeds 10 min. For design purposes, this represents the
situation where the number of evacuation stages is greater than three, using two floors at a time.

It is assumed that the building would still be occupied for a considerable time during
phased evacuation whilst the fire develops. The protected stairways should be maintained free
of smoke to allow persons to escape in safety from floors other than the fire floor at a later
stage in the fire development.

The design condition s for class E Systems are show in Figure. The airflow through the
doorway between the pressurized space and the accommodation area on the fire floor should
be not less than 0.75 m/s when:

21
 a) the doors between the accommodation area and the pressurized space on the storey
above the fire floor are open

b) all doors within the pressurized spaces on those two storeys that cross the escape
route from the accommodation area to the final exit are open

c) all doors between the pressurized stair and the final exit are open;

d) the final exit door is open

e) the air release from the accommodation area on the fire floor is open

Figure 3.9: Design conditions for class E systems

The pressure difference across the closed door between the pressurized space and the
accommodation area on the fire floor should be not less than as given in table.

Table 3-5: Minimum pressure differentials for class E systems

Pressure differential to be
Position of other doors
maintained

22
 The doors between the accommodation area and the
pressurized space are open on two adjacent storeys

All doors within the pressurized space on those two storeys

that cross the escape route from the accommodation area to
the final exit are open 10 Pa

All doors between the pressurized stair and the final exit are
open

The final exit door is open

The air release path from the accommodation area on the

storey where the pressure difference being measured is open

The doors between the accommodation area and the

pressurized stair on all storeys are closed

All doors between the pressurized stair and the final exit are
50 Pa ± 10 %
closed

The air release path from the accommodation area on the

storey where the

pressure difference being measured is open

The final exit door is closed

3.4. Smoke venting

Venting of smoke from the smoke zone is important because it prevents significant
overpressures due to thermal expansion of gases as a result of the fire. Venting can be
accomplished in the following three ways:

 Exterior wall vents,

 Smoke shafts, and
 Mechanical venting (or exhaust).

23
 When the first two methods of venting are used, it is essential that adjacent zones (or all
nonsmoke zones) be pressurized in order to maintain pressure differences at the boundaries of
the smoke zone. Mechanical exhaust by itself call result in sufficient pressure differences for
smoke control. However, in the event of window breakage or a large opening to the outside
from the smoke zone, mechanical exhaust might not be able to ensure favorable pressure
differences.

Smoke purging, consisting of equal air supply and exhaust rates, is not considered here
because it does not produce pressure differences that control smoke movement. It is generally
believed that such purging at the airflows available with HVAC systems cannot significantly
reduce smoke concentrations in a zone where a large tire is located.

EXTERIOR WALL VENTS

Exterior wall vents can consist of window or panels that open automatically when the
smoke control system is activated. The system considered here consists of a vented smoke zone
without any mechanical exhaust and adjacent zones that are pressurized. In order to minimize
adverse effects of wind, the area of wall vents should be evenly distributed among all of the
exterior walls. For buildings that are much longer than wide, the vents can evenly be divided
between the two long sides. Exterior wall venting is most appropriate for buildings with open
floor plans and least suitable when the floor plan is divided into man compartments. Because
the flow of hot gases through a wall vent can be substantial, precautions should be taken in the
design of exterior walls to minimize the possibility of exterior fire spread to floors above the
vent.

PF = smoke zone pressure (Pa)

PO = outside pressure (Pa)

PB = building pressure on

nonsmoke zones (Pa)

Figure 3.10: Flow pattern due to smoke venting

24
 Vent Area

The each floor consists of a smoke zone. For the analyses presented in this and the
following section, the effects of fire are indirectly incorporated in the selection of minimum
design pressure difference. For this system, the fire floor (smoke zone) is vented to the outside,
supply and exhaust fans serving the fire floor are shut off, and the floors above and below the
fire floor are pressurized.

Air flows from floors adjacent to the fire floor and through the vent to the outside, as
illustrated in Figures above. Because the supply and exhaust fans are shut off on the fire floor,
the total airflow rate through the wall vents equals the total flow rate into the vented floor from
the surrounding smoke control zones.

SMOKE SHAFT

A smoke shaft is a vertical shaft intended to be a path for smoke movement from the
fire floor to above the level of the roof. Generally, the driving force of smoke movement is
buoyancy, although the flow through some smoke shafts is aided by mechanical fans. This
mechanical exhaust is addressed in the next section. A smoke shaft can serve one floor, a group
of floors, or all the floors in a building. Smoke shafts have openings above the roof level and
on the floors they serve. These openings are fitted with dampers that are nominally closed. In
a fire situation, only the damper on the fire floor and the top outside damper open to vent smoke
outside. Smoke shafts should be constructed in accordance with local codes. Tamura and Shaw
(1973) provide information concerning sizing of smoke shafts. Smoke shafts used in
conjunction with pressurization of nonsmoke zones can produce pressure differences to restrict
smoke to the smoke zone. Smoke shafts lend themselves to use in buildings with open floor
plans. The air movement caused by smoke shafts operating during normal slack effect tends to
pull smoke toward the smoke shaft inlet on the fire floor. It is recommended that smoke shafts
be located as far as possible from exit stairwells, so that smoke in the vicinity of the shaft inlet
does not pose an increased hazard during evacuation or firefighting. Because hot smoke
frequently stratifies near the ceiling, it is recommended that smoke shaft inlets be located in or
near the ceiling.

MECHANICAL EXHAUST

Mechanical exhaust of the smoke zone can be accomplished by either a dedicated

exhaust system or by the exhaust fans of the HVAC system. Generally, such exhaust is done

25
in conjunction with pressurization of nonsmoke zones. These systems can also include stairwell
pressurization. Mechanical exhaust by itself can result in sufficient pressure differences to
control smoke. However, in the event of window breakage or another large opening to the
outside from the smoke zone, the pressure differences can decrease significantly. For this
reason, mechanical exhaust alone does not constitute an adequate smoke control system when
there is a significant probability of window breakage or an opening from the smoke zone to the
outside. In the smoke zone, the location of the exhaust inlets is important. These inlets should
be located away from exit stairs so that smoke in the vicinity of the shaft inlet does not pose an
increased hazard during evacuation or firefighting. Because hot smoke frequently stratifies near
the ceiling, it is recommended that smoke exhaust inlets be located in or near the ceiling.
Exhausting air from the smoke zone results in air from the outside and from other zones being
pulled into the smoke zone. This air flowing into the smoke zone can provide oxygen to the
fire. Most commercial air conditioning systems are capable of moving about four to six air
changes per hour, which probably accounts for the popularity of six air changes in smoke
control applications. Current designs are based on the assumption that the adverse effect of
supplying oxygen at six air changes per hour is insignificant in comparison with the benefit of
maintaining tenable conditions in zones away from the fire. Thus, six air changes is
recommended as the upper limit for exhaust airflow. In any analysis of a smoke control system,
the fire effects of buoyancy and expansion need to be addressed. This can be done directly as
part of the analysis or indirectly. As discussed in Chapter 4, the indirect approach consists of
establishing a minimum design pressure difference that will not be overcome by buoyancy
pressures resulting from smoke at design temperatures. This indirect approach is much simpler,
and so human errors in analysis, other aspects of design, construction, and commissioning are
less likely. The following sections present both methods. When the temperatures on both sides
of the boundary of the smoke zone are the same, the pressure difference across the boundary is
the same over the height of the barrier. This is the condition under which smoke.

26
4. FIRE ALARM

Properly designed, installed and maintained Fire Alarm Systems are a key element in
the protection of life-safety, countering the destructive forces of fire. Early warning, automatic
Fire Detection and Alarm Systems provide a warning of fire danger so that occupant evacuation
and fire suppression activities can quickly begin.

4.1. Basis fire alarm

Early-warning fire detection systems protect both life and property. There is no single
fire alarm system that is ideal for all buildings. Fire alarm systems range from simple systems
that only sound audible alarm signals, to complex systems that utilize network configurations,
and that interface to a variety of other building functions such as smoke control. It is important
that fire alarm systems designers realize that each building has structural features and building
layouts that create a different set of problems in terms of fire development, and therefore
presents different levels of danger to the occupants. Each Fire Detection and Alarm System
must be designed according to the specific building and its occupancy, so that in combination
with other fire prevention measures, the effects of any fire can be kept to a minimum, and
occupants protected from harm.The time interval from the start of a fire to the safe evacuation
of occupants is comprised of several chronological stages including: detection time, time to
process the detection information, time to activate the signals, time for occupants to react, and
time for the occupants to move out of the building. Fire Alarm Systems play a significant role
in this process. Therefore, the people who design, install, verify, test and maintain automatic
Fire Detection and Alarm Systems bear a great deal of responsibility both for the safety of the
occupants and the contents of the buildings.

Figure 4.1 Basic fire alarm

27
4.2. Type of system

Based BS 5839, the fire alarm systems have been divided into a number of different
types, each identified by a letter.

Type P systems are automatic detection systems intended for the protection of property.
They are further subdivided into:

 Type Pl: systems installed throughout the protected building.

 Type P2: systems installed only in defined parts of the protected building.

Type L systems are automatic detection systems intended for the protection of life.
They are further subdivided into:

 Type L1: systems installed throughout the protected building;

 Type L2: systems installed only in defined parts of the protected building; a type L2
system should normally include the coverage required of a type L3 system;
 Type L3: systems installed only for the protection of escape routes

Type M systems are manual alarm systems, and have no further subdivision.

4.3. Manual station

When we use the term ‘type’ when referring to a Fire Alarm System, we mean that the
system to which the station is connected is either ‘single-stage’ or ‘two-stage’.

1. In a single-stage system, which is by far the most common, the activation of a manual
station or any other alarm-initiating device, will cause the audible and visible signal
devices to operate, initiate the ancillary functions (such as elevator recall, HVAC
shutdown, door release) and, if required, send a signal to an offsite Monitoring Centre,
or the Fire Department. This operation is called a ‘single-stage’ or ‘evacuation’ system.

Figure 4.2: Two-stage-system

28
 2. In a two-stage system, the activation of the handle of a manual station does not cause
the evacuation process to begin. Instead, the system goes into its ‘first stage’ or ‘alert’
mode. In this mode, signaling devices sound at a slow pulsing rate – typically about 20
pulses per minute. Occupants do not evacuate, but they are aware of a potential danger,
and they should prepare to evacuate if so instructed. However, building supervisory
personnel are aware of the fact that a fire emergency could exist, and they should
respond in a manner consistent with the Fire Safety Plan approved for the building.

Figure 4.3: Single-stage-system

4.4. Classification of building fire alarm

Buildings are classified according to their use and inherent hazard, such as:

Density of population (occupant load),

Mobility and alertness of occupants (as affected by age, mental illness, or
restraint of occupants),
Fire load content, and
The presence of hazardous material, equipment or processes.

The Building Code therefore divides occupancies into six main groups (A, B, C, D, E,
and F) with further divisions for more accurate treatment.

29
 Table 4-1: Classification of building for fire alarm

Group Major occupancy

Assembly occupancies intended for the production and

Division 1
viewing of performing arts

Division 2 Assembly occupancies not elsewhere classified in Group A

Group A
Division 3 Assembly occupancies of the arena type

Assembly occupancies in which provision is made for the

Division 4 congregation or gathering of persons for the purpose of
participating in or viewing open-air activities

Institutional occupancies in which persons are under restraint

Division 1 or incapable of self-preservation because of security measures
not under their control
Group B

Institutional occupancies in which persons because of mental

Division 2
or physical limitations require special treatment

Group C Residential

Group D
Business & Personal Services

Group E Mercantile

Division 1 High Hazard, Industrial

Group F Division 2 Medium Hazard, Industrial

Division 3 Low Hazard, Industrial

30
4.5. Fire detector

Fire detectors are designed to detect one or more of three characteristics of a fire:
smoke, heat and radiation (flame). No one type of detector is the most suitable for all
applications and the final choice will depend on individual circumstances, it will often be useful
to employ a mixture of different types of detector. (BS5839)

4.5.1. Heat detector

Some jurisdictions specifically require that heat detectors be installed:

 In every room in portions of buildings classified as Group A, Division 1,

 Except in a hotel, in every suite, and every room not located within a suite, in portions
of buildings classified as Group C major occupancy and more than three floor in
building height,
 In a floor area containing a hotel, in every room in a suite and in every room not located
in a suite other than washrooms within a suite, saunas, refrigerated areas and swimming
pools.

Heat detectors need not be installed where the floor area is sprinklered, and the
sprinklers are monitored by the Fire Alarm System.

4.5.2. Smoke detector

Type of smoke detector (NFPA 72, 2013)

Cloud Chamber Smoke Detection

The principle of using an air sample drawn from the protected area into a high-humidity
chamber combined with a lowering of chamber pressure to create an environment in which the
resultant moisture in the air condenses on any smoke particles present, forming a cloud. The
cloud density is measured by a photoelectric principle. The density signal is processed and used
to convey an alarm condition when it meets preset criteria.

Ionization Smoke Detection

The principle of using a small amount of radioactive material to ionize the air between
two differentially charged electrodes to sense the presence of smoke particles. Smoke particles
entering the ionization volume decrease the conductance of the air by reducing ion mobility.

31
The reduced conductance signal is processed and used to convey an alarm condition when it
meets preset criteria.

Photoelectric smoke detector

Photoelectric Light Obscuration Smoke Detection

The principle of using a light source and a photosensitive sensor onto which the
principal portion of the source emissions is focused. When smoke particles enter the light path,
some of the light is scattered and some is absorbed, thereby reducing the light reaching the
receiving sensor. The light reduction signal is processed and used to convey an alarm condition
when it meets preset criteria.

Photoelectric Light-Scattering Smoke Detection

The principle of using a light source and a photosensitive sensor arranged so that the
rays from the light source do not normally fall onto the photosensitive sensor. When smoke
particles enter the light path, some of the light is scattered by reflection and refraction onto the
sensor. The light signal is processed and used to convey an alarm condition when it meets
preset criteria.

Video Image Smoke Detection (VISD)

The principle of using automatic analysis of real-time video images to detect the
presence of smoke.

Figure 4.4: Video image smoke detection (VISD)

This is the apperance of VIDS and video`s statuation has been taken, sometime they have the shape like
camera put on the route.

32
 Location of installation ( (CFAA, 2010)

The Building Code contains requirements for the installation of smoke detectors. It
states that where a fire alarm system is required, smoke detectors must be installed:

 in each sleeping room and each corridor serving as part of a means of egress from
sleeping rooms in portions of a building classified as Group B major occupancy,
 in each room in a contained use area and corridors serving those rooms,
 in each corridor in portions of a building classified as Group A, Division 1 major
occupancy,
 in each public corridor in portions of a building classified as Group C major occupancy,
 in each exit stair shaft, and
 In the vicinity of draft stops in certain situations.

Some jurisdictions require that smoke detectors be installed in each corridor serving
classrooms in elementary and secondary schools.

33
5. METHODOLOGY

5.1. Leakage Area of the path

Parallel leakage paths

The effective leakage area of the four parallel paths in Figure 5.1 is the sum of the
leakage areas concerned.

AE = A1 + A2 + A3 + ⋯ + An Eq. 1
Where

AE = is the total effective leakage area, [m2];

A1… An = are the leakage areas of the each parallel paths, [m2].

m1 m2 m3

A1 A2 A3

Pressurization space

Figure 5.1 Parallel path

Series leakage paths

The effective leakage area of the four series paths in Figure 5.2Error! Reference
source not found. is:

1
1 1 1 1 −
2
A E = [A 2 + A 2 + A 2 + ⋯ + A 2 ] Eq. 2
1 2 3 n

Where:

AE= is the total effective leakage area, [m2];

A1… An = are the leakage areas of the each parallel paths, [m2].

34
 m3
A3

m2
A2
Pressurization
A1 space
m1

Figure 5.2 Seri path

5.2. Pressure loss in shaft

Many equations have been used to express the relation between fluid flow and pressure
difference. The characteristics of this flow depend on the geometry of the flow path and the
Reynolds number, which is the ratio of kinetic forces to viscous forces.

The Reynolds number is

𝐷ℎ 𝑉
𝑅𝑒 = Eq. 3
𝑣

Re Reynolds number, dimensionless,

Dh hydraulic diameter of flow path, [mm]

V average velocity in flow path, [m/s]

v kinematic viscosity. [m2/s]

For standard air and temperature between 4 and 38oC, 𝑅𝑒 can be calculated by

𝑅𝑒 = 66.4𝐷ℎ𝑉 Eq. 4

Hydraulic diameter

35
 4𝐴
𝐷ℎ = Eq. 5
𝑃

Where:

𝐴 is duct area [mm²]

𝑃 is perimeter of cross section, [mm]

The pressure losses due to friction in duct and stair shaft is represented by the Darcy-
Weisbach equation:

𝐿 𝜌𝑉 2
∆𝑃𝑓 = 1000𝑓 𝐷 Eq. 6
ℎ 2

Where:

∆𝑝𝑓 is friction losses in terms of total pressure [Pa],

𝑓 is friction factor dimensionless,

𝐿 is duct length [m],

𝐷ℎ is hydraulic diameter [mm] See ((Eq. 3.6.),

𝑉 is velocity [m/s]

Friction factor

1 𝜀 2.51
= −2 log10 (3.7𝐷 + ) Eq. 7
√𝑓 ℎ 𝑅𝑒 √𝑓

Or

1
𝑓= 𝐷 2 Eq. 8
[1.14+2 log10 ( ℎ )]
𝜀

Where

↋ is material absolute roughness factor [mm] (see in Table 5-1),and

𝑅𝑒 is Reynolds number. Within the region of turbulent flow

36
 Table 5-1: Duct roughness factors (ASHRAE, Odor, 1997)

Absolute
Duct Material RoughnessCategory
Roughness ↋, [mm]

Uncoated carbon steel, clean

Smooth 0.03
(Moody 1944) (0.05 mm)

PVC plastic pipe (Swim 1982)

(0.01 to 0.05 mm)

Aluminum (Hutchinson 1953)

(0.04 to 0.06 mm)

Galvanized steel, longitudinal seams

1200 mm joints (Griggs et al. 1987) Medium 0.09
(0.05 to 0.10 mm)
Galvanized steel, continuously rolled,
spiral seams, 3000 mm joints (Jones 1979)
(0.06 to 0.12 mm)
Galvanized steel, longitudinal seams,
Average 0.15
760 mm joints (Wright 1945) (0.15 mm)

Fibrous glass duct, rigid Medium 0.9

Fibrous glass duct liner, air side with

rough
facing material (Swim 1978) (1.5 mm)

Fibrous glass duct liner, air side spray

Rough 3
coated (Swim 1978) (4.5 mm)

Flexible duct, metallic

(1.2 to 2.1 mm when fully extended)
Flexible duct, all types of fabric and wire
(1.0 to 4.6 mm when fully extended)
Concrete (Moody 1944) (1.3 to 3.0 mm)

37
5.3. Manual calculation

5.3.1. Bidirectional flow

Bidirectional flow happens through an opening or openings between two spaces that
are at different temperatures. These spaces can be two rooms, a fire compartment and the
surroundings, and a stairwell or other shaft and the outdoors.

Pressure difference

gPatm 1 1
Pressure difference related to bidirectional flow is ∆P12 = (T − T ) 𝑧 ,
R 2 1

1 1
And at standard atmospheric pressure this is ∆P12 = 3460z (T − T )
2 1
Eq. 9
Where
∆P12 = Pressure difference from space 1 to space 2, [Pa]
g = acceleration due to gravity, [m/s2]
Patm = absolute atmospheric pressure, [Pa]
R = gas constant of air, [287j/kgK]
T1 = absolute temperature of space 1; [K]
T2 = absolute temperature of space 2; [K]
Z = distant above the neutral plane, [m]
Location of neutral plane

The height of the neutral plane Hn depends on number of factors including flow paths
to other space and the presence of force air or exhaust. For more detail see in [Handbook for
Smoke Control Engineering, p112-p113]

For continuous opening

H
Hn = 1 Eq. 10
T
1+( 1 )3
T2

Where
Hn = height of the neutral plane, [m]
H = height of the opening, [m]
T1 = absolute temperature of space 1; [K]
T2 = absolute temperature of space 2; [K]

38
 ? P12

Space 1, T1 Space 2, T2

Neutral Plane

H
Hn

Note: T1>T2

Figure 5.3: Continuous opening path

For two opening

H
Hn = T A 2 Eq. 11
1+( 1 )( b )
T2 Aa

Where

Hn = distance from the bottom opening to the neutral plane, [m]

H = distance between the two opening, [m]

Aa = area above neutral plane; [K]

Ab = area below neutral plane; [K]

? P12

Space 1, T1 Space 2, T2

Neutral Plane

Hn
Hn

Note: T1>T2

Figure 5.4: Two opening path

39
5.3.2. Design pressure difference

Pressurization smoke control system are designed to operate within a pressure

difference range. This range is between the minimum and maximum design pressure
difference.

When smoke control system are tested, temperature between are the same for both sides
of zones, and the pressure difference across the boundary is the same over the height of
boundary. When one side of boundary is subjected to hot fire gas, the temperature of the smoke
has an impact on pressure difference across the boundary.

5.3.2.1. Minimum Pressure Difference

The minimum pressure difference must designed bigger than pressure difference related
to bidirectional flow, so mean that it must bigger than pressure difference between stairwell
and fully developed fire flow.

1 1
∆Pmin = ∆PSF + 3460z (T − T ) Eq. 12
0 F

Where:
∆Pmin = minimum design pressure difference, [Pa],

∆PSF = pressure difference safety factor, [Pa],

z = distance above neutral plane, [m],

To = absolute temperature of surroundings, [K],

TF = absolute temperature of hot gases, [K].

For a sprinklered fire, temperature of hot gases TF is a weighted average value of the
smoke layer temperature and the lower layer temperature.

TS d+To (H−d)
TF = Eq. 13
H

Where

TF = weighted average temperature of hot gases, [C],

TS = temperature of the smoke layer, [C],

T0 = temperature of surroundings, [C],

40
 d = depth of the smoke layer, [m],

H = floor to height. [m].

5.3.2.2. Maximum Pressure Difference Design

For pressurized stair case we use pressure difference for protect human during leaving
by escape. Reality between corridor and escape have a door connect with door closer, so
pressure differential selection is every important. If we choose lower can`t protect smoke but
if choose bigger make us difficult for open the door so we need to think about:

∑ M/O = 0

w w
(w − d)F + P1A = P2A + (w − d)Fcd
2 2

w w
P2 A − 2 P1 A + (w − d)Fcd
F= 2
w−d

wA∆P
F = Fcd + 2(w−d) Eq. 14

F−Fcd
∆P = 2 (w − d) Eq. 15
wA

5.3.2.3. Pressure difference at elevation

Pressure difference at elevation y from the stair to the building

𝑦𝐹
∆𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑦 = ∆𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑏 + | 𝐹 𝑇 | Eq. 16
𝑅

Where
∆PSBy = Pressure difference from the stairwell to the building at y, [Pa]
∆PSBb = Pressure difference from the stairwell to the building at bottom, [Pa]
y = elevation above bottom of stair, [m]
FT = Temperature factor, [Pa/m]
FR = Flow area factor, dimensionless
The top pressure difference, ∆PSBt, from the stairwell to the building is

𝐻𝐹
∆𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑡 = ∆𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑏 + | 𝐹 𝑇 | Eq. 17
𝑅

41
 H = stairwell height. [m]

The stairwell height H, is distance from the bottom to the top of the stairwell. The
temperature factor is

𝑔𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 1 1
𝐹𝑇 = (𝑇 − 𝑇 ) Eq. 18
𝑅 𝑂 𝑆

Where

g = acceleration of gravity, [m/s2]

Patm = atmospheric pressure, [Pa]
R = gas constant, [287J/kg.K]
TO = absolute temperature outside, [K]
TS = absolute temperature in stairwell. [K]

For sea level:

1 1
FT = 3200 (T − T ) Eq. 19
O S

The flow area factor is

2
A T
FR = 1 + ASB 2 TB Eq. 20
BO S

ASB = flow area between the stairwell and building, [m2]

ABO = flow area per stairwell between the building and the outside, [m2]
TO = absolute temperature outside, [K]
TS = absolute temperature in stairwell. [K]

The pressure difference from stairwell to outside at bottom of the stair is

∆𝑃𝑆𝑂𝑏 = 𝐹𝑅 ∆𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑏 Eq. 21
Where:
PSOb = pressure difference from the stairwell to the outside at stair bottom, [Pa]
PSBb = pressure difference from the stairwell to the building at stair bottom, [Pa]
FR = Flow area factor, dimensionless

The pressure difference from stairwell to outside at stair bottom of the stair is

42
 ∆𝑃𝑆𝑂𝑡 = 𝐹𝑅 ∆𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑡 Eq. 22
Where
PSOt = pressure difference from the stairwell to the outside at stair top, [Pa]

PSBt = pressure difference from the stairwell to the building at stair top, [Pa]

FR = Flow area factor, dimensionless

5.3.2.4. Average Pressure Differences

The average pressure difference is defined as the pressure difference that will result in
the same total flow as the pressure profile that varies with elevation. The average pressure
difference from a stairwell to the building is:

2
4 ∆𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑡 3/2 −∆𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑏 3/2
∆𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑎𝑣 = 9 ( ) Eq. 23
∆𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑡 −∆𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑏

Where:

PSBav = average pressure difference from stairwell to building, [Pa]

PSBb = bottom pressure difference from stairwell to building, [Pa]

PSBt = top pressure difference from stairwell to building. [Pa]

The average pressure difference from a stairwell to the outside is

2
4 ∆𝑃𝑆𝑂𝑡 3/2 −∆𝑃𝑆𝑂𝑏 3/2
∆𝑃𝑆𝑂𝑎𝑣 = 9 ( ) , Eq. 24
∆𝑃𝑆𝑂𝑡 −∆𝑃𝑆𝑂𝑏

Where:
∆PSOav = average pressure difference from stairwell to outside, [Pa]
PSOb = bottom pressure difference from stairwell to outside, [Pa]
PSOt = top pressure difference from stairwell to outside. [Pa]

For most calculations, average pressure can be approximated as

∆𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑏 +∆𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑡
∆𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑎𝑣 = Eq. 25
2

And
∆𝑃𝑆𝑂𝑏 +∆𝑃𝑆𝑂𝑡
∆𝑃𝑆𝑂𝑎𝑣 = Eq. 26
2

43
 The error of average pressure equation is ( PSBav,Ap - PSBav,Ex)/ PSBav,Ex is relatively
small (less than 3%),where the subscripts AP and EX are for approximate and exact.

5.3.3. Flow calculation

5.3.3.1. Flow equation

Orifice Flow Equation

The primary equation used for analysis of pressurization smoke control systems
is the orifice equation. The air quantity leakage for stairwell to outside determined by

m=CA√2ρ∆P Eq. 27

2∆P
V=CA√ Eq. 28
ρ

Where

m = mass flow through the path, [kg/s],

V = volumetric flow through the path, [m3/s]

C = flow coefficient, dimensionless, [C=0.65]

A = flow area (or leakage area), [m2],

∆P = pressure difference across path, [Pa],

ρ = density gas in path, kg/m3.

Exponential Flow

The exponential flow equation is

V = Ce (∆P)n Eq. 29
Where:

V = volumetric flow, [m3/s]

Ce = flow coefficient for exponential flow equation, [m3/s.Pan]

∆P = pressure difference across the path, [Pa]

44
 n = flow exponent, dimensionless.

This equation can be used to simulate flows in the entire range from viscous-
dominated to kinetic-dominated. For viscous-dominated forces, the flow exponent is 1. For
kinetic-dominated flows, the flow exponent is 1/2, which is the same as the orifice equation.
V = Ce (∆P)n Eq. 29 has proven useful for evaluation of flows
through small cracks in buildings at low levels of pressure difference. However, this equation
is not directly related to the geometry of the flow path. The exponents for leakage areas (cracks)
in exterior walls are sometimes considered to be about 0.6 or 0.65.

Gap Method

Gross and Haberman (1988) developed the gap method of determining the airflow
through slots of different geometry such as those of door assemblies. They correlated
considerable experimental data over a wide range of Reynolds numbers. The gap method is
cumbersome for design calculations, but it is useful for calculating flow values that can be used
in other flow equations, and this was done for the door leakage tables discussed later in this
chapter. For projects where the published flow areas and flow coefficients are inappropriate,
the gap method may be helpful in calculating values that can be used in either the orifice
equation or the exponential equation.

There is a relationship between the dimensionless variables NQ and NP.

𝑎
𝑁𝑄 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑥 Eq. 30

And

∆𝑃𝐷ℎ 2 𝐷ℎ 2
𝑁𝑃 = (𝑥) Eq. 31
𝜌𝑣 2

Where:

NQ = dimensionless flow,

NP = dimensionless pressure difference,

Re = Reynolds number, dimensionless,

a = thickness of gap in direction perpendicular to flow, [m]

x = depth of gap in flow direction, [m]

45
 ∆P = pressure difference across gap, [Pa]

Dh = hydraulic diameter, Dh =2a. [m]

ρ = density of gas in gap, [kg/m3]

ν = kinematic viscosity. [m2/s]

After some entrance length in a slot, the flow becomes fully developed. The gap
method accounts for the developing flow in this entrance length. For a straight-through gap,
the relationship for flow versus pressure difference. The regions of flow for a straight-through
slot are:

Region A (Viscous dominated region: for NP ≤ 250):

𝑁𝑄 = 0.0104𝑁𝑃 Eq. 32

Region B (Transition region: for 250 < NP <106):

𝑁𝑄 = 0.016984𝑁𝑃𝛼 Eq. 33
Where α = 1.01746 – 0.044181 Log10(NP)

Region C (Kinetic dominated region: for NP ≥ 106):

The equation for region B was developed by Forney (1989) as a modification of the
original gap method. Forney’s equation is particularly attractive for computer applications,
because it is continuous with the expressions for the other two regions.

The volumetric flow V through a straight-through slot is:

𝑥𝑣𝐿𝑁𝑄
𝑉= Eq. 34
2𝑎

Where L is the length of gap

5.3.3.2. Equation using

Use in Orifice Equation

Orifice equation calculations for a specific slot can be based on the gap method. The
first approach bases the orifice equation on one pressure difference. This approach consists of
the following steps:

46
 1. Selecting a pressure difference,
2. Calculating the flow through the slot at the selected pressure difference using equations
of the gap method,
3. Calculating either the flow area or the flow coefficient from the orifice equation.

Use in Exponential Equation

Exponential flow calculations for a slot also can be based on the gap method, using the
following steps:

1. Selecting two pressure differences,

2. Calculating the two flows through the slot at the selected pressure differences,
3. Calculating the flow coefficient and flow exponent for exponential flow equation from
the following equations

𝑉
log𝑒 1
𝑉2
𝑛= ∆𝑃1 Eq. 35
log𝑒
∆𝑃2

And

𝑉
𝐶𝑒 = (∆𝑃1 )2 Eq. 36
1

Where:

Ce = flow coefficient for exponential flow equation, [m3/s.Pa]

n = flow exponent, dimensionless,

V1 = volumetric flow, [m3/s]

V2 = volumetric flow, [m3/s]

∆P1 = pressure difference across the path at V1, [Pa]

∆P2 = pressure difference across the path at V2. [Pa]

5.3.3.3. Staircase supply air

The flow of supply air to the stairwell equals the sum of the flow from the stairwell.
Part of the flow from the stairwell goes to the building, and the rest goes directly outdoors. The
following mass flow equations include flow through uniform paths that are the same over the
height of the stairs. The flow rate of supply air to the stairwell can be expressed as:

47
 mT = mSB + mSOu + ∑N
i=1 mSOi Eq. 37
Where:

mT = mass flow of supply air to stair well,

mSB = mass flow from stairwell to building,

mSOu = mass through uniform path from stairwell to outside,

mSOi = mass through specific path i at location yi from stairwell to outside,

N = number of specific paths, dimensional

Note: For calculation mSB, mSOu, mSOi, using orifice flow equation.

𝑚𝑆𝐵 = 𝐶𝐴𝑆𝐵 √2𝜌𝑆 ∆𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑎𝑣 Eq.

38

𝑚𝑆𝑂𝑢 = 𝐶𝐴𝑆𝑂𝑢 √2𝜌𝑆 ∆𝑃𝑆𝑂𝑎𝑣 Eq.

39

𝑚𝑆𝑂𝑖 = 𝐶𝐴𝑆𝑂𝑖 √2𝜌𝑆 ∆𝑃𝑆𝑂𝑖 Eq.

40
Volumetric flow of supply air to stairwell:

mT
VT = Eq. 41
ρS

Where:

VT = volumetric flow of supply air to stairwell,

ρS = density of the air in stairwell

5.3.4. Height limit

For some tall stairwells, acceptable pressurization may not be possible because of the
impact of the indoor to outdoor temperature differences. This is more likely with systems with
treated supply air than those with untreated supply air.

The height limit is the height above which acceptable pressurization is not possible for
an idealized building. The height limit is

48
 𝑅𝐹𝑅 (∆𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 − ∆𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
𝐻𝑚 =
1 1
𝑔𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 [𝑇 − 𝑇 ]
0 𝑆

Where

Hm = height limit, [m],

ΔPmax = maximum design pressure difference, [Pa],

ΔPmin = minimum design pressure difference, [Pa],

T0 = absolute temperature of outside, [K],

TS = absolute temperature of stair, [K].

For standard atmospheric pressure at sea level:

FR (∆Pmax −∆Pmin )
𝐻𝑚 = 2.89 × 10−4 1 1
Eq. 42
[ − ]
T0 TS

5.4. Calculation by British Standard- BS 5588

Design pressurization based on the British Standard- BS 5588 part 4:1998 should to follow
below steps:

 Select class of building

 Assess the leakage paths (through doors, lifts, vents)
 Calculate the required volume flow rates
 Determine area of pressure relief
 Determine area of exhaust vent from fire floor or area of air/smoke relief.

5.4.1. Select class of building

Class selection follow Table 3-1Error! Reference source not found., for get some
nformation of building such as: high limit of building, Design pressure differences (maximum
and minimum pressure), Air velocity when open the door.

5.4.2. Flow to select fan

The design of a smoke control system using pressure differentials involves balancing
the airflows into and out of the building and analyzing the pressure differentials across smoke

49
barriers. It is important that all the relevant airflow paths should be identified and their effective
flow areas evaluated. Typical leakage paths that can exist in a building are open doors, gaps
around closed doors, lift doors, windows, etc. Attention should also be given to the inherent
leakage due to construction cracks etc. that exist in walls, floors and partitions. Both the type
of construction material and the quality of workmanship can significantly affect the leakage
area.

The air supply required for a pressure differential system should be determined by the
air leakage areas. The air supply requirements should be considered for two situations: all doors
closed and doors open, appropriate to the class of system.

When air flows through an opening, the flow can be expressed in terms of the area of
the restriction and the pressure differential across the opening by the following equation:

1
𝑄 = 0.83 × 𝐴𝐸 × ∆𝑃𝑁 Eq. 43
Where

Q is the airflow, [m3/s]

AE is the total effective area of the leakage paths out of the space, [m2]
P is the pressurization level in the pressurized space, [Pa]
N is an index that can vary between 1 and 2, depending on the type of leakage path being
considered.
Note: For wide cracks such as those around doors and large openings, the value of N
may be taken to be 2 but for narrow leakage paths formed by cracks around windows a more
appropriate value of N is 1.6.

Leakage from the pressurized space can occur via a number of identifiable paths:

 gaps around closed doors;

 cracks around windows;
 gaps in lift landing doors;
 mechanical extraction from adjoining spaces;
 Other leakage paths.

The rate of air leakage is primarily a function of the effective area of the leakage path
and the pressure differential required across it.

50
 In calculating the air supply two major assumptions have to be made. These are:

1) that the leakage paths identified and the areas used in the calculations will apply to the
building when it is completed;
2) that there are no unidentified leakage paths out of the pressurized space.

The air supply required is determined by summing the individual leakage rates via the
routes listed in items a) to e) above and making an allowance for uncertainties in the values of
the leakage areas that have been assumed. Based upon experience it is recommended that the
total air supply rate should be determined by adding at least 50 % to the calculated leakage
rate, i.e.

QS = 1.5 × QL ,

Where

QS is the total air supply rate required,

QL is the total identified leakage rate from the pressurized space

Total leakage flow rate is estimated using the following:

𝑄𝐿 = 𝑄𝐷 + 𝑄𝑤 + 𝑄𝐿𝐷 + 𝑄𝑇 + 𝑄𝑂 Eq. 44
Where:

QD is the air leakage rate via gaps around closed doors, [m3/s]

QW is the air leakage rate via cracks around windows, [m3/s]

QLD is the air leakage rate via lift landing doors, [m3/s]

QT is the air leakage rate via mechanical extraction from toilet or other areas, [m3/s]

QO is the air leakage rate via other paths that may exist. [m3/s]

Estimation of leakage via doors and large openings

The total air leakage rate via doors and large openings should be calculated using the
following equation:

1
𝑄𝐷 = 0.83 × 𝐴𝐷 × ∆𝑃2 Eq. 45

51
 Where:

QD is air leakage rate via gaps around closed doors or large openings, [m3/s]

AD is the total effective leakage area of all doors out of the space, [m2]

∆P is the pressurization level in the pressurized space. [Pa]

Estimation of leakage via windows

The total air leakage via cracks around windows should be estimated using the
following equation:

1
QW = 0.83 × AW × ∆P 1.6 Eq. 46
Where:

QW is the air leakage rate via cracks around windows, [m3/s]

AW is the total effective leakage area of all windows out of the space, [m2]

∆P is the pressurization level in the pressurized space. [Pa]

Estimation of leakage via lift landing doors

Where the lift well is independently pressurized in accordance with the

recommendations of this standard, then it may be assumed that leakage via this route is
negligible.

Where the lift well is not pressurized but is connected to a pressurized lobby or other space
then the overall flow depends upon the following leakage paths:

a) between the lobbies and the lift well on all floors; and
b) between the lift well and the outside air.

The following equation may be used to estimate the total air leakage in these
circumstances.

1
1 1
QLD = 0.83 × ( 2 + 2 ) × ∆P𝐿
2 Eq. 47
𝐴𝑡 𝐴𝐹

Where

QLD is the air leakage rate via lift landing doors, [m3/s]

52
 At is the total leakage area between all lobbies and the lift well, [m2]

AF is the total leakage area between the lift well and the outside, [m2]

∆PL is the pressure differential between the lift and lobby or other space and outside.

Generally,

At = n × Ad Eq. 48
Where:

N is the number of pressurized lobbies opening into the lift well;

Ad is the leakage area of one lift door. [m2]

The above calculation relates to one lift and it is assumed that the lift well is protected.
A separate calculation should be made for each lift. Where there are two or more lifts in a
common well it is sufficient for the purposes of calculation to treat each lift as being in its own
single well, in which case the value of AF used should be that relating to each separate lift
(usually AF for the large common well divided by the number of lifts in that well).

Estimation of leakage via other areas containing mechanical extraction systems

When toilets or other areas that are directly connected to the pressurized space have
mechanical extract systems, the leakage rate into them may be estimated as follows:

a) the extract rate when the extract fan is running, [m3/s]

b) when the extract fan is off, the following value:

𝑄𝑇 = 𝑄𝐵 × 𝐾 Eq. 49
Where:

QT is the leakage into the toilet (or other) space, [m3/s]

QB is the door leakage rate at the design pressurization, [m3/s]

K is a factor derived from

Table 5-2

53
 Table 5-2: Values of K
AX/AG K

4 or more 1

2 0.9

1 0.7

0.5 0.45

0.25 or less 0.25

Note AX is the minimum cross-sectional area of extract branch ductwork (this may be a
ductwork cross-section or the balancing device at the orifice or damper, [m2].

AG is the door leakage area including the area of any airflow grills or large gaps for
air transfer. [m2]

Estimation of leakage via other paths

Other combinations of series and parallel leakage paths may occur in other situations
and the above methods (suitably adapted to take account of the particular circumstances) may
be used.

5.4.3. Air release area

The sizing of air release equipment is based on the net volume of pressurizing air
flowing into the fire floor. The appropriate airflow value for the open-door condition, in the
following calculations this value is referred to as QN.

Ari/Smoke release on fire floor

Direct NATURAL venting is used the area of the vent or opening is given by:

𝑄
𝐴𝑉 = 2.5𝑁 Eq. 50

Where

AV is the vent area per floor, [m2]

54
 QN is the air needed to be released or volume of airflow through open fire floor
door. [m3/s]

POWERED venting is used the exhaust fan must estimate by:

𝑄𝑁
𝐴𝑉 = Eq. 51
2

Where:

AV is the net vent area per floor and should be at least maintained throughout the route to
the outside of the building, i.e. from the accommodation into the shaft, the shaft cross-
sectional area and the top vent area (shaft to atmosphere)
QN is the air needed to be released or volume of airflow through open fire floor door

In addition, exhaust fans both run and standby are required to survive the following
TEMPERATURE/TIME specification.

SPRINKLERED BUILDING - 300°C for 2 hours

UN-SPRINKLERED BUILDING - 600°C for 2 hours

Area of release damper

Where the air supply needed to provide the required airflow through the open door into
the fire room is greater than the air supply to the stair or lobby needed to satisfy the pressure
differential requirement, then an excess pressure will be developed in the stair (or lobby) when
the fire door is closed.

In this case a pressure operated relief vent, area AX, should be provided out of the
pressurized space since a maximum pressure of 60 Pa is recommended to ensure that the
specified door opening force of 100 N is not exceeded. Then:

𝑄𝐹 −𝑄𝑃
𝐴𝑋 = 1 Eq. 52
0.83∆𝑃 2

Where:

Ax is the area of the pressure operated relief vent, [m2]

QF is the air supply needed to provide the required airflow through the open door into the
fire room, [m3/s]

55
QP is the air supply to the stair or lobby needed to satisfy the pressure differential
requirement. [m3/s]

5.5. Exhaust ventilation

Plumes above large fires are those where:

Y ≤ 10 x (Af)0.5

The entrainment of air into the plume (that is the amount of air mixing into the fire
gases as they rise) is large. For all practical purposes the mass of the actual products of
combustion can be ignored, and the smoky gases can be treated for calculation purposes as
contaminated hot air. The rate of air entrainment into a plume of smoke rising above a fire (Mf),
expressed in kilograms per second (kg/s), can be obtained by:

Mf = CePY3/2 Eq. 53
Where:

Ce is equal to 0.19 for large-space rooms such as auditoria, stadia, large open-plan
offices, atrium floors, etc., where the ceiling is well above the fire;

Ce is equal to 0.337 for small-space rooms such as unit shops, cellular offices, hotel
bedrooms, etc., with ventilation openings predominantly to one side of the fire, e.g. from an
office window in one wall only.

Plumes above large fires – temperature control designs

In temperature control designs the temperature of the smoke reservoir gases above
ambient temperature (𝜃) is specified. The convective heat flux in the smoky gases entering the
buoyant smoke layer is also known. The mass flow rate entering the buoyant layer is calculated
using the following equation

𝑄
𝑀𝑓 = 𝐶 𝑓𝜃 Eq. 54
𝑝

Where

Qf The convective heat flux, [kW]

CP Specific heat, [1kJ/kgK]

56
 Recommendations

(BRITISH STANDARD, 2003)The following recommendations should be taken into

account in the design.

a) The designer should identify circumstances where the lowest part of the fire could
be higher than the floor.

b) No SHEVS should be designed with a height from floor to base of smoke layer less
than one tenth of the height from floor to ceiling.

c) No SHEVS should be designed with a height from the base of fire (usually the floor)
to the base of the smoke layer of more than nine tenths of the height from the base of fire to the
ceiling.

d) The convective heat flux (Qf) carried by the smoky gases entering the smoke
reservoir should be taken to be 0.8 times the heat release rate (qf.Af) identified for the design
fire, unless the designer provides evidence to support the use of a different value.

e) For life safety designs where a clear height is recommended between escape routes
and the smoke layer’s base, the minimum values for this clear height (Y) should be as set out
in Figure 5.5 .

f) Where the predicted layer temperature is less than 50 °C above ambient temperature,
0.5 m should be added to each minimum value of Y listed in Figure 5.5

g) Where it is not possible to achieve the minimum clear height (Y) recommended in
Table 2 but it is still necessary to provide clear air above escape routes, e.g. for upgrades or
refurbishments where safety is to be improved, each case should be considered individually
and this should be agreed with the relevant authorities.

Figure 5.5 Minimum clear height above escape route

57
 Figure 5.6 Default values of design fires

5.6. Pressure required

Pressure required for fan selection should bigger than the sum of maximum pressure
difference design and pressure loss of the system.

𝑃 = ∆𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠,𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 Eq. 55

58
 6. CALCULATION

6.1. BUILDING DATA

SOTHEAROS APPAERTERMENT is a commercial building type has 55 floor (Ground

floor -52th floor and basement 2 floor), have 2 zone (A and B) pressurization for stair case and
left lobby

a) Manual method
Temperature design
0
Temperature outside 30 C 303K
0
Stair temperature 25 C 298K
Fully developed fire 927 0C 1200K
Average height per floor 3.5 m
Take maximum pressure design 60Pa
Door opening force 100 N
Total area of stairwell to outside
Total area of building wall
b) BS Standard BS 5588
Design condition for class C system
Maximum pressure difference 50 Pa
Minimum pressure difference 10 Pa
Velocity through the open door 1 m/s
Pressurization supply on stairwell, left and lobby are dependently
Leakage via window is zero, QW = 0 m3/s
Leakage between left and lobby is zero, QLD = 0 m3/s
QT = 0, and QO = 0
i.e: QL = QD

6.2. MANUAL CALCULATION

6.2.1. Area of leakage

Leakage area from stairwell to building, ASB

Total area from stair to building 2175 m2

Area ratio, average 3.5x10-4 m2/m2

59
Single door 55 psc

Leakage by gap of single door 0.01 m2/psc

So, ASB = 2175x3.5x10-4 + 55x0.01 = 1.31m2

Leakage area from building to outside, ABO

Total area from building to outside 36902 m2

Area ratio, lose 3.5x10-4 m2/m2

So, ABO = 23850x3.5x10-4 = 12.92 m2

There are two stairwell, ABO = 12.91÷2 = 6.46 m2

Leakage area of uniform path from stair to outside, ASOu

Total area from stair to outside 2017 m2

Area ratio, lose 3.5x10-4 m2/m2

So, ASOu = 2017x3.5x10-4 = 0.70 m2

Leakage area from stair to outside at top, ASO1

Total area from stair to outside 40 m2

Area ratio, lose 3.5x10-4 m2/m2

So, ASO1 = 40x3.5x10-4 = 0.014m2

Leakage area from stair to outside at bottom, ASO2

Total area from stair to outside 40 m2

Area ratio, lose 3.5x10-4 m2/m2

Double door 1 psc

Leakage by gap of single door 0.03 m2/psc

So, ASO2 = 40x3.5x10-4 + 0.03 = 0.044m2

60
6.2.2. Pressure difference

Design pressure difference

 Minimum design pressure difference

H
Location of neutral plane: Hn = 1
T
1+( 1 )3
T2

3
Hn = 1 = 1.58m
1200 3
1+( )
298

z= 3-1.58 = 1.48 = 1.5m

1 1
∆Pmin = ∆PSF + 3460z ( − ) ; according NFPA92 ∆PSF = 7.5 Pa
T0 TF

1 1
∆Pmin = 7.5 + 3460x1.5 (303 − 1200) = 20.3 Pa

 Maximum design pressure difference

∆Pmax = 60 Pa

Pressure difference at elevation

We have: TO = 303K, TS = TB = 298K, ASB = 1.31m2, ABO = 6.46 m2

ASOu = 0.70m2 ASO1=ASob=0.014m2, ASO2=ASot=0.044m2

Let: ∆PSBb = ∆Pmin = 20.3 Pa

𝑔𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 1 1
Temperature factor 𝐹𝑇 = (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
𝑅 𝑂 𝑆

1 1
𝐹𝑇 = 3200 (𝑇 − 𝑇 ), for sea level
𝑂 𝑆

1 1
FT = 3200 (303 − 298) = −0.177 Pa/m

2
A T
Flow area factor, dimensional FR = 1 + ASB 2 TB
BO S

1.312
FR = 1 + 6.462 = 1.041

61
 Pressure difference from staircase to building at top,

𝐻𝐹
∆𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑡 = ∆𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑏 + | 𝐹 𝑇 |
𝑅

53×3.5×(−0.177)
∆PSBt = 20.3 + | | = 51.8 = 52 Pa
1.041

The pressure difference from stairwell to outside at bottom of the stair is

∆PSOb = FR ∆PSBb
∆PSOb = 1.041 × 20.3 = 21.2 Pa
The pressure difference from stairwell to outside at stair bottom of the stair is

∆PSOt = FR ∆PSBt = 1.041 × 51.8 = 53.9 = 54Pa

Average pressure difference
Average pressure difference from staircase to building:

2
4 ∆PSBt 3/2 −∆PSBb 3/2
∆PSBav = 9 ( )
∆PSBt −∆PSBb

2
4 51.83/2 −20.33/2
∆PSBav = 9 ( ) = 35.5 Pa
51.8−20.3

The average pressure difference from a stairwell to the outside is

2
4 ∆PSOt 3/2 −∆PSOb 3/2
∆PSOav = 9 ( )
∆PSOt −∆PSOb

2
4 53.93/2 −21.23/2
∆PSOav = 9 ( ) = 37 Pa
53.9−21.2

6.2.3. Staircase supply air flow

Case1: All door are closed:

𝑚1 = 𝑚𝑆𝐵 + 𝑚𝑆𝑂𝑢 + ∑ 𝑚𝑆𝑂𝑖

𝑖=1

Mass flow from stairwell to building,

𝑚𝑆𝐵 = 𝐶𝐴𝑆𝐵 √2𝜌𝑆 ∆𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑎𝑣

mSB = 0.65 × 1.31√2 × 1.2 × 35.5 = 7.837 kg/s

62
 Mass through uniform path from stairwell to outside,

𝑚𝑆𝑂𝑢 = 𝐶𝐴𝑆𝑂𝑢 √2𝜌𝑆 ∆𝑃𝑆𝑂𝑎𝑣

mSOu = 0.65 × 0.7√2 × 1.2 × 37 = 4.287 kg/s

Mass through the bottom path from stairwell to outside,

𝑚𝑆𝑂1 = 𝐶𝐴𝑆𝑂𝑏 √2𝜌𝑆 ∆𝑃𝑆𝑂𝑏

𝑚𝑆𝑂1 = 0.65 × 0.044√2 × 1.2 × 21.2 = 0.204 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

Mass through the top path from stairwell to outside,

𝑚𝑆𝑂2 = 𝐶𝐴𝑆𝑂𝑡 √2𝜌𝑆 ∆𝑃𝑆𝑂𝑡

mSO2 = 0.65 × 0.014√2 × 1.2 × 53.9 = 0.103 kg/s

Mass of supply air: m1 = 7.837+4.87+0.204+0.103 = 13.014 kg/s

So the air flow for supply to staircase is:

mT 13.014
V1 = = = 10.845 m3 /s
ρS 1.2

Case 2: A single door at fire floor is opened

Door size 2.1x0.9 m

Area open door, A 1.89 m2

Let velocity through the open door is, v = 1 m/s

The air flow through the open door is estimate by V2 = v x A = 1.89 x 1 =1.89 m3/s

Total supply air flow is, VT = V1 + V2 = 10.845 + 1.89 = 12.735 m3/s

6.2.4. Height limit

𝑅𝐹𝑅 (∆𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 −∆𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 )

𝐻𝑚 = 1 1
𝑔𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 [ − ]
𝑇0 𝑇𝑆

63
 𝐹𝑅 (∆Pmax − ∆Pmin ) (−1.041) × (60 − 20.3)
Hm = 2.89 × 10−4 = 2.89 × 10−4 × = 215m
1 1 1 1
[T − T ] [303 − 298]
0 S

We get: Supply air flow VT = 12.735m3/s

Calculation at below, we using leakage factor with loose level. Using the same form
calculation like below but using leakage factor with average level.

We get: Supply air flow VT = 9.02 m3/s

Height limited is Hm = 248m

6.3. STANDARD BS 5588 CALCUATION

6.3.1. Flow calculation

Calculate supply flow rate: 𝑄𝐿 = 𝑄𝐷 + 𝑄𝑤 + 𝑄𝐿𝐷 + 𝑄𝑇 + 𝑄𝑂

QL = QD

 Case1: all door are closed

Single door size 2.1x0.9 m

Double door size 2.1x1.8 m

Number of single door 55 pcs

Number of double door 01 pcs

Based on BS 5588, Table D.1

Leakage area of single door 0.01 m2/pcs

Leakage area of double door 0.03 m2/pcs

Total leakage area, AE = 55x0.01+0.03 = 0.58 m2

1
Air flow, 𝑄 = 0.83 × 𝐴𝐸 × ∆𝑃2

1
𝑄 = 0.83 × 0.58 × 502 = 3.40 m3/s

Increase 50%, Q1 = 5.1 m3/s

64
  Case2: Exit door is open, all the are closed

Door size 2.1x1.8 m

Area open door, A 3.78 m2

Based on BS 5588, velocity through open door V=1m/s

Q2 = AxV = 3.78x1= 3.78 m3/s

Thus supply quantity air flow is:

Q3 = Q1 + Q2 = 5.1 + 3.78 = 8.88 m3/s

The code of practice recommend add 15% for ductwork, BS 5588 part 4:

Thus supply air QS = 10.21 m3/s = 36720 m3/h

6.3.2. Exhaust area determination

QN
Area of smoke/air relief or exhaust vent AV = 2.5

QN is the air flow through fire floor

Door size 2.1x0.9 m

Area open door, A 1.89 m2

QN = 1.89 x 1 = 1.89 m3/s

Thus, AN = 1.89/2.5 = 0.75 m2

Area of pressure relief damper

10.21−5.1
𝐴= 1 = 0.8 m2
0.83×602

6.4. Pressure loss

 pressure drop of grill=5Pa

 pressure loss of duct

Duct size 800x800 mm

Dh 800 mm

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 Velocity 16 m/s

↋=1.5

Reynolds number, Re = 66.4 Dh V = 849920

Friction factor

1 1
𝑓= = = 0.0278
𝐷 2
800 2
[1.14 + 2 log10 ( ℎ )] [1.14 + 2 log10 ( )]
𝜀 3

Pressure loss in shaft of staircase:

𝐿 𝜌𝑉 2 4.4 1.2 × 162

∆𝑃𝑓 = 1000𝑓 = 1000 × 0.0278 × × = 23.4𝑃𝑎
𝐷ℎ 2 800 2

 pressure loss of shaft

Staircase shaft size 900x650 mm

Area of shaft 540000 mm2

Velocity 12 m/s

Dh 755 mm

↋=3

Reynolds number, Re = 66.4 Dh V = 300792

Friction factor

1 1
𝑓= 2 = = 0.0283
𝐷 755 2
[1.14 + 2 log10 ( 𝜀ℎ )] [1.14 + 2 log10 ( 3 )]

Pressure loss in shaft of staircase:

𝐿 𝜌𝑉 2 185 1.2 × 122

∆𝑃𝑓 = 1000𝑓 = 1000 × 0.0283 × × = 600 𝑃𝑎
𝐷ℎ 2 755 2

66
Duct element Size Flow Velocity Duct length Pressure loss

mm m3/s m/s m Pa

shaft 900x900 10.21 12 185 600

Duct 800x800 10.21 16 4.4 23.4

grill 450x450 0.185 3 5

Pressure loss total 627.4 Pa

So, pressure required 677 Pa

6.5. Smoke exhaust

From Mf = CePY3/2 Eq. 53, Figure 5.5and

Mf = 0.19 PY1.5

Mf = 0.19 x 12 x 2.51.5 = 9 kg/s

So, Vf = 9/1.2 = 7.5 m3/s = 27000 m3/s

67
 7. RESULT AND SELECTION

7.1. Comparison manual method with British Standard- BS 5588

Manual method BS 5588

Average Loose

Supply air flow, [m3/s] / [m3/h] 9.02 / 32472 12.735 / 45846 10.21 / 36720

Minimum pressure difference design,

20.3 20.3 50
[Pa]

Minimum pressure difference design,

60 60 60
[Pa]

Height limit, [m] 248 215 Unlimited

Table 7-1: Comparison result between Manual method and BS 5588

This table show that the air flow of British Standard is between the air flow maximum
and average of manual calculation, it mean that it is bigger than average flow and nearly the
maximum flow. So we can assume that the quantity of supply air determine by BS standard
maybe maintain for this staircase. For the height limited, our building is possible for both
condition.

Another way we look for minimum pressure difference, when the door at fire floor or
Exit door are open pressure difference is 10 Pa. Does 10 Pa can covered this system? We will
determine the pressure difference from staircase to fire floor. Let (1) is the fire floor and (2) is
the staircase zone, and temperature of smoke fully developed is 9270C or1200K (NFPA92),
Follow the

1 1
∆P12 = 3460z (T − T )
2 1

1 1
∆P12 = 3460 × 1.5 × (303 − 1200) = 12.8 Pa

Since 10Pa in nearest 12.8Pa and the temperature of smoke maybe not 1200K when it
stay closed to the staircase because it should lose the quantity heat flow so the temperature of
smoke will be lose too, and in front of stairwell has left-lobby maintain by 45Pa. In other way

68
this situation is not long time (the door open, staircase maintain by 10Pa). According thus
reason, we can assume that temperature of smoke and locate of neutral plane is mean parameter
of minimize design pressure difference, and BS-Standard is safety for this condition. It is
meaning that staircase with lobby calculate by BS-Standard is safety for smoke temperature at
9270C or lower, if pressurization system has stairwell only be careful for air flow supply and
should use smoke zone venting (exterior wall vents, smoke shafts, or mechanical venting).
Thus we select BS-Standard for using.

7.2. Duct sizing

Because of size of staircase`s shaft is 900x900mm, so ducting connect from fan to shaft
is 800x800mm.

7.3. Grill selection

Supply air flow is Q = 10.21 m3/s and we have 55 floor so flow for each is 0.185 m3/s
or 185L/s. We will select supply air diffuser type.

Determine grill area, for air velocity should be 3m/s, thus grill area is 0.6 m2.

Figure 7.1: catalog of supply air diffuser (PRUDENTAIRE)

In Figure 7.1 we can select diffuser 450x450mm because complete equipment:

 Supply flow
 Are of grill
 And noise level, so pressure loos of grill is 5 Pa

69
7.4. Fan selection

According discussion below we get the data for fan selection,

 Staircase:

Supply air volume 36720 m3/h

Pressure static 677 Pa

70
 8. Accessory and control system

1.1 Pressure relief damper

Pressure relief damper (often called a Barometric damper) is commonly used to relieve
built up pressure in zone or duct. The sliding weight can be adjustment to open when a certain
pressure in reached.

8.1. Grill`

Egg grate devices: These devices are considered to be the most cheapest and simple
equipment of their category. The plenum box is visible above the equipment and can be seen
from the room below. If the purpose is to remove air by extracting ventilation system then there
is no need of the device having profiled blades to direct the air as egg grate device can be used
here.

Bar device: This device’s blades are shaped as a bar as opposed to a narrow blade. The
bar is mostly of T shape which reduces the see through factor. Some linear bar devices come
with angled or adjustable blades which reduce the see through visibility.

Transfer device: These devices are commonly used in the walls and doors for
ventilation and also stop the fire and smoke from spreading if in any case these occur.
Sometimes transfer devices come with intumescent fire damper to act as insulation if fire
erupts.

Egg grate grill

71
 Transfer grill
Bar grill
Figure 8.1: Simple of grill

1.2 Wired mesh

Plain Weave Wire Cloth Twill Weave

Each wrap wire passes over and The wrap wire passes over and
under the successive weft wire and vise under two weft wires and vise versa. This
versa resulting in precise mesh opening and type of weave allows the use of larger
maximum cloth stability. The standard wire diameters to meet process
cloth for all purpose. requirements.

Dutch Twill Weave

Plain Dutch Weave A Dutch Weave, but woven in a

twill pattern which enables twice as many
Weave pattern similar to plain
weft wires to be woven in the same area
woven cloths, however, the wrap wires are
as a Plain Dutch Weaves to achieve a finer
larger and spaced farther apart than the
filter opening. Typically produced for

72
weft wires. Mainly used for precoat filters
and vacuum filters.
Tele Weaves ( 5 heddle-Atlas )
4 over 1 under weave pattern. This
weave permits the use of extremely strong
wires with fine mesh opening resulting in a
smooth and wear resistant surface. Used in
vacuum filters, centrifuges, dewatering
sieves and distillation columns.
73
very fine filtration application- 10 micron
and finer.
PZ-Microdur Cloth
A Reverse Plain Dutch Weave.
The warp wires are smaller and spaced
closer together than the weft wires. This
weave allows the use of high tensile wires
which offers the most durable and stable
fine filter cloth.
 9. Conclusion.

There are 2 main method for Smoke control: active method and passive method. The
active method is using mechanical ventilation to maintain or control smoke zone size, It
includes pressurization method, airflow method and exhaust method. Passive method uses
building construction materials to limit the spread of smoke in a structure. Typical passive
smoke control systems include compartmentation, fire rated walls, barriers, smoke vents,
smoke shafts etc. Method that use in this project is pressurization system, we use two method
for calculation supply air flow, manual method and British-Standard. After comparison the
result of both method we can assume that British-Standard is possible applying in Cambodia.

During our internship for three months at ET&S Engineering Import Export Co., Ltd,
we got too much valuable experience, knowledge and a good communicate in our life of
education and our professional life. In that case, we have the opportunity to apply the theories
we have learned in ITC on the actual practice during the course at Institute of Technology of
Cambodia. The three months during our internship, we worked as staff of the company and
took some responsibilities on our work

74
Bibliography
Brithish Standard. (1998). Fire protections in design, construction and use of building.

BRITISH STANDARD. (2003). Components for smoke and heat control systems.

BRITISH STANDARD. (n.d.). Fire detection and alarm systems for building.

CFAA. (2010). Fire alarm system a refference manual.

FLÄKT WOODS LIMITED. (n.d.). Fan in fire safty smoke control by pressurization.

John H., K., J.A.WILD, C., & F.I.MECH.E. (n.d.). Smoke control by pressurisation.

Klote, J. H., & Milke, J. A. (2002). Principle of smoke management.

NFPA 72. (2013). National fire alarm and signaling code.

NFPA 92. (2012). Standard for smoke control system.

75
 ANNEX

Air leakage data

The leakage areas given in Table A1, Table A2 and Table A3 are provided for guidance
only. Leakage areas are highly dependent on the quality of workmanship and actual values may
vary considerably from the range given.

Table 0-1: Air leakage data for doors

Pressure Air
Leakage Area
Type of door Differential Leakage
(m2)
(Pa) (m3/s)

Single-leaf opening into a pressurized space 0.01 8 0.02

15 0.03

20 0.04

25 0.04

50 0.06

Single-leaf opening outwards from a 0.02 8 0.05

pressurized space
15 0.06

20 0.07

25 0.08

50 0.12

Double-leaf 0.03 8 0.07

15 0.10

20 0.11

25 0.12

76
 50 0.18

Lift landing door 0.06 8 0.14

15 0.19

20 0.22

25 0.25

50 0.35

Table 0-2: Air leakage data for walls and floors

Wall Leakage area

Construction element
Tightness ratio(A/Aw)
Exterior building walls (including Tight 0.70x10-4
construction cracks, Averag
0.21x10-3
cracks around windows and doors) e
Loose 0.42x10-3
Very
0.13 x10-2
loose
Internal and stair walls (includes construction Tight 0.14 x10-4
cracks Averag
0.11 x10-3
but not cracks around windows and doors) e
Loose 0.35x10-3
Lift well walls (includes construction cracks Tight 0.18 x10-3
but not Averag
0.84 x10-3
cracks around windows and doors) e
Loose 0.18 x10-2
Leakage area ratio
A/Af
Floors (includes construction cracks and
Averag
cracks around 0.52x10-4
e
penetrations
NOTE
A = Leakage area, Aw = Wall area, Af = Floor area

77
 Table 0-3: Air leakage data for windows

Type of window Crack area (m2 per m ∆P(P Air

length) a) Leakage (m3/s)
Pivoted, no weather 2.5x10-4 8 0.77x10-3
stripping 15 1.1x10-3
20 1.4x10-3
25 2.6x10-3
50 2.4x10-3
Pivoted and weather 3.6x10-5 8 0.11x10-3
stripped 15 0.16x10-3
20 0.19x10-3
25 0.22x10-3
50 0.34x10-3
Sliding 1.00x10-4 8 0.30x10-3
15 0.45x10-3
20 0.54x10-3
25 0.62x10-3
50 0.95x10-3

78