On the Trail of History

What, Where, How and When?
Learning Goals:
a. What is History
b. Sources of History
c. How India got its Name
d. Meaning of Dates
WHAT IS HISTORY
The story of humankind’s past is called history. History tells us about various
developments which have taken place in the human society in different periods.
Importance of History:
 History helps us in knowing about the past kings, kingdoms and the society.
 History tells us about the way people lived, the food they ate and the clothes
they wore.
 History tells us about the occupations of people.
 History tells us about the great achievements or our ancestors.
 History tells us about the mistakes made by our ancestors.
 History also tells us about the games children played during a particular time.
 We learn from history to make a better future.
WHERE DID PEOPLE LIVE

During prehistoric times; people lived at following places in the Indian subcontinent.
a. Banks of the river Narmada

b. Sulaiman and Kirthar Hills of the Northwest
c. Garo hills in the northeast and the Vindhyas in central India
d. River Indus and its tributaries
e. River Ganga and its tributary Son
Fig: Palaeolithic Settlements
River Narmada: For several thousand years; people lived near the banks of the
Narmada. They were hunters-gatherers. It means; they were nomadic, i.e. did not
lead a settled life.
Sulaiman and Kirthar Hills: People lived in the Sulaiman and Kirthar Hills about
8000 years ago. They were among the first people to begin farming. They used to
grow crops; like wheat and barley. They also begun to domesticate animals; like
sheep, goat and cattle. People lived a settled life. Villages came into origin around
this time.
Garo Hills and the Vindhyas: People living in Garo hills were among the first to
grow rice. Rice was also grown towards the north of the Vindhyas.
Indus and its tributaries: The earliest cities developed near the banks of Indus and
its tributaries; around 4700 years ago.
Ganga and Son: It was about 2500 years ago when cities also developed on the
banks of the Ganga. Some cities also developed along the tributaries of the Ganges.
Some cities also developed along the sea coast.
THE NAME OF OUR COUNTRY:
India is known by many names; like Aryavarta, Jambudweep, Bharatvarsh, Bharat,

Hindustan, India, etc. Out of them, India, Hindustan and Bharat are more frequently
used.
India: The people from Iran and Greece came to the north west of India. Thus, they
became familiar with the river Indus. They called it Indos or Hindos. The land to the
east of this river came to be known as India.
Bharat: People who lived in the northwest were known as Bharatha. They are
mentioned in the Rigveda. The name Bharat came because of the term ‘Bharatha’.
Sources of HISTORY
Some of the sources which tell us about history are as follows:
a. Manuscripts
b. Inscriptions
c. Coins
d. Archeological Sites
Manuscripts: A handwritten book is called manuscript. Before the discovery of

printing; books were handwritten. The early manuscripts were written on palm leaves
and on bark of birch trees. The ancient manuscript give a lot of information about
religious beliefs and practices, life of kings, medicines, science, poems, plays, epics,
etc.
Inscriptions: The text written on stone slabs is called inscription. An inscription on

stone could survive longer than a manuscript. Most of the inscriptions contain some
order or announcement by a king. Such announcements were written in inscriptions
so that a large number of people could read them. Some inscriptions contain good
deeds by people; especially by kings and merchants. The inscriptions and
manuscripts from ancient period were usually written in Sanskrit or Prakrit or Tamil.
Coins: A coin gives information about the king of that period because coins usually
contained the image of the king. Coins also tell us about the level of skill among
artisans during that period. Coins were first developed in ancient Greece during 600
BC.
Archaeological Sites: Sites from where historical remains are obtained are called
archaeological sites. Buildings and monuments also come under archaeological
sites. Archaeological sites also include old buildings and monuments. Artifacts and
other items excavated from different archaeological sites give rich information about
a period.
Archaeologists: People who specialize in studying the archaeological remains

are known as archaeologists.
Meaning of Dates
Dates are very important while studying history because dates help us in arranging
the events in some sequence. While discussing history, two distinct terms (BC and
AD) are used for dates. The term BC stands for before Christ. On the other hand, AD
stands for ‘Anno Domini’ which means ‘In the year of the Lord’. Sometimes, CE is
used instead of AD and it means Common Era. Similarly, BCE is used instead of BC
and it means before the Common Era.
NCERT Exercise Solution
List one major difference between manuscripts and inscriptions.

Answer: Manuscripts were written on palm leaves and on bark of birch tree, while
inscriptions were made on stone slabs and pillars.
Return to Rasheeda’s question. Can you think of some answers to it?
Answer: Rasheeda’s question is, “How could anyone know what had happened so
many years ago?”
We know that historians use various sources to know about history. Some important
sources are: manuscripts, coins, inscriptions, archaeological sites, etc.
Match the following:
Column I Column II
(a) Narmada Valley 1. The first big kingdom
(b) Magadha 2. Hunting and gathering
(c) Garo hills 3. Cities about 2500 years ago
(d) Indus and its tributaries 4. Early agriculture
(e) Ganga Valley 5. The first cities

Answer:
a. Narmada Valley: Hunting and gathering

b. Magadha: The first biggest kingdom
c. Garo Hills: Early agriculture
d. Indus and its tributaries: The first cities
e. Ganga Valley: Cities about 2500 years ago
f. Make a list of all the objects that archaeologists may find. Which of these
could be made of stone?
g. Answer: Archaeologists may find potteries, skeletons, ornaments, tools,
statues, toys, clothes, etc. Statues, potteries and toys could be made of stone.
h. Why do you think ordinary men and women did not generally keep records of
what they did?
i. Answer: The life of ordinary men and women must have been full of
difficulties. Even today, the life of ordinary men and women is too mundane to
write anything about it. These are the two possible reasons, why ordinary men
and women generally did not keep records of what they did.
j. Describe at least two ways in which you think the lives of kings would have
been different from those of farmers.
k. Answer: A farmer has to work in the field while a ruler does not need to do
so. A king’s main responsibility was to protect its subjects, while a farmer’s
main responsibility was to produce food grains. A farmer’s life must have been
full of hardships. A king’s life may have been more comfortable.
Extra Questions
Which were the first crops grown by humans?
Answer: Rice and barley
Bark of which tree was used for writing?
Answer: Birch tree
Which calendar is now being used in most parts of the world?
Answer: Gregorian calendar
What is history?
Answer: The story about humankind’s past is called history.
What is a manuscript?
Answer: A handwritten book is called manuscript. Before the invention of print

technology, books were written in the form of manuscript. Palm leaves and bark of
birch trees were used for writing manuscript.
What is an inscription?
Answer: A text inscribed on stone or any other hard surface is called inscription.
Most of the inscriptions were written on stone slabs or pillars. Such inscriptions
usually contained order or message from the king. Some inscriptions contained
details of good deed by important people.
What does an archaeologist do?
Answer: A person who is an expert of historical artifacts, buildings, monuments, etc.

is called an archaeologist.
Explain the importance of history?
Answer: Importance of history is as follows:
 History helps us in knowing about the past kings, kingdoms and the society.
 History tells us about the way people lived, the food they ate and the clothes they
wore.
 History tells us about the great achievements or our ancestors.
On The Trail Of the Earliest People
Learning Goals:
a. Life of Hunter Gatherer

b. The Stone Age
c. Climate Change
d. Discovery of Fire
Life of Hunter Gatherer
The primitive man was a hunter gatherer. He used to hunt animals and gather fruits
and other plant produce for food. The early man did not live at one place, rather used
to move from one place to another. This means that the early man lived a nomadic
life.
Reasons of Nomadic Life:
 The food resource at a particular place was exhausted after some time. Hence,
people were forced to move in search of a better place.
 Moving from one place to another was also important for hunting. We know that
animals also keep on moving from one place to another.
 Most of the plants are seasonal. They bear fruits or seeds in a particular season. So,
to get constant supply of fruits, roots, seeds, etc. people needed to be on move.
 People also needed to move in search of water. You know that some rivers and
ponds become dry during summer.
THE STONE AGE
You have read that hunter-gatherers lived during the prehistoric period. People in
this age used stones for making tools. Due to this, this period is also called the Stone
Age. The Stone Age is divided into three phases:
 Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age

 Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age
 Neolithic or New Stone Age
Palaeolithic Age
The term ‘Palaeolithic’ is made up of two Greek words; ‘Palaeo’ and ‘Lithos’. The
term ‘Palaeo’ means ‘Old’ and the term ‘Lithos’ means ‘Stone’. Hence, this period is
also called the Old Stone Age. This period extends from 2 million years ago to
12,000 years ago. The tools from this period were crude and had no refinement.
REF: NCERT Book Class 6
This figure shows the earliest tools from the Stone Age. Historians believe that these
were made about 2 million years ago. These tools are blunt and big.
This figure shows the tools of a later period. These are smaller and much sharper.
These were made thousands of years after the tools in the first figure.
The tools in this figure show more refinement.

The tools in this figure were made about 10,000 years ago. These are much smaller
and show better design. These tools are from the Mesolithic Age.
Apart from stones; bones and wood were also used for making tools and for many
other purposes. What is remarkable about stone tools is that some of them are being
still used in modern homes. For example; grinding stone is still used in many homes
for grinding spices and for making flour.
Uses of Stone Tools:
 For cutting meat and bones.

 For scraping bark (from trees) and hide (from animals).
 For chopping fruits and roots.
 Some tools were attached to handles; made of wood or bone; to be used as axe or
hammer.
Climate Change
You will be surprised to know that a major part of the Stone Age was during the Ice
Age. Ice was all around and there was negligible vegetation on the earth. After global
warming; the Ice Age came to an end about 12,000 years ago. End of the Ice Age
meant clearance of a vast tract of land. This also meant an ambient temperature for
the growth of plants. More green plants resulted in better availability of food for
animals and humans. This was the period when many modern day mammals must
have proliferated. More animals meant better availability of meat.
After the Ice Age; the plants of the grass family began to grow in most parts of the
world. You must be aware that rice, wheat and corn belong to the grass family. It
means that a major portion of our food comes from the grass family. This was the
period when people may have started using cereals and grains.
Where Did People Live?

Fig: Palaeolithic Sites
This map of India shows some important sites where people lived during the Stone
Age. Some major places where people lived during the Old Stone Age are:
a. Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh)

b. Hunsgi (Karnataka)
c. Kurnool Caves (Andhra Pradesh)
Two common factors for these sites are as follows:
i. These places are near a river: The presence of a river means that availability of water was
not an issue.
ii. These places are somewhere in the Deccan Plateau: The Deccan Plateau has plenty of
stones. Thus, the materials for making stone tools were available in plenty.
Factory Sites: Places where people could get plenty of stones for making tools were
used as sites for making the tools. Such places are called factory sites. At some
places, people also lived at such factory sites. Such sites are called habitation-cum-
factory sites.
Proofs for Factory Sites: Historians have found many proofs at factory sites. They
have found much larger stones and some unfinished tools. These proofs show that
these were the locations of factory sites.
Making Stone Tools:

Historians have made guesses about the possible methods of making stone tools.
There were two possible methods of making stone tools. They are as follows:
a. Stone on stone: In this method, a stone was taken in one hand and was hit with another
stone to make a particular shape. The stone which was made into a tool was called the
core.
b. Pressure Flaking: In this method, the core was kept on a hard surface. It was then
hammered with a bigger stone to make a particular shape.
Discovery of Fire:
The discovery of fire was a major revolution for the human beings. It changed the
human life dramatically. People may have learnt to use fire after seeing the effects of
forest fire. A person may have accidentally dropped a piece of meat in fire and may
have tasted the cooked meat for the first time. People may have learnt to produce
fire by rubbing two stones together.
Historians have found traces of ash from Kurnool caves. This suggests that fire was
used by the people who lived in these caves.
Fire could be used for many purposes. Fire can be used for clearing forest. It can be
used for cooking. Fire could be used for keeping the wild animals away from human
dwellings.
Rock Paintings
REF:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bhimbetka_rock_paintng1.jpg
The people of the Stone Age were very good artists as well. Many cave paintings
have been found in the cave dwellings of the Stone Age. For example; the caves in
Bhimbetka show beautiful paintings. Most the paintings show animals and hunting
scenes.
Historians believe that these paintings may have been made as a part of a ritual.
People may have made those drawings before going for hunting. Another possibility
is that people must have got enough spare time to think about the beautiful nature
around them.
These paintings also show that people used to live as a community. Living with the
herd has many benefits. A large group provided better protection against predators.
A group could easily kill a big animal. This ensured the supply of plenty of food.
Historians guess that usually men went for hunting, while women lived in caves to
take care of children. Women may have focused on collecting fruits, roots and
berries.
Fill in the blanks:
 Hunter-gatherers chose to live in caves and rock shelters because ————————.
Answer: they provided shelter from rain, heat and wind

 Grasslands developed around ———————— years ago.
Answer: 12,000
 Early people painted on the ———————— of caves.
Answer: walls
 In Hunsgi, tools were made of ————————.
Answer: stones
Look at the present-day political map of the Indian subcontinent. Find out the states
where Bhimbetka, Hunsgi and Kurnool are located.
Answer: Bhimbetka is in Madhya Pradesh, Hunsgi is in Karnataka and Kurnool is in

Andhra Pradesh.
Why did the hunter-gatherers travel from place to place? In what ways are these
similar to/different from the reasons for which we travel today?
Answer: Hunter-gatherers traveled from place to place in search of food. Once food
resources at a place were exhausted, they needed to go to a new place. Now-a-
days; people travel for various purposes. Some people travel because they enjoy
travelling. Some people travel to meet relatives and friends on special occasions.
Some people travel as a part of their work. Some people travel to explore new
places.
What tools would you use today for cutting fruit? What would they be made of?
Answer: We use knife for cutting fruit. Knives are made of steel.
List three ways in which hunter-gatherers used fire. Would you use fire for any of
these purposes today?
Answer: Three ways in which hunter-gatherers used fire are as follows:
a. For cooking
b. For warding off wild animals
c. For clearing forest
Extra Questions
People of the Stone Age lived in which natural structure?
Asnwer: Caves
Bhimbetka is in which modern state of India.
Answer: Madhya Pradesh
Remains of ashes have been found from the caves of which place?
Answer: Kurnool
Extra Questions
Cave paintings usually depict which type of scene?
Hunting scene
Discarded stone pieces and chips can be found on which type of sites of the Stone
Age?
Answer: Factory sites
What is Stone Age?
Answer: The period during which only stone tools were used by people is called the
Stone Age.
What is the meaning of Palaeolithic Age?
Answer: Palaeolithic Age means the Old Stone Age.
What were the sources of food for early people?
Answer: Meat, fish, fruits, roots, berries, etc. were the sources of food for early
people.
Cave paintings usually contained pictures of which animals?
Answer: Bison, deer and other wild animals.
Why is Bhimbetka famous?
Answer: Bhimbetka is famous for cave paintings of the Stone Age. This site has
been termed the World Heritage Site by the UNESCO.
The Early Farmers
Learning Goals:
a. Neolithic Age
b. Beginning of Farming
c. Invention of Wheel
Neolithic Age: The last phase of the Stone Age is called the Neolithic Age. This
phase began about 10,000 years ago. This phase marks a significant change in the
life of humans because this is the period when man began farming.
Tools of the Neolithic Age: The tools of the Neolithic Age were much smaller and
more refined. Stone was given better shape and some tools were fitted with handles,
e.g. spears, axe, sickles, arrows, etc.
Sites of The Neolithic Age
This map shows various Neolithic Age sites in India. They are as follows:
REF: NCERT Textbook
a. Burzahom and Gufkral in Jammu & Kashmir

b. Mehrgarh in Pakistan
c. Chirand in Bihar
d. Daojali Hading in the north east
e. Koldihwa in Uttar Pradesh
f. Haldur and Paiyampalli in south India
Archaeological Proofs of Farming
Sites Grains and bones
Mehrgarh (present day Pakistan) Wheat, barley, sheep, goat, cattle
Koldihwa (Uttar Pradesh) Rice, fragmentary animal bones
Mahagara (Uttar Pradesh) Rice, cattle (hoof marks on clay surface)

Gufkral (Kashmir) Wheat and lentil
Burzahom (Kashmir) Wheat and lentil, dog, cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo
Chirand (Bihar) Wheat, green gram, barley, buffalo, ox
Hallur (Andhra Pradesh) Millet, cattle, sheep, goat, pig
Paiyampalli (Andhra Pradesh) Black gram, millet, cattle, sheep, pig
Beginning of Agriculture
The beginning of farming was the most revolutionary development in the human
history. This marked the beginning of progress towards a settled life.
Historians guess that farming was first discovered by women. This was possible
because women had to live at a place for a longer duration during pregnancy and
raising children. While staying at a place for a long duration; women and children
may have observed that seeds develop into plants. They may have learnt growing
plants after that observation.
Benefits of Farming:
 Farming meant there was better supply of food. Additionally, there was less reliance
on hunting and gathering.
 We know that a plant takes many months to bear fruits and seeds. So people needed
to stay at a place for longer duration to take care of the crop. This helped humans to
live a settled life.
 Once food was surplus, people could focus intellectual development during their
spare time. This helped in developing scientific, linguistic and artistic skills.
 After the beginning of settled life; communities became bigger and eventually took
the form of villages. It is important to remember that a village is a place where
agriculture is the main occupation of people.
Life of Tribe: People who live close to the nature and follow the primitive ways of life are
called tribal. Some of the characteristics of a tribe are as follows:
 Members of a tribe live together as small groups.

 Tribes usually live near a forest. They depend on forest produce for most of their
needs.
 People of a tribe worship trees and animals and never exploit natural resources.
 A tribe has a rich cultural heritage. They have their own music, sculpture and
paintings.
Invention of Wheels:
This was the period when another major discovery took place, i.e. the invention of
wheel. You may be thinking that an intelligent scientist may have invented the wheel
but this was not the case. It must have taken hundreds of years before humans
could perfect the design of wheel. People may have observed wooden logs and
rocks rolling down the slopes. People may have started with using cylindrical logs to
move heavy objects. With gradual passage of time; they may have perfected the
design of the wheel.
Wheel gave many benefits to human beings. Carts could be easily pulled using
human power or animal power. Long distance travels could become much easier.
The craft of pottery also flourished because of potter’s wheel. Now-a-days; we
cannot imagine of a life without wheels. Almost all machines have wheels of different
sizes to move different parts.
Life at Mehrgarh:
Mehrgarh is a prehistoric site; near the Bolan Pass in a small fertile plain. Remains
of houses, potteries, animal bones and burial sites have been found from this site.
Fig: House at Mehrgarh (REF: NCERT Textbook)
Houses were rectangular in shape. They were made of stone slabs. A house in
Mehrgarh was usually made up of four chambers. One of the chambers could have
been used for storing grains.
Fig: Burial Site (REF: NCERT Textbook)
Burial Sites: Remains of burial sites indicate that people practiced the last rites of a
dead person. Many interesting information have come from burial sites. In one of the
burial sites; archaeologists have found skeletons of goats, along with the skeleton of
a man. This shows that people believed in life after death. People believed that a
person would need some comforts even in the afterlife.
Daojali Hading: Daojali Hading is in the hills of the Brahmaputra valley.
Archaeologists have found mortar and pestles from this site. This shows that people
practiced grinding of food items. Archaeologists have also found jadeite from this
site. Jadeite is a greenish rock which was used for making tools. Historians guess
that this may have come from China. This shows that there was people to people
interaction from other parts of the world.
State whether true or false:
a. Millets have been found at Hallur.
Answer: True
b. People in Burzahom lived in rectangular houses.
Answer: False
c. Chirand is a site in Kashmir.
Answer: False
d. Jadeite, found in Daojali Hading, may have been brought from China.
Answer: True
e. Why do people who grow crops have to stay in the same place for a long
time?
f. Answer: We know that a plant takes several months to bear fruits and seeds.
So, people had to stay at the same place for a long time to take care of the
crop.
g. If Neinuo wanted to eat rice, which are the places she should have visited?
h. Answer: Koldihwa and Mahagara in modern day Uttar Pradesh
i. Why do archaeologists think that many people who lived in Mehrgarh were
hunters to start with and that herding became more important later?
j. Answer: Archaeologists have found different types of remains from different
levels of excavation at Mehrgarh. Remains from deeper levels show bones of
wild animals. This shows that people were still hunters. Remains from upper
levels show bones of domesticated animals. This shows that later on people
became herders.
k. List three ways in which the lives of farmers and herders would have been
different from that of hunter-gatherers.
l. Answer:
Hunter-gatherers Farmers-herders
Lived nomadic life. Lived settled life.
Depended on wild animals for meat. Depended on domesticated animals for meat.
Food supply was not secure. Food supply was more secure.
Make a list of all the animals mentioned in the table in NCERT Book. For each one,
describe what they may have been used for.
Answer:
Animal Possible Use
Sheep Milk, meat, wool
Goat Milk, meat
Dog Guarding the herd
Buffalo Milk
Ox Farm work
Pig Meat
Extra Questions
1. What is the meaning of the Neolithic Age?
Answer: New Stone Age

2. Name a Neolithic site which is in modern day Pakistan.
Answer: Mehrgarh
3. Which animal is believed to be the first domesticated animal?
Answer: Sheep and goat

4. Daojali Hading is in the valley of which river?
Answer: Brahmaputra
5. What is Neolithic Age?
Answer: The last part of the Stone Age is called the Neolithic Age. The tools
of this period are much smaller and more refined.
6. When did the Neolithic Age begin?
Answer: The Neolithic Age began around 12,000 years ago.

7. Which major discovery of the Neolithic Age helped human beings to change
to a settled life?
Answer: Agriculture
8. What is the significance of burial sites from Neolithic Age?
Answer: The burial sites from the Neolithic Age show two important facts.
The presence of burial site means that people began performing the last rites
of the dead. Finding of animal bones; along with human skeleton; shows that
people believed in afterlife.
The Earliest Cities
Learning Goals:
a. Indus Valley Civilisation

b. Harappa
c. City Planning
d. Life of people
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
The Indus Valley Civilization prospered around 4700 years ago. The cities of that
period flourished mainly in the valley of the river Indus. Hence, it was called the
Indus Valley Civilization. Harappa was the first site of this civilization to be
discovered. Hence, this is also called the Harappan Civilization.
Around the same time, the river valley civilizations flourished in many other parts
of the world. The Mesopotamian Civilization was near the Tigris-Euphrates river
system. The civilization in China was near the Huang ho river. The civilization in
Egypt was near the Nile.
Harappa
Harappa is in modern day Pakistan. This site was accidentally discovered. The East
India Company was doing the construction of railway lines in 1856. Initially, the
construction workers thought the ruins to be of some ordinary old city. The bricks
from the site were used for the construction. It was about 80 years ago that
archaeologists could realize that it was an ancient city.
Fig: Indus Valley Civilisation

Mohenjo–Daro, Kalibangan, Lothal and Dholavira are some other important sites of
the Indus Valley Civilization. About 150 sites of this civilization have been discovered
till date.
Most of the sites this civilization are in modern day Pakistan. Some of the sites are in
India, e.g. Kalibangan (Northern Rajasthan), Banavali (Haryana), Dholavira (Gujarat)
and Lothal (Gujarat). After excavations from different sites, it has become clear that
this civilization was spread over major parts of western India and Pakistan and some
parts of Afghanistan.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF THESE CITIES:

Some of the salient features of the cities of the Indus Valley Civilization are as
follows:
Fig: The Great Bath (REF:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization)
Town Planning:
 These cities show immaculate town planning.

 The city of Harappa was divided into two parts, i.e. western and eastern parts.
The western part of the city was smaller but higher. The higher part was
called the citadel. The citadel contained some special structures.
 The eastern part of the city was larger but lower. The lower part was called the lower
city.
 A huge tank has been found within the citadel. This has been named as the Great
Bath by archaeologists. This was made from baked bricks. Its walls and floors were
sealed by naturally occurring tar. There were steps on all sides so that people could
easily go down the tank. Rooms were built around it. The historians guess that this
was used by the ruling classes; for ritual bath.
 Rich people lived in the upper part of the city.
 Workers lived in the lower part of the city.
Use of Baked Bricks:

Houses and other structures were made of baked bricks. Bricks were of uniform size.
This means that the people of Harappa had developed good workmanship. Bricks
were joined in interlocking pattern. This gave more strength to the building.
Roads and Drainage:
Roads were paved with bricks. The road intersected at right angles. The drainage
system was properly planned. Drain from each house was connected to the drains in
the streets. Drains were covered with stone slabs. Inspection holes were made at
frequent intervals on the drain.
Planned Houses:
The walls of the houses were strong and thick. Some of the houses were two storey
high. This shows the well developed architecture in those days. A house normally
had a kitchen, a bathroom and a large courtyard. Wells were also present in most of
the houses; to ensure continuous supply of water.
Granaries:
In the cities of the Indus Valley Civilization; a large granary has been found. Charred
grains have been found in these granaries. This shows that food grain production
was surplus during this period. Historians also guess that taxes were collected in the
form of grains. Grains collected as tax were stored in such large granaries.
LIFE OF THE PEOPLE
You have read that agriculture is the main occupation in a village. But many other
occupations are followed by people in a city. Some of the possible occupations
which may have existed in these cities are as follows:
Craft:
Fig: Pottery (REF:

 Clay, copper and bronze was used for making pots. Tools, weapons and seals were
made from copper and bronze. Seals were also made from clay. Some large pots
have also been found. They were probably used for storing grains.
 Jewelries were made of gold, beads, wood and clay. Precious stones; like cannelian,
jasper, crystal, etc. were used to make beads.
 Clay and wood was used for making toys. A cart-shaped toy has been found in very
good condition. This shows that animal-driven carts were used at that time.
 Ornate carvings can be seen on toys, pots and jewelry. This speaks about the fine
craftsmanship of people of the Indus Valley Civilization.
 Some spindles have also been found. They were used for making threads. People
knew how to make cotton thread.
Fig: Priest King (REF:

Trade:
Trade was the main occupation of people of Harappa. Copper came from Rajasthan
and from Oman. Some of the seals from Harappa have been found in Mesopotamia.
This shows that trade link existed between Harappa and Mesopotamia.
A dockyard has been discovered in Lothal in Gujarat. This shows that trade through
sea route existed at that time. Different types of seals show that proper systems of
business transactions were followed.
Farming
Remains of charred grains have been found. This shows that wheat, barley, pulses,
pea, rice, sesame, linseed and mustard was grown in the villages of the Harappa
Civilization.
A toy model of plough has been found from the ruins. This shows that plough was
used for tilling the land. Presence of large granaries and huge utensils shows that
there was surplus food production at that time.
Bones of many domesticated animals have been found from the excavation site.
This shows that people of Harappa domesticated cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig.
Some Other Aspects of Life:
 Historians guess that the city of the Indus Valley Civilization was having some form of
administration. There is a possibility of a committee of people to look after the
administration.
 People used some form of entertainment. This is evident from toys and statues found
from the site.
 Seals from the Harappa site show scripts on them. This shows that people of the city
knew how to write. Historians are yet to decipher the script of the Indus Valley
Civilization.
 People worshipped gods and goddesses. Many statues have been found. A male
figure; surrounded by animals; has brought special attention of the archaeologists.
This figure is similar to the Hindu god Lord Shiva. We know that Lord Shiva is also
known as Pashupatinath.
Mystery over Decline of Harappan Civilization

The Harappa Civilization suddenly declined around 3900 years ago. Broken roads
and clogged drains indicate towards a decline in infrastructure. Excavations from
later period do not show remains of materials from distant places. This shows that
the trade from the outside world had stopped. Houses were no longer as good as
during the earlier period. People of the city were no longer prosperous.
Historians have not yet identified the proper cause of the decline of the Indus Valley
Civilization. Some guesses have been made which are as follows:
 There is a possibility that the rivers dried up. It forced people to move to some other
places.
 There were too many brick kilns and furnaces. It may have damaged the
environment. This would have led to deforestation. Lack of green cover may have
forced people to move to some other places.
 Overgrazing by cattle and sheep may also have resulted in loss of forests. This
would have led to desertification, i.e. formation of desert.
 There is also a possibility of large scale epidemic or natural calamity. It could have
wiped off a major portion of the population.
 NCERT Exercise Solution
 Match Columns
Column I Column II
Copper Gujarat
Gold Afghanistan
Tin Rajasthan
Precious stones Karnataka

Answer:
 Copper: Rajasthan
 Gold: Karnataka
 Tin: Afghanistan
 Precious stones: Gujarat
How do archaeologists know that cloth was used in the Harappan civilisation?
Answer: Archaeologists have found spindles from the excavation sites. Presence
of spindles shows that people knew how to make cloths. This shows that people
in the Harappan Civilization used cloth.
Why were metals, writing, the wheel, and the plough important for the
Harappans?
Answer: Metals, writing, the wheel and the plough were important for the
Harappans in many ways. Metals were used for making various tools, utensils,
jewelry and seals. Writing was useful for maintaining the records; related to trade
and for various other purposes. The wheel was used in carts to ferry people and
goods. Wheel was also used as potter’s wheel. Plough was used for tilling the
land so that farming could be done.
Make a list of all the terracotta toys shown in the lesson. Which do you think
children would have enjoyed playing with the most?
Answer: Animal figures, model cart and plough are some of the terracotta toys
mentioned in this lesson. I think, children would have liked playing with the model
cart the most. Even today; most of the children enjoy playing with toy cars.
Make a list of what the Harappans ate, and put a tick mark against the things you
eat today.
Answer: The people of Harappa ate various kinds of grains (rice, wheat, barley,
pulses, mustard, etc.), fruits (ber), fish, meat and milk. Most of these things we
eat even today. At present; we eat rice, wheat, pulses, fish, meat and milk. Barley
is used barely by us.
Do you think that the life of farmers and herders who supplied food to the
Harappan cities was different from that of the farmers and herders you read
about in Chapter 3? Give reasons for your answer.
Answer: In chapter 3; discussion is mainly on rural people. But in this chapter,

the discussion is mainly on urban people. In both the cases; farmers and herders
did the same type of work. But their group was much bigger in case of the
Harappan cities. Their work could have been more organized; compared to what
it was in earlier societies. Farmers and herders (in previous chapter) mainly
produced for their own use. But in case of the Harappan cities; the farmers and
herders sold their surplus production.
Extra Questions:
What is another name for the Indus Valley Civilization?
Answer: Harappan Civilization
Which was the first earliest city to be excavated in the Indian subcontinent?
Answer: Harappa
Kalibangan is in which modern state of India?
Answer: Rajasthan
Till date, how many sites of the Harappan Civilization have been discovered?
Answer: 150
Name some metals which were used in the Indus Valley Civilization.
Answer: Copper, tin, gold
Name some grains which were grown during the Indus Valley Civilization.
Answer: Rice, wheat, barley, pulses, linseed, mustard
What was the possible use of the Great Bath which has been found at the
excavation site of Harappa?
Answer: The Great Bath was possibly used by the rich people for ritual bath.
How can you say that farming was being done in Harappa?
Answer: Historians have found a toy plough. This indicates that plough was being
used for tilling the land. A large granary had been found and several huge utensils
have been found. These must have been used for storing grains. These proofs
indicate that farming was being done in Harappa.
How can you say that people of Harappa knew how to write?
Answer: Historians have found many seals. These seals have written scripts on
them. This shows that people of Harappa knew how to write.
What were the possible reasons for the decline of the Harappan cities?
Answer: Some of the possible reasons for the decline of the Harappan cities are as
follows:
 There is a possibility that the rivers dried up. It forced people to move to some
other places.
 There were too many brick kilns and furnaces. It may have damaged the
environment. This would have led to deforestation. Lack of green cover may
have forced people to move to some other places.
 Overgrazing by cattle and sheep may also have resulted in loss of forests.
This would have led to desertification, i.e. formation of desert.
 There is also a possibility of large scale epidemic or natural calamity. It could
have wiped off a major portion of the population.
Books and Burials

Learning Goals:
a. The Vedas
b. People in Vedic Period
c. Burial Sites at Inamgaon
The Vedas
The first Veda was composed around 3500 years ago. There are four Vedas, viz.
Rigveda, Samaveda, Yarjurveda and Athravaveda. Out of them, the Rigveda was
the first Veda to be composed.
Rigveda contains more than 1000 hymns and each hymn is called ‘sukta’. The term
‘sukta’ means well said. These hymns are in praise of gods.
Three main gods have been mentioned in the Rigveda. Agni is the god of fire, Indra
is the god of rains and Soma was named after a plant. This plant was used for
making a special drink.
The hymns in the Rigveda show the importance of rain and fire for the people. We
know that rain is required for good harvest. Rain is also necessary for getting
adequate drinking water. Fire is useful for cooking and for various other purposes.
The hymns were composed by sages (rishi); who were highly learned men. Some of
the hymns were also composed by women. An older form of Sanskrit was used for
writing the Rigedas. The Sanskrit which we use today is entirely different from the
Sanskrit in the Rigveda.
Some Major Families of Languages:
a. Indo-European Family: German, French, English, Spanish, Greek, Sanskrit, Hindi,

Bangla, Assamese, Gujarati, Sindhi, Punjabi, etc. belong to this family.
b. Tibeto-Burman Family: Languages of this family are spoken in the north-eastern part of
India.
c. Dravidian Family: Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam belong this family.
d. Austro-Asiatic Family: Languages of this family are spoken by tribes in Jharkhand and in
some parts of central India.
How Historians Interpret the Rigveda:

Various important information can be taken out from the Rigveda. The lesson in the
NCERT book shows and excerpt from the Rigveda which is a dialogue between
Vishwamitra and rivers. Following is a loose translation of the dialogue:
The sage has compared the river with horses, cows and chariots. He wants to cross
the river. He is praying to the river for his safe journey. This shows following things:
 The people of that period lived in an area where rivers were present.
 Horses and cows were important animals for people.
 Chariot was being used for transportation.
 Wading through a river was probably the only means to cross it. There must have
been risk to life while crossing a river.
The Rigveda mentions Indus and its tributaries. River Saraswati has also been
mentioned in the Rigveda. The Ganges and the Yamuna are mentioned only once in
the Rigveda. Based on this information, we can make some conclusions. Most of the
people lived near the Indus and its tributaries; when the Rigveda was composed. But
people were also aware about the Ganges and the Yamuna.
Cattles, Horses and Chariots

The Rigveda has many prayers for cattle, horses and children (especially sons). This
shows that cattle and horses were valuable for the people of that period. This also
shows the importance of a male child. Cattle were used for farming operations and
for transportation. Horses were used for pulling chariots. Horse-riding was also one
of the many ways of traveling long distances. Horses and chariots were also used
during battles. Battles were fought for land, cattle and for water. Barley could ripen
quickly and could survive tough conditions. Hence, barley was a preferred crop.
Wealth obtained from conquering a battle was distributed among all sections of the
society. Some of this wealth was also used for performing rituals (yajnas).
Yajna was an elaborate ritual. Sacrifices were made during yajnas. Ghee and grains
were offered to the fire. Animal sacrifice was also performed.
Most of the male members were expected to take part in the battle. There was no
practice of maintaining a regular army. The army was made up of people from
different occupations. A person was chosen from them to lead the army.
Words to Describe People:

In the Rigveda; two groups of people are described in terms of their work. The
priests were the people who performed rituals. They were also known as Brahmins.
The ruler was called the raja. Rajas of that period were not like the rajas of later
periods. They did not have a capital city, nor did they have a palace and they did not
collect taxes. Moreover, it was not necessary that a son of a raja automatically
become a raja after his father.
Priests: People who performed rituals were called the Brahmins (priests). The
Brahmins held important position in the society.
Raja: The ruler was called the raja. The kings of that period were not like the kings of
later periods. They did not have a capital city. They did not have a palace. They did
not collect taxes. It was not mandatory that a son of a raja would become a raja after
his father.
Jana: The common people were called the jana or vish. The word ‘jana’ is still used
as synonymn for ‘people’ in Hindi. The term ‘vaishya’ has originated from ‘vish’. The
Rigveda mentions many jana or vish, e.g. the Puru Jana, the Bhratha Jan and the
Yadu Jana.
Aryans: People who composed the hymns called themselves as aryas. They termed
their opponents as dasas or dasyus. Dasas spoke a different language and did not
perform yajnas. In due course of time; the term ‘dasa’ or ‘dasi’ was being used for
slaves. Prisoners of war had to serve as slaves for the rest of their life.
The Aryans were nomadic people who lived in Central Asia. They came to India
around 1500 BC. Initially, they settled around the region of Punjab. The original
inhabitants; who lived at that time in India; were called Dravidians. In due course of
time, the Aryans spread to other parts of the country; like western Uttar Pradesh and
further towards east. The Dravidians were forced to move to the south of the
Vindhyas.
SILENT SENTINELS: THE MEGALITHS
Megaliths are stone structures. They were used to mark a burial site. A single large
stone or several stones could be used to compose a megalith. Some megaliths could
be seen above the ground, but some could be underground as well.
The practice erecting megaliths began around 3000 years ago. This practice was
prevalent in the Deccan, the south India, the north-east and Kashmir. Megaliths were
probably erected to serve as a signpost. This helped in easily locating the burial site.
The dead were usually buried along with distinctive pots. These were called the read
ware and black ware. Iron tools and skeletons of horses have also been found from
some burial sites. This shows that iron was being used by the Aryans. This also
shows the importance of horse for the people. Moreover, ornaments of gold and
stone have also been found from the burial sites.
Difference in social status: There is an important megalithic site in south India;

called Brahmagiri. From one of the graves, skeleton have been found with 33 gold
beads, 2 stone beads, 4 copper bangles and one conch shell. Other skeletons have
been found with only a few pots. These remains reveal some interesting insights.
 There were differences in social status of people.

 People usually buried the personal belongings with the dead body.
Family Burial Site: Some of the burial sites have revealed many skeletons.
Historians guess that these were family burial sites. Stone circles or boulders were
placed on the surface. They worked as signposts to easily locate the burial site.
Inamgaon: A special burial site

Inamgaon is in the modern state of Maharashtra. This is located about 89 km to the
east of Pune. Inamagon is situated near the Ghod river. Ghod river is a tributary of
Bhima. Inamgaon was occupied between 3600 and 2700 years ago.
Usually adults were buried at this site. The dead body was laid straight; with the
head facing towards north.
Some of the burial was done inside the house. People used to place vessels along
with the dead. The vessels probably contained food items.
From one of the sites; a four-legged jar had been found. A skeleton was inside that
jar. The jar was placed in the courtyard of a five-room house. This was among the
largest houses at the site. A granary was also present in the house. The man was
laid to rest in a cross-legged position. Historians guess that it must have been an
important and rich person. The person could have been a rich farmer or the head of
the village.
Occupations of People at Inamgaon:

Remains of wheat, barley, lentils, millets and sesame have been found from the
Inamgaon site. Remains of various animals have been found; like cattle, buffalo,
goat, sheep, dog, horse, ass, pig, sambhar, spotter deer, blackbuck, antelope, hare
and mongoose. Remains of birds, crocodiles, turtles, crab and fish have also been
found from this site. Many animal bones show cut marks. This suggests that these
animals were used as food. Archaeologists have also found the evidence of use of
ber, amla, jamun, dates and many other fruits.
The above findings show that farming was the main occupation of people of
Inamgaon. Animals were domesticated for milk and meat. Wild animals were also
killed for meat.
How do Historians Study the Skeleton:

The skeletons of an adult and a child can be easily differentiated. But it is difficult to
differentiate between the male and female skeletons. The pelvic bone (hip bone) is
wider in women; for child bearing purposes. Thus the relative size of the pelvic bone
gives a clue about male or female skeleton.
NCERT Solution
Fill in the blanks:
1. Slaves were used for ————————
Answer: manual work

2. Megaliths are found in ————————
Answer: burial sites

3. Stone circles or boulders on the surface were used to ————————
Answer: serve as signposts

4. Port-holes were used for ————————
Answer: entrance
5. People at Inamgaon ate ————————
Answer: grains, fruits and meat
Match Columns
Column I Column II
Sukta Stone boulder
Chariot Sacrifice
Yajna Well said
Dasa Used in battles
Megalith Slave
Answer:
 Sukta: Well said

 Chariot: Used in battles
 Yajna: Sacrifice
 Dasa: Slave
 Megalith: Stone boulder
In what ways are the books we read today different from the Rigveda?
Answer: Rigveda was composed in an ancient form of Sanskrit, while most of

the modern books are either in English or in any other modern languages. The
Rigveda contains hymns in praise of gods and goddesses. The modern books
can be on any topic. Rigveda was initially not in written form but all modern books
are in written form.
What kind of evidence from burials do archaeologists use to find out whether
there were social differences amongst those who were buried?
Answer: The variety of personal belongings buried with the dead gives important
clue about the social status of the dead person. The size of the burial space also
gives clue about the social status of the buried people.
Extra Questions:
In what ways do you think that the life of a raja was different from that of a dasa or
dasi?
Answer: A raja was an independent person while a slave was not. A raja
commanded respect because of his powerful position. But a slave must have been
the subject of ridicule and pity; in most of the cases.
1. The Aryans came from which part of the world?
Answer: Central Asia

2. Which two rivers have been mentioned only a few times in the Rigveda?
Answer: The Ganges and the Yamuna

3. Black and red wares were found from which site?
Answer: Inamgaon
4. Inamgaon is in which modern day state of India?
Answer: Maharashtra
5. The Aryans initially settled around which river?
Answer: Indus
6. What is the total number of Vedas? Write their names.
Answer: There are four Vedas, viz. Rigveda, Samveda, Yajurveda and
Atharvveda
7. Which was the first Veda to be composed?
Answer: Rigveda
8. People who composed the Vedas, called themselves by which name?
Answer: Arya
9. Who were called as the dasa or dasyu; during the Vedic Age?
Answer: The slaves

10. What is a megalith?
Answer: Megalith is a stone structure found on the burial sites.
Kings, Kingdoms Early Republics
Learning Goals:
a. Kings and kingdoms

b. Varna system
c. Janapadas and Mahajanapadas
d. Magadha
Around 600 BC; which was about 3000 years ago; the status of the ruler changed
significantly. Unlike the rajas of the Vedic period; the kings of this period became
more powerful.
ASHWAMEDHA YAJNA
The method of choosing a raja changed; as compared to Vedic period. A person
who wanted to become a raja had to perform big sacrifices to claim his authority.
A raja usually performed ashwamedha yajna to assert his supremacy above
other rajas.
Some of the details about ashwamedha yajna are as follows:
 A horse was let loose to roam around in the surrounding areas; during the
ritual.
 If the horse was able to pass through any raja’s territory; this meant that that
particular raja accepted the supremacy of the ambitious raja.
 If someone blocked the horse’s path, he had to fight with the raja’s army.
 The winner of that battle was to become the ultimate raja.
 After the horse used to complete its round of all the territories; other rajas
were sent invitation to attend the yajna. This used to mark the beginning of
supremacy of the raja who performed the ashwadedha yajna.
 Specially trained priests performed the rituals. The priests were rewarded with
precious gifts. Cows used to be a major part of such gifts.
 In those rituals; the main raja used to be the central figure. He was given the
most important and the highest seat. Other rajas sat according to their
individual status.
 Since the charioteer of the raja always accompanied in all his exploits; he
used to chant the raja’s tales of glory during the yajna. Other rajas were
supposed to behave as mute spectators.
 The relatives of the main raja got the opportunity to perform some minor
rituals. The ordinary people (vish or vaishyas) were supposed to bring gifts for
the raja. The shudras were not allowed to attend the ceremony.
The Varna System

The society was divided into four varnas, viz. the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas
and Shudras.
 Brahmins: The Brahmins were considered as the supreme varna and were given
the highest status. Brahmins were expected to study and teach the Vedas. They
were expected to perform sacrifices. They used to receive gifts; in lieu of performing
sacrifices and rituals.
 Kshatriyas: The Kshatriya varna came at the second number. The rulers came
under this varna. They were expected to fight battles and to protect people. They
could also perform sacrifices.
 Vaishyas: The vaishya varna came at the third number and included the farmers,
herders and traders came under this varna. They could also perform sacrifices.
 Shudras: The shudra varna was at the bottom of this hierarchy. They were
expected to serve the other three varnas. Sometimes, women were also considered
as shudras. The shudras were not allowed to perform sacrifices. They could not
even attend such ceremonies.
A person’s varna was based on his birth. Thus, the son of a Brahmin was always a
Brahmin. Similarly, the son of a shudra would always remain a shudra. A shudra was
not allowed to do the work meant for other varnas. But some people did not agree
with this system. Even some rajas did not agree with this system. For example; in
the north-eastern part of India, the society was not as sharply polarized. In this part
of the country, the priests did not enjoy so much power.
THE JANAPADAS
The term ‘janapada’ is composed of two Hindi words, i.e. jana and pada. This means
a place where people (jana) set their feet (pada) and settle down. A janapada was
bigger than the jana about which you have read in previous chapter. After
successfully performing the ashwamedha yajna, a raja could become the king of a
janapada. Even today; a district is called a janapad in Uttar Pradesh.
Although a janapada was bigger in size, yet people still lived in huts and reared
cattle. People grew many crops; like rice, wheat, pulses, barley, sugarcane, sesame
and mustard; were grown. The archaeologists have excavated many sites from the
janapadas. For example; Purana Quila in Delhi, Hastinapur near Meerut and
Atranjikhera near Etah (in UP).
Grey Ware: Clay pots were commonly used by the people. Some of the pots were
grey, while some of them were red. Some grey wares were painted with ornate
designs. These pots were possibly used on special occasions; like a feast.
THE MAHAJANAPADAS
Around 2500 years ago, some of the janapadas became bigger in size. They also
became more important than other janapadas. The bigger and important janapadas
were called the mahajanapadas. Some examples of mahajanapadas are; Magadha,
Koshala, Anga, Panchala, etc. are examples of the mahajanapadas.
Fort: A mahajanapada used to have a capital city. The capital cities were usually
fortified. Bricks, stones and wood were used for making forts. Fots were made to
protect the city against enemies. They were also made to show off the might of the
mahajanapada. A fortified city was also easier to manage.
Army: The raja maintained a regular army and soldiers were paid salaries on a
regular basis.
Coins: Payments were made in the form of coins. Designs or motifs were made on
these coins by punching. Hence, these are called punch coins. Thus, this period
marks the change from barter system to a monetary system. In the barter system,
people exchange goods for other goods. In the monetary system; we need to pay in
currency.
Taxes:
The raja of a mahajanapada needed large amount of money to build fort and to
maintain an army. While the rajas of the earlier period relied on gifts by people and
other rajas; this could not be enough in the new system. So, the rajas began
collecting taxes. People were employed for tax collection. Following are the ways
and means for tax collection:
a. Farmers were the main source of taxes. One-sixth of the farm produce was collected as
tax. This was known as the bhaga or share.
b. A craftsperson had to pay taxes in the form of free labor. He needed to work for one day
every month for the king and that too without wages.
c. A herder used to pay tax in the form of animals and animal produce.
d. Taxes were also levied on goods that were bought and sold through trade.
e. Hunters and gatherers used to pay in the form of forest produce.
Changes in Agriculture:
Two major changes happened in agriculture:
a. Use of iron ploughshare: Use of iron ploughshare helped in increasing the area under
cultivation. This helped in improving the crop yield.
b. Plantation of paddy saplings: Plantation of paddy saplings gives better results than
scattering the seeds. But plantation of paddy sapling requires lot of human labor. Dasas,
dasis and landless labourers were employed for this purpose. The landless labourer was
called the kammakara.
Fifteen monarchical janapadas; according to Panini’s Ashtadhyayi: Salveya,

Gandhari, Magadha, Kalinga, Surasena, Kosala, Ajada, Kuru, Salva,
Pratyagratha, Kalakuta, Ashmaka, Kamboja, Avanti and Kunti.
MAGADHA
The area around modern day south Bihar and parts of eastern UP; along the Ganges
formed the Magadha. In the course of about 200 years, Magadha emerged as a
prominent mahajanapada. It was under the rule of the Nanda dynasty. The factors
which favoured the rise of Magadha are as follows:
a. This region is irrigated by rivers; like Ganga and Son and other tributaries of Ganga.
Hence, the land was fertile and there was plenty of water. Fertile land ensured high crop
yield. So, this area was prosperous. These rivers also served as good channel for water
transport.
b. Some parts of Magadha had dense forest. The forest provided plenty of wood. Wood could
be used for making buildings, chariots and carts. Elephants could be captured from the
forest and trained for the army.
Bimbisara and Ajatasattu were two powerful rulers to rule over Magadha. They used
all the possible means to conquer other janapadas.
Mahapadma Nanda was another powerful ruler. He further spread the Magadha
territory to the north-western part of the subcontinent.
The Magadhan rulers were so powerful that even the army of Alexander the Great
was afraid to venture into their territory. You may be aware that Alexander the Great
was harbouring the ambitions to conquer the world. He was the king of Macedonia in
Europe.
Rajgriha (the present day Rajgir) was the capital of Magadha. Later, the capital was
shifted to Pataliputra which is known as Patna in the modern times. The term ‘patali’
means ‘port’ and ‘putra’ means ‘son’. Thus the term ‘Pataliputra’ means ‘son of the
port’.
VAJJI
Vajji was another powerful kingdom; with its capital at Vaishali in modern day Bihar.
While Magadha was under a monarchy; Vajji was under a democratic rule. The
government was known as gana or sangha. A gana was not ruled by a single ruler
but by a group of many rulers who were known as the raja. The rajas performed the
rituals as a group and met in assemblies. Discussion and debate was used for taking
major decisions. For example; preparation for a battle or plan for public welfare was
chalked out by discussion in the assemblies. However, such meetings were out of
bound for women, dasas and kammakaras.
Buddha and Mahavira also belonged to the ganas. Buddha and Mahavira were great
thinkers of that period and their preaching are still important for us.
Many other rajas made several attempts to conquer the ganas of Vaishali. But they
did not get success. The ganas survived till as later as about 1500 years ago.
Finally, the last ganas were conquered by the Gupta rulers.
1. Rajas who let the ashvamedha horse pass through their lands were invited to
the sacrifice.
Answer: True
2. The charioteer sprinkled sacred water on the king.
Answer: False
3. Archaeologists have found palaces in the settlements of the janapadas.
Answer: False
4. Pots to store grain were made out of Painted Grey Ware.
Answer: False
5. Many cities in mahajanapadas were fortified.
Answer: False
Who were the groups who could not participate in the assemblies of the ganas?
Answer: Women, shudras and kammakaras were not allowed to participate in the
assemblies of the ganas.
Why did the rajas of mahajanapadas build forts?
Answer: Building a fort served many purposes. Some of them are as follows:
a. It was a way to show off the might of the raja.

b. A fort made a city more secure.
c. A fortified city was easier to manage.
In what ways are present-day elections different from the ways in which rulers were
chosen in janapadas?
Answer: In modern days; rulers are chosen through popular vote. But in the
janapadas, a ruler was not chosen rather a person was supposed to show his
supremacy to become the ruler. To do so, the raja had to perform the ashwadeha
yajna so that other rajas in the mahanjanapada would accept his supremacy.
Extra Questions>
Which yajna was performed by a raja who wished to control a larger territory?
Answer: Ashwamedha yajna
What was the main role of the priests?
Answer: Teaching and reading the Vedas and performing yajnas.
Who was responsible for safety and security of people in a mahajanapada?
Answer: The raja
Which modern city eventually became the capital of Magadha?
Answer: Patna
What were the two important changes in agriculture around 2500 years ago?
Answer: Two important changes in agriculture (around 2500 years ago) are as
follows:
a. (a) Use of iron ploughshare

b. (b) Plantation of rice saplings
Why did the raja need to collect taxes?
Answer: Building a fort and maintaining an army involved lot of money. Taxes were
the most ideal means to collect a large sum of money on a regular basis. So, the raja
needed to collect taxes.
Who were the largest contributors towards taxes in a mahajanapada? Tax was
collected from them in which form?
Answer: Since the main occupation was agriculture, hence farmers were the largest
contributors towards taxes. One-sixth of the farm produce was collected as tax. This
was known as bhaga or share.
New Questions and Ideas
Learning Goals:
a. Stories of Buddha and Mahavira

b. Upanishads and Four Ashramas
THE STORY OF THE BUDDHA
The original name of Gautama Buddha was Siddhartha. Sidhhartha was born about
2500 years ago at Lumbini in Kapilvastu which is in modern day Nepal. He was a
kshatriya nad belonged to the Sakya gana. Sidhhartha was a prince. He was given
all the comforts during his childhood. Once he became an adult, many questions
regarding the true meaning of life used to come to his mind. In search of true
meaning of life; he left the comforts of his home. He began to wander in search of
true meaning of life. He consulted many learned men but could not find the real
answer.
Finally, he began meditating under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya. After meditating for
many days; Sidhhartha finally attained the enlightenment. After that he became the
Buddha. The term ‘Buddha’ means the ‘enlightened one’. After becoming the
Buddha; he gave his first sermon at Sarnath (near Varanasi). Then he went to
spread his learning among the people. Buddha died at Kushinara (Kushinagar).
Preaching of Buddha:
 This life is full of desires. Once a desire is fulfilled, we crave for more. This marks the
beginning of an unending cycle of cravings and desires. According to Buddha; this is
called thirst or ‘tanha’.
 Life is a suffering because of endless cycle of cravings and desires.
 This cycle can be removed by following moderation in everything we do.
 One should be kind to others; including animals.
 The results of our actions (karma); whether good or bad; affect us in this life and also
in the afterlife.
Buddha used the prakrit language to give his preaching. This was the language of
the common people at that time. Due to use of the common language; Buddha was
able to spread his preaching far and wide. He encouraged people to stop blindly
following him and to think for themselves instead.
UPANISHADS
Upanishads are a collection of philosophical texts. The Upanishads were composed

at around the same time; or somewhat earlier; when Buddha came on the scene.
The Upanishads are written in the style of dialogue between teachers and disciples.
Thinkers; especially Brahmin and Kshatriya men; were the main composers of the
Upanishads. However, some women also contributed to the Upanishads. Gargi is an
example of such women. She used to participate in the debates in the royal courts.
Poor people seldom took part in such discussions. But Satyakama Jabala was an
exception. He was the son of a slave woman Jabali. Satyakama Jabala was
accepted by a Brahmin teacher; Gautama; as a disciple.
The human mind always tried to find answers to difficult questions about life. The
ideas in the Upanishads were a result of this pursuit. People always wanted to know
the meaning of life and the afterlife. Many people were beginning to question the
practice of sacrifices and meaningless rituals. Many thinkers believed that there must
be something permanent which exists even after the death. They called it atman or
the individual soul. The universal soul was called the Brahman. Those thinkers
believed that the atman and Brahman were ultimately the one.
MAHAVIRA
Mahavira came at the same time as Buddha. He was the 24th tirthankar of the
Jainism. Mahavira was a kshatriya prince of the Licchavi. He belonged to the Vajji
sangha. When he was about 30 years of age; he left his home. He roamed in forests
in pursuit of the ultimate truth of life. He lived a lonely and tough life. After spending a
long period of 12 years of hardships; Mahavira attained enlightenment.
Preaching of Mahavira:
 People, who wish to know the truth, must leave their home.
 The truth seeker must follow the rules of ahimsa. The rule of ahimsa means not
hurting or killing any living being. Life is dear to all living beings.
Mahavira too preached in prakrit. The use of the language of the common people
helped in making a better connect with the common people. The followers of the
Jainism had to live a simple life. They had to do begging for food. A jain had to be
absolutely honest. He must desist from stealing. The followers of Mahavira had to
observe celibacy, i.e. the person was not allowed to marry. Men had to give up
everything; including clothes.
It is obvious that sticking to the rules of Jainism was very difficult for most of the
people. In spite of that, thousands of men and women left their homes to become
followers of Mahavira. Many others supported the monks and nuns and provided
them with food.
The trading community made the largest supporter base for Jainism. But for farmers,
it was not possible to follow the rules because farmers needed to kill pests for
improving crop production.
Jainism spread to different parts of north India and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and
Karnataka. For many years; the teachings of Mahavira and his followers passed
down orally through generations. About 1500 years ago, they were composed in
written form. They are presently available in that form at Valabhi in Gujarat.
Sanghas
Mahavira and Buddha arranged for sanghas where their followers could stay
together. A sangha was an association of those who left their homes. Both Mahavira
and Buddha believed that leaving one’s home was must to find the ultimate truth.
The rules for the Buddhist sanghas are contained in a book called Vinaya Pitaka.
Some of the rules are as follows:
 Both men and women could join the sangha. There were separate branches for men
and women.
 Any man could join the sangha. But a child had to take permission of his/her parents.
A slave had to take permission of his/her master.
 A woman had to take permission of her husband.
 A person who worked for the king had to take permission from the king.
 A debtor had to take permission from the creditor.
Life in the Sangha: People living in a sangha had to live a simple life. Most of the
time was spent in meditation. The members of a sangha could go to the cities or
villages for begging for food. There was fixed timing for begging. They were known
as bhikkhus and bhikkhunis (which are the Prakrit words for beggars).
Monasteries
The Jaina and Buddhist monks travelled from one place to another; spreading the
preaching of the enlightened ones. But traveling was not possible during rainy
season. Hence, they had to stay at some place during rainy seasons. Many of their
supporters built temporary shelters in gardens. Many monks also lived in natural
caves in hilly areas. With gradual elapse of time, many monks and their supporters
felt the need for a permanent shelter. So, monasteries were built for them. These
monasteries were called the Viharas. Rich merchants, landowners and kings
donated land and money for the building the Viharas. Initially, the Viharas were
made of wood. Later on, they were made of bricks. Some monasteries were built in
caves; especially in the western part of India.
THE SYSTEM OF ASHRAMAS
Around the same time, the Brahmins also developed a new system of ashrama. As
per the ashrama system, life was divided into four stages or four ashramas. They are
as follows:
a. Brahmacharya: This stage encompassed the early years of life. During this stage, a
person was supposed to lead a simple life and study the Vedas.
b. Grihastha: This stage began at the beginning of adulthood. During this stage, one was
supposed to marry and lead a domestic life. He had to take responsibilities of a family.
c. Vanaparastha: During this stage, one had to live in the forest for meditation.
d. Samnyasa: During this stage, one had to renounce everything.
The ashrama system was made for Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. Women
were not allowed to study the Vedas. Women could not choose a particular ashrama.
Women had to follow the ashrama as per the husband’s stage of life.
NCERT Solution
Write whether true or false:
a. The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices.
Answer: False
b. Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first
time.
Answer:True
c. The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives.
Answer:False
d. The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya.
Answer:True
e. Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one.
Answer:True
Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people.
Answer: Buddha followed two methods to spread his message to a wider section of
people. He used prakrit to spread his message. Since prakrit was the language of
the common people hence it helped in making a better connect with the masses.
Buddha also encouraged people to think proactively, instead of blindly following him.
This helped people to understand everything in a better way.
What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer?
Answer: The Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer the following questions:
a. What is the true meaning of life.

b. What happens in the afterlife.
What were the main teachings of the Mahavira?
Answer: Following are the main teachings of the Mahavira:
 People, who wish to know the truth, must leave their home.
 The truth seeker must follow the rules of ahimsa. The rule of ahimsa means
not hurting or killing any living being. Life is dear to all living beings.
Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha?
Answer: Anagha was going on a trip to Varanasi. The place where Buddha gave his
first sermon is near Varanasi. Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of
Buddha so that Anagha could take some lessons from the life and messages of
Buddha. We know that Buddha was a great thinker. His teachings are still important
and relevant for us.
Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for
your answer.
Answer: It must have been very difficult for slaves to join the sangha. According to
the rules; a slave needed to take permission from his/her master for joining the
sangha. But a slave was never in a position to assert his right. He was always at the
mercy of his master. Slaves were not even treated as human beings. It must have
been almost impossible for slave to get the permission from his master.
Extra Questions:
Buddha attained enlightenment at which place?
Answer: Bodh Gaya
Name the place where Buddha gave his first sermon.
Answer: Sarnath
Who are the followers of Mahavira?
Answer: Jains
How many ashramas were suggested by the Brahmins?
Answer: Four
As per Buddha; what is the main cause of miseries in life?
Answer: Desires
Jainism was mainly embraced by people from which profession?
Answer: Traders
Ashoka The Great
Learning Goals:
a. Empire Vs Kingdom
b. The Mauryan Empire
c. Ashoka the Great
d. Kalinga War
e. Legacy of Ashoka
Difference between Empire and Kingdom
Kingdom Empire
A kingdom is small in area. An empire is large in area.
Needs a small army to protect its Needs a much larger army to protect its
territory. territory.
Needs a small number of officials to Needs a large number of officials to

collect taxes. collect taxes.
The king has direct control over the The emperor rules with the help of local
whole territory. governors.
THE MAURYAN EMPIRE:
The Mauryan Empire was founded by Changragupta Maurya. It was founded about
2300 years ago. It was continued from 322 BC to 185 BC. A Brahmin; named
Chanakya; helped Chandragupta in getting to rule over the Mauryan Empire.
Chanakya proposed many innovative ideas about politics and governance. His ideas
were written down in a book called Arthashastra. Initially, the Mauryan Empire began
from the Magadha. Later, it expanded to different parts of India. It was the largest
empire of its time. It was also the largest empire ever in the history of India.
Successors of Chandragupta: Chandragupta’s son Bimbisara succeeded him.

Similarly, Bimbisara’s son Ashoka succeeded him. Chandragupta, Bimbisara and
Ashoka were the greatest rulers of the Mauryan Empire.
Capital City: Pataliputra was the capital city of the Mauryan Empire. This is now
known as Patna. Many other important cities; like Taxila, Ujjain and Mathura were
under this Empire. These were important centres of trade. The cities were mainly
inhabited by traders. Famers and herders lived in villages. Hunters and gatherers
lived in the forests of central India. The Empire was so large that people in different
areas spoke different languages.
Ruling the Empire:

Ruling the Capital City: The capital city was under direct control of the emperor.
Taxes were collected by officials. Farmers, herders, traders and craftsperson had
had to pay taxes. The officials punished those who disobeyed the rules. Many
officials were paid salaries. Messengers worked as channels of communication
between the emperor and the officials. Spied kept a close eye on the officials. They
were supervised by the emperor. In this task, the emperor was helped by close
members of the royal family and by senior ministers.
Ruling the Provinces: Other areas were ruled from provincial capitals. Taxila and
Ujjain are examples of provincial capital. The emperor kept some amount of control
from Pataliputra. Princes were usually made the governors of these provinces. But
local customs and rules were followed in the provinces.
Controlling the Transport Channels: There were vast areas between these
centres. These areas were controlled in a different way. Roads and rivers were
controlled by the Mauryans. Roads and rivers served as important channels for
transport. These channels were also utilized to collect taxes and tributes. Tax was
mandatory. But tributes were given according to the wish of the person who gave
them. According to Arthashastra; the north-west was important for blankets.
Similarly; south was important for gold and precious stones. There is a possibility
that these items were collected as tributes.
Forest Dwellers: The forest dwellers were more or less independent. But forest
dwellers were supposed to provide, elephants, honey, wax and timber to the
Mauryan officials.
Megasthenes’ Account of the Emperor and Capital City

Megasthenes was an ambassador to the court of Chandragupta. He was sent by the
Greek Ruler Selucus. Megasthenes has written rich accounts which show the
importance of the emperor. He had also written about the grandeur and beauty of the
capital city of Pataliputra.
As per Megasthenes; Pataliputra was a big city. There were 570 towers and 64
gates in the city. Houses were made of wood and mud-bricks. The houses were
either single storeyed or two storeyed. The emperor’s palace was also made of wood
and mud-bricks. The palace was decorated with carved stones. A beautiful garden
was around the palace. There were enclosures for keeping several birds.
Megasthenes has also written about one of the processions of the emperor. The
emperor was carried in a golden palanquin. His guards travelled ahead of him.
They were on elephants. The elephants were decorated with gold and silver.
Some guards carried trees. Live birds; especially trained parrots flew around
those trees. Some parrots encircled the emperor’s head. The king was
surrounded by female bodyguards. There were special servants who tasted the
food before it was served to the emperor.
Let us try to understand the meaning of what was written by Megasthenes. The
emperor was given the highest prestige befitting his status. His life must have been
under constant threat. Hence there was a need of bodyguards. Internal palace
intrigues must have been the norm. Hence, emperor’s food was tasted before being
served to him.
ASHOKA; A UNIQUE RULER
In many senses; Ashoka was a unique ruler. He was the only ruler who stopped the
practice of expansion of empire after winning a war. He was the first ruler to who
began the practice of direct communication with his subjects.
The Kalinga War
During ancient times; the modern day coastal Orissa was known as Kalinga. In order
to expand his territory; Ashoka attacked Kalinga and won the battle. In the Kalinga
battle, more than a lakh people died, many more were taken as prisoners and a
large number of people was badly affected. Ashoka was shocked at that incident.
The large scale bloodshed changed Ashoka’s heart. He took a pledge of not waging
a single war in the future.
Ashoka’s Dhamma
In the aftermath of the Kalinga war, Ashoka was inspired by the teachings of
Buddha. Ashoka embraced a new Dhamma which was radical for his times.
Ashoka’s Dhamma did not involve worship of a god. It did not involve ritual or
sacrifice. If we view it from modern perspective, Ashoka’s religious ideologies were
inclined towards secularism. Secularism treats all religions with equal respect.
Ashoka used messages and inscriptions to communicate with his subject. He

advised people to respect other religions. He also advised them to desist from
meaningless rituals.
Ashoka felt that a king should not lord over his subjects. He felt that it was his duty to
serve people and solve their problems. He appointed dhamma mahamatta. The
dhamma mahamatta used to go to the people to teach them about the dhamma.
Ashoka inscribed messages on stone pillars. This was done to ensure that people
could read them. Officials were given instructions to read them for those who could
read. Messengers were sent to other countries to spread the message of his
dhamma.
Ashoka did various works for the welfare of people. During his regime; roads and
rest houses were built and wells were dug. Hospitals were made not only for humans
but also for animals.
Most of the inscriptions were written in Prakrit language in the Brahmi script. At some
places, inscriptions were also written in local languages. For example; Arabic was
used for inscriptions at places which are in modern day Afghanistan and Pakistan.
Legacy of Ashoka
Ashoka had left a rich legacy. Many of his principles are still being followed. Many of
our national symbols have been taken from his reign. The National Emblem has
been taken from the Sarnath’s Ashoka pillar. The wheel in the National Flag has also
been taken from the wheel symbol used by Ashoka on different installations and
even on coins.
Fill in the blanks:
1. Officials collected ———————— from the area under the direct control of
the ruler.
Answer: taxes
2. Royal princes often went to the provinces as ———
Answer: governors
3. The Mauryan rulers tried to control ———————— and ————————
which were important for transport.
Answer: roads, rivers

4. People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ———————
—
Answer: Elephants, timber, honey, wax
True or False
1. Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west.
Answer: False
2. Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra.
Answer: True
3. Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal.
Answer: False
4. Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script.
Answer: True
5. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing
dhamma?
6. Answer: Mindless rituals and sacrifices were the norm during Ashoka’s
period. People did not have respect for other religions. People ill treated
servants and slaves. By introducing dhamma; Ashoka wanted to solve these
problems.
7. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of
dhamma?
8. Answer: Ashoka used the means of communicating with his people to spread
the message of dhamma. His messages were inscribed on stone pillars so
that people could read them. Officials were instructed to spread his message
and to read out inscriptions for those who could not read. Ashoka used Prakrit
and local languages so that common people could understand his messages.
9. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the
orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for
your answer.
10. Answer: People usually view their servants and slaves are inferior. Hence,
servants and slaves were ill-treated. Ashoka’s orders may have had some
effect because he was a powerful king. Moreover, his messages must have
helped in improving people’s awareness about that issue. This may also have
helped in improving the situation.
Extra Questions
1. Who is considered as the greatest ruler of the Mauryan Empire?
Answer: Ashoka
2. Which was the biggest ever empire in the history of India?
Answer: The Mauryan Empire

3. Ashoka was deeply influences by the teachings of which great thinker of his
time?
Answer: Gautama Buddha

4. Our National Emblem is inspired by which historic monument?
Answer: The Ashokan Pillar at Sarnath

5. Which dynasty was replaced by the Mauryan dynasty?
Answer: The Nanda dynasty

6. The Mauryan Empire was founded in which year?
Answer: 322 BC
7. Who helped Chandragupta in overthrowing the Nanda dynasty?
Answer: Chanakya
8. Which language was used in most of the inscriptions by Ashoka?
Answer: Prakrit
Vital Villages Thriving Towns
Learning Goals:
a. Use of Iron Tools

b. Benefits of Irrigation
c. Life in Villages
d. Life in Cities
Increased Use of Iron Tools
Increased Use of Iron Tools: Iron tools came into use at the end of chalcolithic age.
Some iron tools have been found from the megalithic burial sites. The use of iron
tools increased around 2500 years ago.
Benefits of Iron Tools: Iron is stronger but lighter than stone. It is much easier to
give shape to iron. Much sharper and lightweight tools could be made from iron than
what was possible with stone. The iron tools made the task of workers a lot easier.
Use of iron in ploughshare made it possible to increase the area under cultivation.
Many other iron tools made farming much easier, e.g. sickles, axe and spade. This
helped in increasing the farm yield.
Effect of Irrigation on Agricultural Production:
At the beginning of the Iron Age, people began transplantation of paddy. This helped
in increasing the production of paddy. Thus, transplantation of paddy was a major
innovation at the beginning of the Iron Age.
People began to make special structure for irrigation. This also helped in improving
farm productivity. Canals, wells and tanks were built for irrigation.
During this period, the size of the kingdoms increased. The kings needed more taxes
from people. Farmers were the main contributors towards taxes. So, some methods
had to be found out to increase farm productivity. To ensure this, the kings made
arrangements so that canals, wells and tanks could be built. This helped farmers to
increase farm production. This also helped in increasing tax revenue for the kings.
Social Structure in villages
Let us take two examples to understand social structure of villages during that time.
One example is from a south Indian village and another is from a north Indian village.
South Indian Village: A village of south India could be divided into following
categories of people:
a. Vellalar: Large landowners were called vellalars.

b. Uzhavar: Ordinary ploughmen were called uzhavars.
c. Kadaisiyar and adimai: Landless labourers and slaves were known as kadaisiyar
and adimai.
Sangam Literature: The literary compositions in Tamil which were created

around 2300 years ago are known as Sangam Literature. These were composed
in assemblies of authors. Such assemblies were held in Madurai. The term
‘sangam’ means assembly. This explains the naming of Sangam Literature.
Sangam Literature has been used to get information about social structure of
south Indian villages of that period.
North Indian Village: A village of north India could be divided into following category
of people:
a. Grambhojaka: The village headman was known as the grambhojaka. His position was
hereditary in nature. So, the members of the same family held that position for many
generations. A grambhojaka was also the largest landowner of the village. He kept slaves
and hired workers to work in his farm. He was very powerful. He had the authority to collect
taxes from other farmers. He also served the function of a judge and sometimes, that of a
policeman.
b. Grihapati: The independent farmers were called the grihapati. They were usually small
landowners.
c. Dasa karmakara: The landless men and women were called the dasa karmakara. They
worked in other farmer’s fields.
Crafts persons also lived in villages, e.g. carpenter, potter, weaver, etc. Villages
were the main centres of food production. A village served as source of food grains
and other farm produce for the people in cities.
Thriving Cities
A place where agriculture is not the main occupation is called a city. Many cities
thrived in India about 2500 years ago, e.g., Pataliputra, Varanasi, Mathura, Ujjain,
Madurai, Taxila, etc. A city was the hub of trade and other activities.
Mathura
Around 2500 years ago, Mathura was an important city. It was at the junction of two
major trade routes, i.e. from the northwest to the east and from north to south.
The city was fortified from all around. There were many shrines in the city. These
shrines were used by people for gathering and for spending spare time. Food for the
city dwellers came from farmers and herders from the adjoining areas. Mathura was
also a centre of production of some fine sculpture.
Mathura was an important religious centre as well. It was an important centre of

worship of Lord Krishna. Buddhist monasteries and Jain shrines were also present in
Mathura.
The remains of gates and pillars reveal many inscriptions which give valuable
information about the life in Mathura. The inscriptions usually show donations made
by people. From these inscriptions, historians have come to know about various
occupations during that time. Donations were made by kings and queens, officers,
merchants, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers,
perfumers, etc.
Crafts and Crafts Persons
Different kinds of crafts were made in Mathura. This city was famous for very fine
pottery; called the Northern Black Polished Ware. The pottery was black and had a
fine gloss over it. Since such pottery was usually made in north India, hence it was
called the Northern Black Polished Ware.
Many crafts may not have survived the vagaries of time. However, various texts from
that period tell about them. Varanasi and Madurai were important centres of textiles
production. Both men and women worked in the textiles industry.
The crafts persons and merchants formed associations. Such associations were
called the shrenis. Following are various responsibilities of the shreni:
 Training of crafts person,

 Procurement of raw materials and
 Distribution of finished products.
There was the shreni of merchants as well. It organized the trade. The shreni of
merchants also worked as banks. Rich men and women could deposit their money in
such banks. That money was invested in trade and the interest was returned to the
depositor. The interest could also be used for supporting religious institutions such
as monasteries.
Arikamedu
Arikamedu was in modern day Pondicherry. About 2200 to 1900 years ago, it was a
coastal settlement. Ships from distant lands came and were unloaded at this centre.
A massive brick structure had been found on this site. Historians guess that it was a
warehouse. Pottery from the Mediterranean region had been found from this site,
e.g. amphorae and stamped red-glazed pottery. (called Arrentine Ware). Amphora is
double handled jar for keeping liquids; like wine and oil. Red-glazed pottery is called
Arrentine Ware. It got its name after an Italian village named Arezzo; which is now a
city. Many local made potteries have also been found from this site. But the local
potteries also contain Roman designs. Roman glassware, lamps and gems have
also been found from this site.
The potteries from Arikamedu show that there was big influence from the
Mediterranean; especially from Rome.
Small tanks have also been found. They were probably used as dyeing vats; for
dyeing cloths.
Other Proofs of the Life in Those Times

Many sculptures from this period depict scenes from the day to day life. These
sculptures were used for decorating pillars, railings and gateways. These sculptures
show various occupations during this period.
During excavation in many cities, rows of pots or ceramic rings have been found.
The ceramic rings were arranged one over another. Such structures are known as
ring wells. Historians believe that they were used as toilets or as drains. They were
usually present in individual houses.
Very few remains of palaces and homes have been found. There could be two
reasons for this. One of the reasons can be that historians have yet to find those
remains. Another reason is that most of the structures were made of wood and mud
bricks and hence they may not have survived the vagaries of time.
Historians have also found many proofs from accounts of travelers and sailors. For
example; a Greek sailor had mentioned interesting account about Bharuch. Bharuch
is in modern day Gujarat. Its Greek name was Barygaza. According to that sailor, the
gulf at Bharuch was very narrow. It was difficult to navigate through the gulf at
Bharuch. Only locally trained fishermen were able to steer a ship to the shore. Such
fishermen were employed by the king.
Bharuch was an important point for imports and exports. The main items of imports
included; wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold and silver coins. The main
items of exports included; plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton,
silk and perfumes. The merchants also brought special gifts for the king; such as
vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful women, fine wines and fine cloth.
Coins were often used as a means of exchange. Punch marked coins were in use at
that time. Some form of barter system was also in practice. Salt was an important
tool of barter.
NCERT Solution
Fill in the blanks:
1. ———————— was a word used for large landowners in Tamil.
Answer: Vellalar
2. The gramabhojaka often got his land cultivated by the ————————
Answer: dasa karmakara

3. Ploughmen were known as ———————— in Tamil.
Answer: Uzhavar
4. Most grihapatis were ———————— landowners.
Answer: Small
Describe the functions of the gramabhojaka. Why do you think he was powerful?
Answer: The gramabhojaka had the authority to collect taxes from other farmers. He
also served the function of a judge and sometimes, that of a policeman. He was the
biggest landowner in the village and exercised many powers. Hence, he was very
powerful in the village.
List the crafts persons who would have been present in both villages and cities.
Answer: Carpenter, ironsmith, potter, weaver, etc.
Choose the correct answer:
1. Ring wells were used for:

a. bathing
b. washing clothes
c. irrigation
d. drainage
Answer: (d) Drainage

2. Punch marked coins were made of:
a. silver
b. gold
c. tin
d. ivory
Answer: (a) silver

3. Mathura was an important:
a. village
b. port
c. religious centre
d. forested area
Answer: (b) religious centre

4. Shrenis were associations of:
a. rulers
b. crafts persons
c. farmers
d. herders
Answer: (b) crafts persons
Which of the iron tools shown on page 87 (NCERT Book) would have been
important for agriculture? What would the other tools have been used for?
Answer: Sickle was more important for agriculture. Axe could be used for
chopping wood. Tongs could be used in kitchen or by ironsmith; to hold a hot
item.
Compare the drainage system in your locality with that of the cities mentioned in
the lesson. What similarities and differences do you notice?
Answer: The modern drainage system is made of pipes. Pipes can be made of
plastic, concrete or metal. In the cities (in this lesson), the drainage was made by
many rings which were stacked over one another. The rings also made a tube-
like structure. Use of tubes and ceramic are the similarities. Use of rings in those
cities is the difference.
Extra Questions
What do you understand by Sangam literature?
Answer: The literary compositions in Tamil which were created around 2300 years
ago are known as Sangam Literature. These were composed in assemblies of
authors. Such assemblies were held in Madurai. The term ‘sangam’ means
assembly. This explains the naming of Sangam Literature. Sangam Literature has
been used to get information about social structure of south Indian villages of that
period.
How do we know that Arikamedu had trade relations with the Mediterranean?
Answer: Many potteries have been found from the excavation site at Arikamedu.
Some of these potteries show that they originated in the Mediterranean; especially in
Rome. Even some local potteries show designs from Rome. This shows that
Arikamedu had trade relations with the Mediterranean.
What were the functions of a shreni?
Answer: Following are various responsibilities of the shreni:
 Training of crafts person,

 Procurement of raw materials and
 Distribution of finished products.
What are the possible reasons of very few remains of the cities of the Iron Age?
Answer: Very few remains of palaces and homes have been found. There could be
two reasons for this. One of the reasons can be that historians have yet to find those
remains. Another reason is that most of the structures were made of wood and mud
bricks and hence they may not have survived the vagaries of time.
Which were the two important developments in agriculture during the Iron Age?
Answer: Following are the two important developments in agriculture during the Iron
Age:
a. Improvement in irrigation facilities

b. Plantation of paddy
Traders, Kings and Pilgrims
Learning Goals:
a. Traders during ancient times

b. Kingdoms along the coast
c. Pilgrims, Buddhism and Bhakti
TRADERS DURING ANCIENT TIMES
A person who buys things from where they are made and sell them elsewhere is
called a trader. Trade has been taking place since ancient times. Traders travelled
long distances to buy and sell things. Traders also helped in exchange of cultures
and ideas.
Trade Relations with Rome: South India was famous for gold and spices. Black
pepper was the most valued spice and was often termed as ‘Black Gold’. Traders
from Rome traveled by ships and by caravans. They carried black pepper to Rome.
Many Roman coins have been discovered from south India. This shows that there
was good amount of trade between India and Rome.
Ancient Sea Routes through India: The traders also explored many sea routes
through India. Some of the sea routes were along the coastline. Some others were
through the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. The sailors took advantage of the
southwest monsoon while sailing through these seas. Ships were made strong so
that they could withstand the rigours of a tough voyage.
NEW KINGDOMS ALONG THE COAST

The southern part of the peninsula is marked with a very long coastline. This
coastline is dotted with hills, plateaus and river valleys are also present along the
coastline. There was thriving trade along this coastline. Due to this, chiefs and kings
who controlled the coastline and river valleys became very powerful and rich. About
2300 years ago; three ruling families became very powerful in south India. These
were; the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas. The term ‘mauvendar’ has been frequently
mentioned in the Sangam literature. The term ‘mauvendar’ means the three chiefs.
Important Trade Centres of South: Each chief had two centres of power. One
centre was power was inland and another was on the coast. Thus there were six
important cities; in terms of power. Puhar or Kaveripattinam and Madurai were the
two highly important cities among them. While Kaveripattinam was the port of
Cholas, Madurai was the capital of Pandyas.
These powerful chiefs provided protection to the traders. But they did not collect
taxes for giving protection to the traders. Rather they demanded and received
tributes from the traders. They usually went on military expeditions too and collected
tributes from surrounding areas.
Some of the collected wealth was kept by the chiefs. But most of the wealth was
distributed among others; like family members, soldiers and poets. Many poets of the
Sangam literature have composed poems in the praise of these chiefs. The poets
usually received precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth as
gifts.
The Satavahanas: The Satavanahanas was a powerful dynasty. It rose to

prominence in western India around 200 years later. Gautamiputra Sri Satakarni was
the most powerful ruler of the Satavahana dynasty. His mother, Gautami Balashri
had composed an inscription about him. We know about him through that inscription.
The Satavanaha rulers were known as the lords of the dakshinapatha. The term
‘dakshinapatha’ literally means the ‘route leading to the south’. He also sent his army
to the eastern, western and southern coast of India.
THE SILK ROUTE
Silk has very fine quality and luster. Due to this, silk has always been taken as
premium fabric. Silk was first discovered in ancient China about 7000 years ago. But
the process of making silk was kept as a closely guarded secret by the Chinese.
However, silk cloths were sent to faraway lands as gift for rich merchants and kings.
Silk was also carried by traders to be sold in different countries. Silk always attracted
premium price.
The silk traders had to cross a difficult route which went through rough mountains
and narrow passes. There was always the threat of attacks from robbers on these
routes. The ancient routes through which the silk traders traveled is called the Silk
Route.
This map shows the ancient silk route. The land route passed through the Himalayas
and the Hindukush. The sea route passed through the Arabian Sea and the Bay of
Bengal.
Some kings tried to gain control of the Silk Route. They did so to protect the traders.
This helped in flourishing the trade. A flourishing trade ensured that the kings could
collect taxes and tributes from those traders.
The Kushanas: The Kushana dynasty ruled over central Asia and north-west India
about 2000 years ago. They had the best control over the ancient silk route;
compared to any other ruler of that time. Their two major centres of power were;
Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila also came under their kingdom. During the Kushana
rule, a branch of the silk route extended from central Asia to the sea ports at the
mouth of the Indus river. Silk was shipped towards west to Rome from these ports.
The Kushanas were one of the earliest rulers to issue gold coins. These gold coins
were used by the traders along the silk route.
THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISM
Along with the flourishing trade; Buddhism also spread during this period. Kanishka
was the most famous Kushana ruler. He made great contributions to spread
Buddhism to different parts of the world.
There was a famous poet in the court of Kanishka. His name was Ashwaghosha.
Buddhacharita; a biography of Buddha was written by Ashvaghosha. Many writers;
including Ashvaghosha; of that period began to write in Sanskrit.
Mahayana Buddhism: A new form of Buddhism developed during this period. This
form of Buddhism is called the Mahayana Buddhism. It had two distinct features;
which are as follows:
a. In the earlier form of Buddhism, Buddha was depicted by certain signs and
symbols. In the new form, statues of Buddha were also made. Many of those
statues were made in Mathura. Such statues were also made in Taxila.
b. There was also a change in belief in Bodhisattvas. A person who attained
enlightenment was considered as the Bodhisattva. Earlier; he was supposed to live
a life of isolation to meditate in peace. But now, they remained along with the
people to teach them. The worship of Bodhisattva became very popular. This trend
spread to Central Asia, China and later to Korea and Japan.
Cave Monasteries: During this period; Buddhism also spread to western and
southern India. Many caves were made in the hills of western India; especially along
the Western Ghats. These caves were made for the monks. Many kings and queens
made arrangements for making monasteries in these caves. Some monasteries
were also made from contributions by rich merchants and farmers.
Since these caves en route between mainland and ports, hence they were also
used by traders for halt.
Buddhism also spread to the south-east of India during this period. Thus Buddhism
spread to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia
including Indonesia. Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. It was
another form of Buddhism.
THE QUEST OF THE PILGRIMS

A person who undertakes a journey for religious purpose is called pilgrim. Many
pilgrims also travelled along with the traders. Traders normally accepted a pilgrim in
their caravan.
Chinese Pilgrims:
Three Chinese pilgrims became quite famous and their names are; Fa Xian
(pronounced as Fa Hian), Xuan Zang (pronounced as Huen Sang) and I – Quing.
All of them were Buddhist pilgrims.
Fa Xian came to India about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang came about 1400 years
ago and I-Qing came 50 years after Xuan Zang. Their main purpose was to visit he
places associated with Buddha and Buddhism.
The accounts of these pilgrims give valuable information about this period. We
come to know about the tortuous routes, dangers involved in travel, social life in
India and many more; from their accounts.
Nalanda University was famous and was in modern day Bihar. Xuan Zang had also
written about this university. Xuan Zang has mentioned that the university was full of
learned people. The admission process for this university was very tough. The
success rate of students was less than 20% during the entrance tests for this
university.
BHAKTI MOVEMENT
The Bhakti movement is associated with visualizing the Hindu deities from a new
perspective. Most of the images of the Hindu deities being used in modern times are
the results of the Bhakti movement.
This was the period when the priests had a stranglehold on the religion.
Meaningless rituals were prevalent in the society. The Bhakti Movement was the
result of struggle to free the religion from those ills.
The idea of Bhakti says that a person should be free to choose his/her deity. A
person is free to select a method or an object to worship the god. Thus, a person
can use an idol, an animal, a tree, a song or a poem; or anything to worship the
god.
The idea of Bhakti says that pure devotion is the most important and means to
devotion is secondary. If a person worships a deity with pure devotion, he can get
the blessings of the god.
Many artists made pictures and statues of different gods and goddesses. Poets
wrote beautiful songs to express devotion. The form in which we recognize most of
the gods even today are the result of Bhakti movement.
This movement saw the emergence of many great poets; like Meera, Kabir, Surdas,
etc. People no longer had to rely only on temples as places of worship. Many
people began making small temples inside their homes as well. Even today, we may
see small temples in many Hindu homes.
Origin of the term ‘Hindu’: The term ‘Hindu’ has come from Indus. The Arabs
and Iranians used this term for people who lived to the east of the river Indus. In
due course of time, the religious practices, cultures and set of beliefs of these
people came be known as Hinduism.
NCERT Solution:
Match Columns
Xuan Zang
Column I Column II
Muvendar Mahayana Buddhism
Lords of the dakshinapatha Buddhacharita
Ashvaghosha Satavahana rulers
Bodhisattvas Chinese pilgrim
Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas

Answer:
 Muvendar: Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas

 Lords of the dakshinapath: Satavahana rulers
 Ashvaghosha: Buddhacharita
 Bodhisattvas: Mahayana Buddhism
 Xuan Zang: Chinese pilgrim
 Why did kings want to control the Silk Route?
 Answer: The kings wanted to control the Silk Route to protect the traders.
This was done with the aim of ensuring a flourishing trade. The flourishing
trade could ensure good tax collection and collection of tributes. Hence, the
kings wanted to control the Silk Route.
 What kinds of evidence do historians use to find out about trade and trade
routes?
 Answer: Historians look for various items of trade. If a particular item comes
out to be from a distant land, this shows the existence of trade relations with
that part of the world. Historians also look for coins which tell a lot about
history. Historians also look into accounts of traders and pilgrims.
What were the main features of Bhakti?
Answer: Following are the main features of Bhakti:
a. This was the result of people’s struggle to free the religion from control of the
priests.
b. A person was free to choose his ways and means to worship a god.
c. Pure devotion to a deity was most important aspect.
d. Any object could be used as a symbol of the god.
Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India.
Answer: The Chinese pilgrims were mainly interested in exploring about Buddha
and Buddhism. Hence, they came to India.
Why do you think ordinary people were attracted to Bhakti?
Answer: The Bhakti movement gave freedom of choice to ordinary people. They
could worship any god by any method they wished. There was no need for elaborate
rituals. The temple was no longer the only place of worship. Easier rules attracted
people to Bhakti.
Extra Questions:
Which spice was also known as Black Gold?
Answer: Black Pepper
Which city was the capital of the Pandya rulers?
Answer: Madurai
Which city was the capital of the Chola rulers?
Answer: Kaveripattinam
Kushanas were very powerful in which part of India?
Answer: North-west India

Buddhacharita was written by whom?
Answer: Ashvaghosha
What do you understand by a pilgrim?
Answer: A traveler who undertakes a journey for religious purpose is called a

pilgrim.
What was Silk Route?
Answer: The ancient trade route through which the silk traders traveled from China
to other parts of the world is called Silk Route.
Who was called a Bodhisattva?
Answer: A person who attained enlightenment was called a Bodhisattva.
Name some poets of the Bhakti movement.
Answer: Meera, Surdas, Tulsidas, Rahim and Kabir
What were the key aspects of the Mahayana Buddhism?
Answer: The Mahayana Buddhism had two distinct features; which are as follows:
a. In the earlier form of Buddhism, Buddha was depicted by certain signs and
symbols. In the new form, statues of Buddha were also made.
b. Earlier; a Bodhisattva was supposed to live a life of isolation to meditate in peace.
But now, they remained along with the people to teach them. The worship of
Bodhisattva became very popular.
New Empires and Kingdoms
Learning Goals:
a. The Gupta Empire

b. Harshavardhana
c. Kings in South India
d. Administration in kingdoms
e. Life of ordinary people
THE GUPTA EMPIRE
The Gupta Empire ruled over a major part of the Indian subcontinent from 320 to 550
AD. Maharaja Shri Gupta was the founder of the Gupta Empire. The reign of the
Gupta Empire was a period of overall prosperity. This period also witnessed
developments in the fields of science & technology, art and literature. Due to this, the
Gupta Period is also known as the Golden Age in the history of India.
Chandragupta I, Samduragupta and Chandragupta II were the greatest emperors of

the Gupta Empire. The rule of the Gupta Empire was spread from the north-west to
Bengal in the east. The Gupta Empire was restricted to the north of the Deccan
Plateau. But during its peak, it also extended to some parts of the eastern coast of
India.
Samudragupta: Samudragupta is considered to be the greatest king of the Gupta

Empire. Some historians also equate him with Ashoka the Great. Historians have
come to know about him through the coins and inscriptions. One inscription on an
Ashokan pillar in Allahabad gives a detailed account about Samudragupta. It was a
prashasti; written in the form of a long poem by Harisena. Harisena was a court poet
of Samudragupta; around 1700 years ago. Prashasti is a Sanskrit word which means
in praise of someone. Prashasti was written in praise of kings during that period. The
prashasti from the Ashokan pillar in Allahabad reveals following details about
Samudragupta:
 Samudragupta was a great warrior. He fought many battles to expand his

kingdom.
 He was an able administrator and a good ruler. He was a musician, an artist
and an author.
 Samudragupta encouraged artists, musicians and poets in his royal court.
Kalidasa was famous poet in the court of Samudragupta. Aryabhata; the
famous astronomer; also lived in the court of Samudragupta.
Administration in Gupta Empire:
a. A large part of north India was under the direct rule of Samudragupta. This part was called
Aryavarta. In this part of north India; Samudragupta had defeated nine rulers and made
their territories a part of the Gupta Empire.
b. There were five rulers in the Dakshinapatha. They had surrendered to Samudragupta.
Later on, Samudragupta allowed them to rule over their respective kingdoms.
c. Assam, coastal Bengal, Nepal and many gana sanghas in the north east followed
Samudragupta’s orders. The rulers of these states attended his court and brought tributes.
d. The rulers of the outer areas submitted to Samudragupta. They offered their daughters in
marriage. The Shakas, Kushanas and the rulers of Sri Lanka probably came in these
areas.
Thus, almost the whole subcontinent was under the rule of Samudragupta. Some
parts were under his direct rule and others were ruled indirectly.
Grand Titles of Kings: This period shows a new trend. The kings began to assume
grand titles. For example; Samudragupta was called Maharajadhiraja.
Harshavardhana
Harshavardhana ruled over a major part of north India from 606 to 647 AD. His
capital was at Kannauj. His court poet Banabhatta wrote his biography
Harshacharita. This biography has given rich information about Harshavardhana.
Xuan Zang also lived in the court of Harshavardhana. We also get important
information from the accounts of Xuan Zang.
Harshavardhana was the son of Prabhakara Vardhana. Prabhakara Vardhana was

the king of Thanesar (modern day Haryana). Harsha was not the eldest son. But
after the death of his father and elder brother, he became the king of Thanesar.
Harsha’s brother-in-law was the king of Kannauj. He was killed by the ruler of
Bengal. Subsequently, Harshavardhana took over the kingdom of Kannauj. Then he
led an army and attacked the king of Bengal. He succeeded in conquering Bengal
and Magadha. But when he tried to enter into the Deccan, he was stopped by
Pulakeshin II. Pulakeshin II was a Chalukya ruler.
The Pallavas: The Pallava Dynasty ruled over a large part of south India between
2nd and 9th century AD. The capital of the Pallavas was at Kanchipuram. The
Pallava territory extended up to the Kavery delta.
The Chalukyas: The Chalukya Dynasty ruled over a large part of central and south
India between 6th and 12th century AD. The Chalukya territory was around the
Raichur Doab; between Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers. Aihole was the capital of
the Chalukyas.
The Pallavas and the Chalukyas frequently fought with each other. They wanted to
assert their supremacy in the region. Capital cities were especially attacked because
they were the prosperous towns.
Pulakeshin II was the best known Chalukya ruler. Pulakeshin also checked the
advances made by Harshavardhana. His prashashti had been written by his court
poet Ravikriti. This prashasti shows details of the defeat of Harshavardhana.
In due course of time, both the Pallavas and Chalukyas had to give way to later
rulers; like the Rashtrakutas and the Cholas.
ADMINISTRATION IN THESE KINGDOMS:

Land still remained the main source of tax revenue for the kings. Villages remained
the basic unit of administration. But many changes were happening which changed
the balance of power during this period.
There was no single ruler who was enough powerful to have total control over the
Indian subcontinent. Kings usually took steps to win powerful people. They often
chalked out power-sharing agreements. There were many people who were
economically, socially or militarily powerful. The following examples illustrate this
fact:
Some posts were made hereditary. This meant that the son got a particular post after
the death of this father. Let us take the example of poet Harisena. He was a Maha-
danda-nayaka (Chief Judicial Officer) and his father held the same post.
There were many instances when a single person held many posts. Let us take the
example of Harisena once again. He also held the posts of Kumar-amatya (important
minister) and Sandhi-vigrahika (minister of war and peace).
Many important men exercised authority in local administration. Some examples of

such persons are; the nagara-shreshthi (chief banker or merchant), sarthavaha
(leader of the merchant caravan) and the heads of the kayasthas (scribes).
These policies appear quite effective in keeping a control over the kingdom to certain
extent. But, gradually, the local satraps grew in power and eventually set up their
own independent kingdoms.
Changes in the Army:
Some of the kings continued to maintain a well organized army. A new trend also
emerged during this period. Some military leaders maintained an army and provided
the army to the king when required. Such military leaders did not get salary. But they
got grants in the form of land. They also got the right to collect land revenue. The
revenue was utilized to maintain the soldiers, horses and battle equipments. Such
military leaders were known as samanthas. When a ruler became weak, a Samantha
tried to become independent.
Assemblies in the Southern Kingdoms:
The assembly of Brahmin landowners was called the sabha. Such assemblies
functioned through various sub-assemblies. The sub-assemblies looked after
different aspects; like irrigation, road construction, farming operations, temple
construction, etc.
The assembly of non-brahmin landowners was called the ur. The organization of
merchants was called the nagaram. Usually, these assemblies were controlled by
rich merchants and landowners. Such local assemblies survived for centuries in
south India.
Life of Ordinary People

While most of the authors and poets sand hosannas about the kings, some of them
also mentioned about ordinary people. Many stories, plays and poems tell us about
the life of common people.
Sanskrit had become the language of the kings and the Brahmins. Prakrit was the
language of ordinary men and women.
Condition of Untouchables: Fa Xian had written about the condition of

untouchables in India during that time. People who were not allowed to mix with
mainstream society were considered as untouchables.
According to Fa Xian; when an untouchable person entered the village he needed to

warn others about his presence. He constantly beat a stick to the ground to alert
others. This ensured that people could avoid coming anywhere close to him. The
untouchable lived outside the city or the village.
NCERT Solution:
1. Harishena composed a prashasti in praise of Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni.
Answer: False
2. The rulers of Aryavarta brought tribute for Samudragupta.
Answer: False
3. There were twelve rulers in Dakshinapatha.
Answer: True
4. Taxila and Madurai were important centres under the control of the Gupta rulers.
Answer: False
5. Aihole was the capital of the Pallavas.
Answer: False
6. Local assemblies functioned for several centuries in south India.
Answer: True
Mention three authors who wrote about Harshavardhana.
Answer: Banbhatta, Ravikirti, Xuan Zang
What changes do you find in the army at this time?
Answer: Some of the kings continued to maintain a well organized army. A new
trend also emerged during this period. Some military leaders maintained an army
and provided the army to the king when required. Such military leaders did not get
salary. But they got grants in the form of land. They also got the right to collect land
revenue. The revenue was utilized to maintain the soldiers, horses and battle
equipments. Such military leaders were known as samanthas. When a ruler became
weak, a Samantha tried to become independent.
What were the new administrative arrangements during this period?

Answer: New Administrative Arrangements:
 There was no single ruler who was enough powerful to have total control over
the Indian subcontinent. Kings usually made power-sharing agreements with
local powerful people.
 Some posts were made hereditary. This meant that the son got a particular
post after the death of this father./li>
 There were many instances when a single person held many posts.
 Many important men exercised authority in local administration.
What do you think Arvind would have to do if he was acting as Samudragupta?
Answer: Arvind needs to become brave. He also needs to develop a keen interest in
music and painting.
Do you think ordinary people would have read and understood the prashastis? Give
reasons for your answer.
Answer: The prashastis were written in Sanskrit. But this was not the language of
the common people. Hence, most of the common people could not have read or
understood the prashastis.
Extra Questions:
1. Who was the court poet of Samudragupta?
Answer: Banabhatta
2. Who was the court poet of Harshavardhana?
Answer: Harisena
3. Who was the greatest king of the Chola dynasty?
Answer: Pulakeshin II
4. The reign of which empire is called the Golden Age of Indian history?
Answer: Gupta Empire

5. What is the reason of the Gupta period called the Golden Age of Indian
history?
Answer: During the reign of the Gupta Empire, there was all around
prosperity in India. This period also witnessed significant developments in the
field of science, arts and literature. Hence, this period is also called the
Golden Age of Indian history.
6. What is a prashasti? What was the purpose of writing a prashasti?
Answer: A piece written in praise of someone is called prashasti. Prashasti

was usually written in praise of a king.
7. What was the condition of untouchables during the reign of Harshavardhana?
Answer: The condition of untouchables was very bad during the reign of
Harshavardhana. An untouchable person was not allowed to live in a village
or city. They lived on the outskirts. Whenever an untouchable entered a
village, he had to warn the others about his presence. His usually beat a stick
to create noise to alert others. This ensured that others could avoid coming
anywhere close to him.
Buildings, Paintings and Books
Learning Goals:
a. Making of Buildings
b. Paintings and their artists
c. Books and scientific discoveries
The Iron Pillar at Delhi
When you will go to visit the Qutab Minar, you will find an iron pillar near it. This pillar
is no ordinary pillar as it appears at the first glance. This pillar has been standing
there since last 1500 years but there is no rust on this pillar. This speaks about the
technology being used in those days. There is an inscription on this pillar which
shows that this pillar was probably made during the reign of Chandragupta of the
Gupta Dynasty.
The Stupas
The word ‘stupa’ means a mound. Most of the stupas were made by the followers of
Buddha. Following are the details of structure of a stupa:
 A small box is usually placed at the centre of the stupa. The box may contain
the bodily remains of Buddha or his followers. It may also contain precious
stones or coins; which may have been used by Buddha or his followers.
 The box was covered with a layer of soil. Then it was covered with mud bricks
or baked bricks. Then it was sometimes covered with carved stone slabs.
 A pradakshina path was usually made around the stupa. This path is used by
the devotees to encircle the stupa in clockwise direction. This is a way of
showing respect and devotion.
 The pradakshina path is usually surrounded with railings. A gateway was also
built at the entrance. Beautiful carvings decorate the railings and the gateway.
 The elaborate construction of the stupa and beautiful carvings shows the level
of architecture and craftsmanship during that period.
Structure of Hindu Temple:
 The most important part of a Hindu temple was the garbha griha. The idol of
the main deity was placed at this place. The priests performed at this place
and the devotees worshipped at this place.
 A tower was usually built on top of the garbha griha. This was done to mark it
as the sacred place. This tower was called the shikhara.
 Many temples had a big hall; called the mandapam. A large number of people
could assemble in this hall.
REF:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plan_of_Kandariya_Mahadeva_temple.jpg
Some early temples were made of stones and bricks. But many temples of the later
period were built entirely of stones. Some temples were made by carving out a single
large rock, e.g. the temple at Mahabalipuram.
Building a Stupa or a Temple

Building a temple or a stupa was very costly. So, arrangement of money was most
important. Kings or queens usually provided the money.
After arranging the money, good quality stones were found, quarried and carried to
the site. The stones were then carved to make pillars, wall panels, ceilings and
floors.
These stone pieces were very heavy. So some special arrangements were made to
place them at a particular position.
Sometimes, other people also gave donations for making a temple. The merchants,
farmers, smiths, flower sellers, etc. also gave donations.
Paintings
The Ajanta caves in Maharashtra are famous for beautiful cave paintings. The colors
in these paintings still look vivid. It is difficult to imagine how the artists made those
paintings in such dark caves. Another surprise is that nobody knows the name of
those artists.
Books
 This was the period when some of the best epics were written. A very large literary
work which runs into thousands of pages is called an epic.
 Around 1800 years ago; a poet Ilango composed the famous Tamil epic
Silappadikaram.
 Around 1400 years ago; Sattanar composed the Tamil Epic Manimekalai.
 Kalidasa had written many epics and plays.
 Puranas were written in this period. Puranas could be read by women and shudras
as well. It is important to remember that the Vedas were not allowed to be read by
women and shudras. Puranas were written in simple Sanskrit.
 Mahabharata and Ramayana were also written down during this period. The
Mahabharata was written by Vedvyas and the Ramayana was written by Valmiki.
 Many stories by ordinary people were compiled in the form of books. The Jataka
Tales and Panchatantra are collection of such stories.
Works on Science:
Aryabhata was a mathematician and an astronomer. He wrote the Aryabhatiyam
which deals with many theories of mathematics and astronomy. He made great
contributions in the field of science and mathematics. He was among the earliest
scientists to propose that the earth rotates around its axis, which causes the day and
night. He also developed a scientific explanation of eclipses. He also found a method
of calculating the circumference of a circle. This method is as accurate as we use
today.
Zero was another important discovery of this period. The discovery of zero helped
in developing the decimal system. The decimal system went to Europe through
the Arab world. Hence this is also known as the Arabic Numeral or Hindu Arabic
Numeral.
NCERT Solution:
Match Columns
Column I Column II
Stupa Place where the image of the deity is installed
Shikhara Mound
Mandapa Circular path around the stupa
Garbhagriha Place in temples where people could assemble
Pradakshina patha Tower

Answer:
 Stupa: Mound
 Shikhara: Tower
 Mandapa: Place in temples where people could assemble
 Garbhagriha: Place where the image of the deity is installed
 Pradakshina patha: Circular path around the stupa
Fill in the blanks:

1. ———————— was a great astronomer.
Answer: Aryabhata
2. Stories about gods and goddesses are found in the ————————
Answer: Purana
3. ———————— is recognised as the author of the Sanskrit Ramayana.
Answer: Valmiki
4. ———————— and ———————— are two Tamil epics.
Answer: Silappadikaram, Manimekalai
Make a list of the chapters in which you find mention of metal working. What are
the metals objects mentioned or shown in those chapters?
Answer: Chapters 4, 8 and 9 mention metal working. Various metal tools have
been mentioned; like ploughshare, sickle, axe and sword. Ploughshare and sickle
were used in farming. Axe was used for chopping wood. Sword was used in
battle.
Read the story on page 130 (NCERT Book). In what ways is the monkey king
similar to or different from the kings you read about in Chapters 6 and 11?
Answer: The monkey king shows some similarities and some differences with
human kings. While many kings assumed grand titles, the monkey king did not
have such title. Most of the kings took good care of their subjects. The monkey
king shows the same mindset.
Find out more and tell a story from one of the epics.
Answer: Do it yourself (You can tell any story from the Ramayana or
Mahabharata)
Extra Questions
1. The iron pillar near Qutab Minar at Delhi was made by which ruler?
Answer: Chandragupta of the Gupta Dynasty

2. Which is the highest structure in a temple?
Answer: Shikhara
3. The stories of the Jataka Tales were written by whom?
Answer: These stories were told by common people and were later compiled.
4. The Puranas were written in which language?
Answer: Simple Sanskrit

5. Who usually arranged the money for making temples around 2000 years ago?
Answer: Kings and queens

6. Give an example of a temple which was carved out of a single stone?
Answer: The temple at Mahabalipuram

7. Bhagavad-Gita is a part of which epic?
Answer: Mahabharata
8. Briefly explain the structure of a temple.
Answer: The most important part of a Hindu temple was the garbha griha.
The idol of the main deity was placed at this place. The priests performed at
this place and the devotees worshipped at this place. A tower was usually
built on top of the garbha griha. This was done to mark it as the sacred place.
This tower was called the shikhara. Many temples had a big hall; called the
mandapam. A large number of people could assemble in this hall.
9. Briefly explain the structure of a stupa.
Answer: A small box is usually placed at the centre of the stupa. The box
may contain the bodily remains of Buddha or his followers. It may also contain
precious stones or coins; which may have been used by Buddha or his
followers. The box was covered with a layer of soil. Then it was covered with
mud bricks or baked bricks. Then it was sometimes covered with carved stone
slabs. A pradakshina path was usually made around the stupa. This path is
used by the devotees to encircle the stupa in clockwise direction. This is a
way of showing respect and devotion. The pradakshina path is usually
surrounded with railings. A gateway was also built at the entrance. Beautiful
carvings decorate the railings and the gateway.

On the Trail of History

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On the Trail of History

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What, Where, How and When?

WHERE DID PEOPLE LIVE

a. Banks of the river Narmada

THE NAME OF OUR COUNTRY:

India is known by many names; like Aryavarta, Jambudweep, Bharatvarsh, Bharat,

Some of the sources which tell us about history are as follows:

Manuscripts: A handwritten book is called manuscript. Before the discovery of

Inscriptions: The text written on stone slabs is called inscription. An inscription on

Archaeologists: People who specialize in studying the archaeological remains

NCERT Exercise Solution

List one major difference between manuscripts and inscriptions.

Return to Rasheeda’s question. Can you think of some answers to it?

Match the following:

(a) Narmada Valley 1. The first big kingdom

(b) Magadha 2. Hunting and gathering

(c) Garo hills 3. Cities about 2500 years ago

(d) Indus and its tributaries 4. Early agriculture

(e) Ganga Valley 5. The first cities

a. Narmada Valley: Hunting and gathering

Answer: Rice and barley

Bark of which tree was used for writing?

Answer: Birch tree

Which calendar is now being used in most parts of the world?

Answer: Gregorian calendar

Answer: The story about humankind’s past is called history.

Answer: A handwritten book is called manuscript. Before the invention of print

What does an archaeologist do?

Answer: A person who is an expert of historical artifacts, buildings, monuments, etc.

Explain the importance of history?

Answer: Importance of history is as follows:

On The Trail Of the Earliest People

a. Life of Hunter Gatherer

Reasons of Nomadic Life:

THE STONE AGE

 Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age

REF: NCERT Book Class 6

REF: NCERT Book Class 6

The tools in this figure show more refinement.

Uses of Stone Tools:

 For cutting meat and bones.

Where Did People Live?

a. Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh)

Two common factors for these sites are as follows:

Making Stone Tools:

REF: NCERT Book Class 6

Fill in the blanks:

 Hunter-gatherers chose to live in caves and rock shelters because ————————.

Answer: they provided shelter from rain, heat and wind

Answer: Bhimbetka is in Madhya Pradesh, Hunsgi is in Karnataka and Kurnool is in

Answer: Three ways in which hunter-gatherers used fire are as follows:

People of the Stone Age lived in which natural structure?

Answer: Madhya Pradesh

Cave paintings usually depict which type of scene?

Answer: Factory sites

What is Stone Age?

What is the meaning of Palaeolithic Age?

Answer: Palaeolithic Age means the Old Stone Age.

What were the sources of food for early people?

Cave paintings usually contained pictures of which animals?

Answer: Bison, deer and other wild animals.

Why is Bhimbetka famous?

The Early Farmers