ECE 2405: Irrigation Engineering 1, Lecture Notes, BSc Civil & Structural Engineering by P. M.

Kahiga (DeKUT)

ECE 2405: IRRIGATION ENGINEERING 1

I. INTRODUCTION:
Global population was projected to grow from 7.3bn in 2015 to 8.5bn by 2030. Sub-
Saharan Africa’s population would grow the fastest and East and Southeast Asia’s the
slowest. Feeding this population require raising overall food production by some 70
percent between 2005/07 and 2050 Source: OCA Analysis; United Nations – World
Population Prospects, 2015. Today, irrigated agriculture covers 275 million hectares –
about 20% of cultivated land – and accounts for 40% of global food production. Sub-
Saharan Africa is the region with the lowest portion of the cultivated area that is irrigated.

Irrigation: This is the artificial application of water to the soil in order to supplement natural
precipitation and provide an environment that is optimum for crop production. Its primary
objective is to create an optimal soil moisture regime for maximizing crop production and
quality while at the same time minimizing the environmental degradation inherent in
irrigation of agricultural lands (leaches out or dilutes salts from the soil). This can be done
by letting water flow over the land (surface irrigation), by spraying water under pressure
over the land concerned (sprinkler irrigation), or by bringing it directly to the plant
(localized irrigation). The irrigation process involves investigation, planning, design,
construction, maintenance and operation of structures and channels for the proper
conveyance of water from the source to the point of application.

Irrigation Engineering: This is the analysis and design of irrigation systems which include
dams, weirs, canals, drains etc. Good knowledge of hydraulics and fluid mechanics is
required for design of irrigation system. It is essential for a design engineer to know the
quantity of water that should be applied to crops and how frequently this should be done.
Specifically, the crop’s water requirements are to be met at the period of peak moisture
demand when the irrigation frequencies, or intervals, are minimum. During design, data
is obtained from local field experiments. However, soil-water-plant-climate relationships
are part of the basic principles vital for design. Design and management of irrigation
infrastructure, its application and selection of best practices to each system is key to
success. The key areas in irrigation planning include:
✓ Analysis of climatic data
✓ Analysis of hydrological data and water requirements
✓ Irrigation and drainage networks
✓ Implementation of irrigation and drainage
✓ Management and maintenance of irrigation schemes

Adequate water supply is important for proper plant growth and development. When
rainfall is not sufficient, plants/crops must receive additional water from irrigation.
Irrigation is thus critical for food security especially in the ASAL regions. In areas of dry
climate (a dry climate is one in which natural rainfall does not meet plant water requirement),
water requirement may be during the whole year or any part of the year. In such a case,
ECE 2405: Irrigation Engineering 1, Lecture Notes, BSc Civil & Structural Engineering by P. M. Kahiga (DeKUT)

if land is potentially fertile, then in order to raise crops, water has to be provided through
irrigation. Similarly, areas of unreliable rainfall require the use of irrigation as an
insurance against crop failure.

Agricultural drainage engineering: Removal and disposal of excess water from irrigated lands
using surface and subsurface methods.

Irrigation water management: This deals with the frequency of irrigation, depth of water
to be applied, and measures to increase the uniformity of applications. These are sets of
practices designed to maximize efficiencies and minimize the labor and capital
requirements of a particular irrigation system.

Importance of Water in Plant Growth and Development

During the life cycle of a plant, among other essential elements like air and fertilizers,
water plays a vital role, some of the important ones being:

a) Plant food is distributed in solution form: Food manufactured in the green parts of
a plant gets distributed throughout the plant body as a solution in water.
b) Transpiration: This is a vital process in plants and does so at a maximum rate when
water is available in adequate amount. If soil moisture is not sufficient, then the
transpiration rate is curtailed, seriously affecting plant growth and yield.
c) Sustains soil biological and chemical activity and mineralization during dry
periods: In seasonally dry areas, irrigation water artificially extends the time period
in which soil biological activity and nutrient release are elevated, creating more
optimal growing conditions for cultivated crops.
d) Promotes soil solution and nutrient uptake: Irrigation water becomes the medium
into which soil nutrients are dissolved (soil solution) and through which nutrients are
made available for plant uptake.
e) Provides carbohydrate building block: 6 CO2+ 6 H2O → C6H12O6 + 6 O2. Through
the process of photosynthesis, water molecules taken up by plants are broken down
and their constituent atoms rearranged to form new molecules: carbohydrates and
oxygen.
f) Provides plant structure/support: Water molecules contained within the water-
conducting vascular bundles and other tissues of plants serve to provide physical
support for the plant itself.
g) Promotes the maintenance of optimal temperatures within the plant: The loss of
water through the process of evapotranspiration liberates heat from the plant, thereby
regulating plant temperature.
h) Protects crops from frost damage: Irrigation water is commonly used to lower the
freezing temperature in orchard systems during threats of damaging frost.
i) Reduces plant stress: By reducing stress on the plant, water improves plant resistance
to pest and disease damage and improves crop quality.
ECE 2405: Irrigation Engineering 1, Lecture Notes, BSc Civil & Structural Engineering by P. M. Kahiga (DeKUT)

The application of improved irrigation methods and techniques on small farms is

expanding rapidly as a result of the increasing demand for higher irrigation efficiency,
improved utilization of water and intensification and diversification of production. The
role and contribution of irrigated agriculture in food and fibre production worldwide is
looked at as:
✓ Without irrigation there would not be enough food to feed the present world
population of over 7 billion people.
✓ 40% of all crops produced are grown under irrigation
✓ Irrigated area accounts for only 10% of cultivated area
✓ In ASAL predictable agriculture is only possible through irrigation

However, irrigation development faces difficult problems and stiff competition from
alternative demands on water. Such other demands in competition with irrigation are:
✓ Domestic water requirements specifically in upcoming urban areas
✓ Industrial water requirements
✓ Recreational water requirements

It is also important to note that irrigated agriculture, in order to compete with the above
demands, must improve efficiency of water utilization such that the output in production
from unit water input compares with the competing demands. Irrigation water
application efficiency must increase from the current average of about 40% to more than
70% through:
✓ Gradual shift from surface systems to piped systems
✓ Adaptation of irrigation methods with high application efficiencies i.e. drip
irrigation
✓ Irrigation schedule based on measured water deficiencies
✓ Proper operation and maintenance of irrigation systems
✓ Application of plant biotechnology.

Advantages of Irrigation
The importance of irrigation includes among others the following:
a) It supplements inadequate and unreliable rainfall particularly in the ASAL areas,
b) It can ensure all year production hence food security.
c) Helps in the control of flooding and hence erosion especially where dams exist.
d) Creates employment in the farms and in the agro-industries.
e) Could be used to reclaim more potentially productive land and hence create more
settlement opportunities.
f) Could be used to control pests and diseases by disrupting their life cycles.
g) Specialized production of high value crops especially in periods of low rainfall or
drought is made possible.
h) Could be used for strategic production as dictated by market forces.
i) Sources of revenues for government i.e. if irrigation water is supplied to the
farmers in lieu of taxes, it can be used for other development projects.
 ECE 2405: Irrigation Engineering 1, Lecture Notes, BSc Civil & Structural Engineering by P. M. Kahiga (DeKUT)

j) Navigation: designs of canals for irrigation systems can be utilized for inland
navigation which is useful for navigation and transportation of agricultural goods
and equipments.
k) Power generation: - some irrigation projects are built along river valley that
necessities construction of dams where power can be generated
l) Water supply: irrigation systems are source of water for both domestic and
irrigation purposes.
m) General infrastructure: associated improvement in infrastructure which is a basic
requirement of an irrigation system, can actually serve as a communication link
between communities.
n) Development of fisheries: reservoirs and canals designed in an irrigation system
can be utilized for development of fisheries projects
o) Development of eco-tourism sites.

Disadvantages of Irrigation Systems

a) Over irrigation leads to water logging of the soil and this reduces yields.
b) Increased possibility of ground water pollution as a result of increased use of
chemicals and fertilizers.
c) Due to the presence of water in open channels, there is an increased possibility of
having water borne diseases e.g. malaria, bilharzias, etc.
d) It is complex and expensive undertaking; most of the time requiring donor
funding yet most of them are not self-sustaining in the long run.

II. HISTORY OF IRRIGATION

It is not clear when the first crop was grown under irrigation. It is however evident that
irrigation is as old as man. From the Biblical times, we hear of the beautiful and fertile
watered gardens of Eden by rivers Tigris and Euphrates. This gives us a reason to believe
that the Garden of Eden was sprawling with plants not because of abundant rainfall, but
due to the existence of these rivers. Irrigation began at about the same time (about 600
BC) in Egypt and Mesopotamia (present day Iraq and Iran) using the water of the
flooding rivers Nile or Tigris/Euphrates. The flood waters were diverted to fields for 40
to 60 days. The water was then drained back into the river at the right moment in the
growing cycle. The annual flood season along the Nile was unpredictable without
records, so the Egyptians created a flood gauge called the Nilometer about 3500 BC.

The simplest design was a vertical column submerged in the river with marked intervals
indicating the depth of the river. A second design was a flight of stairs leading into the
river. The nilometer data was then used by the ancient Egyptian priesthood who
mystically predicted when the flood would occur. The first major irrigation project was
created under King Menes during Egypt’s First Dynasty about 3100BC. He and his
successors used dams and canals (one such canal measured 20 km) to use the diverted flood
waters of the Nile into a new lake called "Moeris."
ECE 2405: Irrigation Engineering 1, Lecture Notes, BSc Civil & Structural Engineering by P. M. Kahiga (DeKUT)

Babylonian King Hammurabi; was the first to institute water regulations within his
kingdom. This early code covered:
✓ The distribution of water proportionally based on the acres farmed.
✓ A farmer’s responsibilities in maintaining canals on his property.
✓ The collective administration of the canal by all users

From about 1700BC, the lifting of water for irrigation purpose became necessary leading
to the development of:

✓ Shaduf / Shadouf / Shadoof: This is a large pole balanced on a crossbeam, a rope and
bucket on one end and a heavy counter weight at the other. Pulling the rope lowers the
bucket into a canal or river. The operator would then raise the full bucket of water by
pushing down on the counter weight. The pole could be swung around and the bucket
emptied in a field or different canal. This development enabled irrigation when a river
was not flooded and this also meant higher ground could be used for farming.

✓ Noria: This is also called the Egyptian Water Wheel. It consisted of a wheel with
buckets or clay pots along its circumference, which were turned by the river current.
The flow filled buckets by immersion and as it rotated the upper buckets are emptied
by gravity into a trough or aqueduct. The empty buckets then returned to be refilled.
The Noria provided the ancient world with its first non-human operated lifting
device.

✓ Sakia: This is also called the Persian Water Wheel. This device was an endless series
of pots on a rope which ran over two pulleys. The oxen-powered device drove a
cogged wheel allowing the pots to enter the water supply, fill and then be raised and
emptied. The Sakia was similar to the Noria except that it was powered by an external
force rather than the flow of the river’s current.

✓ Tambour: This is also called Archimedian Screw. While visiting Egypt, the Greek
scholar Archimedes created this device which consisted of a screw inside a hollow
tube. The screw was turned and as the bottom end of the screw rotated, it scooped up
water. The water traveled up the length of the screw until it poured out at the top of
the tube. Today the principal is used in transporting granular materials such as in
moving cereal grains.

✓ Windmill pumps: When the first use of a windmill occurred is unknown, although
drawings of a water pumping windmill from Persia (current day Iran) exist. This
design had vertical sails made of bundles of reeds or wood which were attached to a
central vertical shaft.

✓ Qanat : Also called Kareze in Mesopotamia. The development of this technique

allowed the use of ground water to become the primary source for irrigation water. A
ECE 2405: Irrigation Engineering 1, Lecture Notes, BSc Civil & Structural Engineering by P. M. Kahiga (DeKUT)

Qanat was built by first digging a vertical well into sloping ground. Once the well was
completed a tunnel was dug nearly horizontal to the lower end of the well. The natural
slope would allow well water to travel by gravity down the tunnel and emerge some
distance down slope from the well. Construction of Qanats was labour intensive and
vertical openings were placed every 20-30 meters to allow the tunnel diggers to
breathe and to remove the debris from the tunnel. Once the tunnel was completed,
the area had a constant source of water. Qanats are still in use today and at least 20,000
still operate from China to Morocco.

The proportion of cultivated land under irrigation varies from country to country with
some countries reporting 100% of their cultivated land under irrigation, while others
have practically no irrigation. The following table shows the irrigated areas in some
selected countries compared to areas under irrigation.

Proportions of arable land under irrigation in some selected developing countries.

Country Total area Cultivated Area Proportion Proportion Proportion
(Million ha) area irrigated of cultivated of irrigated of irrigated area
(Million ha) (Million area to Total area to total to
ha) area. area cultivated area.
India 327.6 137.9 43.1 42.1% 13.2% 31.3%
Indonesia 149.2 14.0 7.6. 9.4% 5.09% 54.3%
Thailand 51.4 7.3 4.3 14.2% 8.4% 58.9%
Japan 37.0 6.0 2.8 16.2% 7.6% 46.7%
Philippines 30 8.3 1.6 27.7% 5.3% 19.3%
Kenya 58.2 1.7 0.11 2.9% 0.19% 6.5%

III. IRRIGATION STATUS IN KENYA

Kenya’s economy is agriculture-based, yet over 80 percent of the country is classified as
arid and semiarid and typically characterized by low (100 -1,200 mm per annum) and
erratic rainfall, high evapotranspiration rates and generally fragile ecosystems.
Unpredictable rainfall and frequent droughts mean that farmers cannot depend on rain-
fed agriculture as a meaningful way to meet their subsistence needs.

Rice irrigation activities along river valleys in Kipini, Malindi, Shimoni and Vanga, where
slaves were used to construct rice schemes in the early 19th century, are also well-known.
Indians (workers) who built the Mombasa – Nairobi Railway also started irrigation
activities near Makindu and Kibwezi. In 1946, the African Land Development Unit
(ALDEV) identified irrigation as part of a broad agricultural rehabilitation programme.
It initiated a number of irrigation schemes – Mwea, Hola, Perkerra, Ishiara and Yatta
using cheap labour from Mau Mau detainees. Many detainees were eventually settled in
the schemes.
ECE 2405: Irrigation Engineering 1, Lecture Notes, BSc Civil & Structural Engineering by P. M. Kahiga (DeKUT)

Historical Overview of Irrigation & Drainage in Kenya (sysnthesis)

• 16th century – Evidence of irrigation in Tana River, Kerio valley’s Marakwet
escarpment, West Pokot and Baringo
• 19th century - Rice schemes were constructed by slaves along the river valleys
around Kipini, Malindi, Shimoni and Vanga
• 19th century (1890s), - Asian workers started irrigation around Makindu and
Kibwezi
• 1930s - Drainage works started in Central Kenya, around karatina
• 1940s – Irrigation started around Karatina, Naivasha, Tavetta, and shores of Lake
Victoria using PoW
• 1950s- African Land Development Unit (ALDEV) initiated state-owned irrigation
schemes, i.e. Mwea, Hola, Perkerra, Ishiara and Yatta using Mau Mau detainees
• 1963- Kenya had developed a total of 2,500 ha of irrigation
• 1965 – Irrigation Act (cap 347) was enacted & creation of NIB
• 1965 – 1980: Govt expanded the existing schemes and developed new ones in the
Lower Tana, Yala, Kano and Bunyala areas
• 1978-83 Development Plan shifted the emphasis from public irrigation schemes to
small-scale farmer-managed irrigation
• 1985 - there were around 52,000 ha equipped for irrigation
• 1990s - Export of horticulture became a major export
• 2003 – Irrigation Department was shifted to Ministry of Water
• 2007 – Vision 2030 brought more visibility to water storage an irrigation
• 2013 –Irrigation Department moved to Ministry of Agriculture
• 2015 – Irrigation Department returned to MWI

National Irrigation Board (NIB) was established and incorporated in 1966 as a state
corporation through the Irrigation Act, Cap 347 of the Laws of Kenya. The objective of
this Act is “to provide for the development, control and improvement of irrigation
schemes, for purposes incidental thereto and connected therewith.” Currently, the Board
manages seven (7) national irrigation schemes and stations with four operational research
stations
✓ Mwea Irrigation Agricultural Development Center – MIAD
✓ Ahero Irrigation Research Station – AIRS
✓ Hola Irrigation Research Station - HIRS
✓ Bura Irrigation Research Station - BIRS
The Board also has two rice mills in Eastern and Western regions: Mwea Rice Mills
(MRM) and Western Kenya Rice Mills (WKRM). The National Irrigation Board plays an
important role in the management, coordination and implementation of irrigation
projects in Kenya. Irrigation development is very low since only 105,800 ha is developed
(19%) compared to potential (539,000ha). There is immerse potential of irrigation to
contribute towards attainment of the country goals. This can best be done by focusing on:
✓ Rehabilitation and augmentation of irrigation and drainage schemes
ECE 2405: Irrigation Engineering 1, Lecture Notes, BSc Civil & Structural Engineering by P. M. Kahiga (DeKUT)

✓ Irrigation policy formulation.

✓ Enhanced water harvesting and storage for irrigation

Irrigation Potential and Development by Basins

Basin Potential (ha.) Developed (ha.)
Tana 205,000 68,700
Athi 40,000 11,100
Lake Basin 200,000 10,700
Kerio Valley 64,000 5,400
Ewaso N’giro 30,000 10,000
Total 539,000 105,800

Categories of Irrigation Systems in Kenya

✓ Private Schemes - Developed, owned and managed by individual farmers or
Companies (41% of developed potential).
✓ Public Schemes - Developed and centrally managed by government agencies
(15% of developed potential).
✓ Smallholder (community based) irrigation schemes - owned, operated and
managed by the farmers through their irrigation water users’ associations
(IWUAs) (44% of the developed potential).

Comparative irrigation development status (1985 – 2005)

Category Developed (ha)
1985 1998 2005
Smallholder Schemes 17,500 34,650 47,000

National Schemes 11,500 12,000 16,000

Private Irrigation 23,000 40,000 42,800

Total 52,000 87,350 105,800

Today there are several irrigation schemes under the management of the National
Irrigation Board, some of these include:

1. Hola (Tana River) Irrigation and Settlement Scheme:

Hola (Tana) Irrigation and Settlement Scheme was started in 1953 by the Colonial
Government as a holding camp for detainee labour. The Scheme is located in Tana
River District in the Coast Province. It is both a pump and gravity fed irrigated
Scheme with most of the pumps mounted is a floating pontoon unit. The main (cash)
crop grown was cotton with other crops such as groundnuts and maize intercropped
with cowpeas being grown in a small scale as subsistence food crops for farmers.
ECE 2405: Irrigation Engineering 1, Lecture Notes, BSc Civil & Structural Engineering by P. M. Kahiga (DeKUT)

Agricultural activities stopped way back in 1989 when River Tana (main source of
water) naturally changed its course. The scheme’s operations has however resumed
in the recent years.

2. Perkerra Irrigation scheme:

Perkerra Irrigation scheme located 100km North of Nakuru near Marigat Township
in Baringo District derived its name from River Perkerra. This is the main source of
irrigation water and the only permanent river in the District. The construction of the
Scheme started in 1954 after several feasibility studies which showed that the Jemps
flats were suitable for Irrigation. During the Emergency period, the detainees
provided labour for construction. The Scheme assumed Horticultural production
from the onset and was a major source of bulb Onions, Dried Chilies, Watermelon,
Paw paws for Papaya wine making and Cotton in the past. Due to marketing
problems of the above crops, the scheme introduced the production of Seed Maize
from 1996 as a diversification measure.

3. Mwea irrigation scheme:

Mwea Irrigation Scheme is situated in Kirinyanga District, in Kirinyaga county. The
scheme is about 100km South East of Nairobi. Farming in the scheme started in 1956
and rice has been the predominant crop. The scheme is served by two main rivers;
Thiba and Nyamindi. Irrigation water is abstracted from the rivers by gravity by the
help of fixed intake weirs, conveyed and distributed in the scheme via unlined open
channels. The scheme has a link canal joining the two rivers to transfer water from
Nyamindi to Thiba River which serves about 80% of the scheme.

4. Bunyala Irrigation Scheme:

Bunyala irrigation scheme was started in 1968. It is located in lower part of River
Nzoia along the shores of Lake Victoria. Water is pumped from river Nzoia and by
gravity to the paddy fields. Bunyala irrigation scheme covers part of Busia District in
Busia County and Siaya District in siaya county. The major crop grown is rice.

5. The Bura Irrigation and Settlement Project:

The Bura irrigation and Settlement project came up as a result of several studies
carryout out in the lower Tana basin that culminated in the World Bank’s appraisal
report of 1977. The project is situated along the River Tana in Tana River District in
Coast Province for growing of cotton and maize. It is 50km North of Hola and about
400km North-West of Mombasa. The construction of Bura Irrigation and Settlement
Project started in 1978 and was funded by several donors together with the
government of Kenya.

6. Ahero irrigation Scheme

The Ahero Irrigation Scheme is located In the Kano plains between Nandi Escarpment
and Nyabondo Plateau. The scheme was started as a pilot project to explore the
ECE 2405: Irrigation Engineering 1, Lecture Notes, BSc Civil & Structural Engineering by P. M. Kahiga (DeKUT)

feasibility of irrigation in the Kano Plains. Construction of the scheme started in 1966
and operations started in 1969.The scheme is known for its rice production as a major
crop alongside other subsistence crops and vegetables. The scheme draws its water
from the nearby River Nyando. The scheme originally depended solely on pumping
of irrigation water. Recent expansion in the scheme has brought in a provision for
irrigation water diversion by gravity by constructing a weir across the river
downstream of the original pump intake to serve the lower parts of the scheme.

7. West Kano Irrigation scheme:

West Kano Irrigation Scheme is located in the Kano plains between Nandi escarpment
and Nyabondo plateau on the shores of Lake Victoria in Kisumu County. The scheme
was constructed in the year 1974 and become operational in 1976. The scheme just like
the neighboring Ahero Irrigation scheme specializes in rice farming with farmers
having few subsistence crops and vegetables. Irrigation water is pumped from Lake
Victoria into a canal on a raised ground from where the water flows to the paddy
fields.

Broad Government initiatives for enhanced irrigation development

The government has embarked on the following
✓ Restructuring Government and re-engineering of ministerial functions
✓ Increased budgetary allocations for irrigation infrastructure development
✓ Creating enabling environment for participation by key stakeholders
✓ Involvement of the private sector and other stakeholders in the irrigation
developments
Challenges and Constraints in Irrigation Development in Kenya
✓ Wrong Perception-Sector’s potential and importance.
✓ Lack of a National Irrigation Policy, Legal and Institutional Frameworks
✓ Inadequate Public and Private sector Investment in the sector
✓ Inadequate development of irrigation infrastructure and water storage facilities
✓ Inadequate technical capacity for both the technical staff and Farmers
✓ Inadequate Farmers Organization and Participation
✓ Inadequate support services like Credit infrastructure, Extension etc.

Strategies to improve irrigation development and management in Kenya

✓ Increased investments in irrigation infrastructure development.
✓ Development and promotion of affordable and appropriate irrigation
technologies.
✓ Institutionalization of public – private partnerships in irrigation development.
✓ Enhancing community participation in irrigation development and management
✓ Capacity development for both staff and farmers
✓ Promotion of water harvesting and storage especially at scheme levels.
✓ Integrated development approaches to provision of critical irrigation services
ECE 2405: Irrigation Engineering 1, Lecture Notes, BSc Civil & Structural Engineering by P. M. Kahiga (DeKUT)

✓ Involvement of communities in water resource management, distribution and

equitable sharing within the developed schemes.
✓ Upgrading of irrigation systems from the old traditional types (earthen
conveyance canals to lined canals and piped networks).
✓ Encouraging where possible the change of infield distribution networks from the
furrows and basins to sprinklers and simple drips.
✓ Encouraging communities to harvest rain water to supplement scheme water
requirements within the individual schemes.

On-going irrigation policy reforms

✓ Finalization of the national irrigation policy and legal framework addressing all
types of irrigation schemes *confirm whether it has been finalized*.
✓ Promotion/implementation of irrigation management transfers in NIB schemes
✓ Promotion of participatory approaches in irrigation development and
management.

The flagship Irrigation Projects in Kenya are:

✓ Expansion of schemes in Bura, Hola, Kano Plains, Nzoia (upper; middle and
lower) Perkerra, Kerio Valley, Mwea, Taita Taveta, Ewaso Ng’iro North and
Nguruman (Kajiado)
✓ Extension of the Yatta Canal for another 100km to cover Yatta, parts of Kitui and
Mwingi regions.