basic pilot pilot testing

testing and
contamination

section 4
basic pilot testing & contamination

Section 4
contents

introduction ..........................................................................................................................1

designing pilot tests ...........................................................................................................2

pilot testing equipment ....................................................................................................5

interpretation of pilot test results .................................................................................5

rheological properties ..............................................................................................6

retort analysis ..............................................................................................................7

filtrate analysis ..........................................................................................................10

cationic exchange capacity of clays...................................................................17

filtration........................................................................................................................18

static aging .................................................................................................................21

01 basic pilot testing & contamination
Section 4

introduction
Pilot testing of drilling fluids is testing performed on proportionately
small-scale samples. It is an essential part of drilling fluid testing and
treating. Pilot testing minimises the risk of sending a fluid downhole that
may be incompatible with the formations to be drilled or that may
be ineffective under downhole conditions. Pilot testing is generally
concentrated on the physical properties such as rheology and fluid loss;
however, it is important that chemical properties are also evaluated.

Most chemical reactions require heat, mixing and time to drive the
reaction. Therefore, it is necessary to have a means for heating and
agitating pilot test samples. Problems such as carbonates and
bicarbonates are not readily detectable and require a complete mud
analysis and a pilot test series with heat aging to determine proper
treatment. Without heat aging, it is easy to over treat the contaminant
and create an even more severe problem. Ideally a portable roller oven
should be available at the rig site if extensive pilot testing is required.

Once the anomaly or anomalies of a drilling fluid’s characteristics have

been identified via conventional mud testing, the actual pilot test can begin.
Guidelines that are fundamental to the successful pilot test can be listed
as follows:

1. On every test on which analysis is made, a control sample of mud should

be taken.

2. If a combination of additives is to be tested, the effect of each

additive on the mud should be determined independently.

3. Some effects of additives will be observed almost instantly while

other products may need a minimum time (e.g., 4 hours hot rolling @
150° F) to determine their value.

4. Cost and availability of the products to be tested must always be

considered in the final choice of conditioning materials.

5. Duplicate the environment of each test as much as possible, i.e., use

the same agitation (speed and mixer), test temperature, volume,
mechanical and electrical test devices, etc.
basic pilot testing & contamination 02

Section 4
A pilot test sample should be representative of the fluid being used. Pilot
testing is thus based on the fact that 1g/350 cm3 of the sample is equivalent
to 1 lb/bbl (42gal) of the actual mud system.

designing pilot tests

A pilot test or a series of pilot tests must be designed to answer the
questions that you have in mind. Therefore, it is necessary to know exactly
the reason for the test. Some typical reasons are:

1. Mud response to downhole conditions, such as:

ƒ temperature effects
ƒ drilling uncured cement
ƒ drilling anhydrite
ƒ encountering salt/saltwater flows
ƒ acid gas (CO2, H2S) intrusions
ƒ water on water-based mud contamination in oil-based mud

2. Product response as a result of:

ƒ purity, material variation (different lot numbers)

ƒ concentration
ƒ compatibility with other components in the mud
ƒ comparison to other products
ƒ temperature/contamination
ƒ shelf life

3. Adjustments to mud properties such as:

ƒ weight up/dilution
ƒ changing fluid loss properties
ƒ changing alkalinity/pH
ƒ treating carbonate/bicarbonate contamination
ƒ reducing hardness
ƒ adjusting MBT - clay content of the mud
ƒ changing oil/water ratio of oil muds
ƒ increasing electrical stability of oil muds
03 basic pilot testing & contamination
Section 4

4. Study of effects of breakover, converting or displacement of muds,

such as:

ƒ displacing water-based mud with oil-based mud or vice versa

ƒ converting from freshwater mud to saturated salt mud
ƒ breakover to lime or gyp mud
ƒ reducing components in mud to convert to bland coring fluid
ƒ treatment required to convert mud to a packer fluid

BARITE 42 gallons
100 lbs
(1.0 barrel)

100 lb
100 lb/bbl
42 gal

100.0 G

100 g
100 lb/bbl
350 cm3

To determine how to design a pilot test or test series, look at economics

and potential for problems down the road. For example, if you expect
to encounter a pressured saltwater flow (16 lb/gal) with a 15 lb/gal
freshwater mud at 350° F, the parameters for testing could be:

1) maximum volume of saltwater anticipated in the mud

2) weight up to 16 lb/gal with and without contaminant (the saltwater)
3) effects of temperature on mud (15 and 16 lb/gal) with and without
contamination
4) dilution and thinner treatments
basic pilot testing & contamination 04

Section 4
Pilot test design requires calculating amounts of materials to put into
the test samples. In pilot tests, grams are equivalent to pounds and
350 cm3 is equivalent to one 42 gal oilfield barrel. Material balance
equations are used for pilot test design. For example, to weight the
15 lb/gal mud to 16 lb/gal without increasing the mud volume, one must
calculate how much 15 lb/gal mud to dump and how much barite to
add to increase density. For simpler pilot tests, such as adding only a few
lb/bbl treatment, it is not necessary to account for material balance.

Note: For liquid additives, volumes (gallons, cans, drums, bulk bags)
must be converted into weights (pounds, grams, millilitres) for
pilot testing.

Material Specific Gravity lb/gal lb/bbl

Fresh Water 1.00 8.33 350
Seawater 1.03 8.58 361
Diesel Oil 0.84 7.0 294
Saturated Saltwater 1.20 10.0 420
API Bentonite 2.60 21.6 910
Barite 4.2 35.05 1472
Calcium Carbonate 2.75 22.9 963
Caustic Soda 2.13 17.7 525
Lime 2.20 18.3 746
Lignite 1.50 12.5 525
Gypsum 2.30 19.2 805
Lignosulphonate 0.83 6.9 290
Soda Ash 2.53 21.1 886
Salt, NaCl 2.16 18.0 756

Rig site pilot tests have distinct practical advantages over sending a
mud into the laboratory or having a laboratory mud prepared for pilot
testing. Rig site testing allows actual material and mud to be used,
05 basic pilot testing & contamination
Section 4

which allows results to be readily available quicker (which is usually

very important), and allows the rig supervisor and the mud engineer
to evaluate and review the pilot test results.

Laboratory pilot tests and planning are both important in preparing to

drill a troublesome well. Both should be done well in advance of
anticipated problems. In this case, lab pilot tests are advantageous in
that they can be performed in advance, but then pilot tested again at
the rig site with the actual mud and chemicals.

Note: Protective eyewear (safety glasses or safety goggles) must be

worn at all times when mixing chemicals.

pilot testing equipment

A balance that can weight from 0.1 to 300g and a portable oven
(preferably roller oven) that can go to approximately 400° F are needed.
Mud cells made of stainless steel to hold at least 300 cm3 of mud at 1000
psi, a mixer such as a Hamilton Beach mixer are also needed. Mud testing
equipment that is accurately calibrated, along with fresh reagents for
titrations are essential for pilot testing.

interpretation of pilot test results

A single pilot test can give only limited information, but this is often
sufficient for the need. Most often a series of pilot tests (three to five
samples) are required to properly answer the questions.

For every pilot test (single or series) a control sample must be run in
parallel with the test sample. A control sample is the base mud which
has not been treated, but which is taken through all the mixing,
heating, rolling, etc. processes. The control is used to aid interpretation
of results. Data is compared between the control and test sample to
sort out the effects due to treatment versus mechanical effects (mixing,
rolling or time of exposure).

For example, a mud engineer has an oil mud with a low electrical
stability (ES). He pilot tests a sample with 2 lb/bbl (2 g/350 cm3 )
additional emulsifier and shears it on the mixer for 10 minutes. The ES
is much higher than before. He also has run a control sample on the
mixer for 10 minutes, but without the additional emulsifier, and
obtained almost the same higher ES. Was the emulsifier responsible
for the improved ES? No, in this case the shearing gave the
improvement. Results of pilot testing should be thoroughly reviewed
basic pilot testing & contamination 06

Section 4
before drawing conclusions. Often, one pilot test will lead to another one
or two tests before the answer is satisfactorily clear.

rheological properties
plastic viscosity
Plastic viscosity is proportional to rate of shear, thus largely reflects the
resistance to flow due to mechanical friction of the particles.

Plastic viscosity is a function of solids’ concentration and shape. It will be

expected to increase with decreasing particle size with the same volume
of solids.

In oil muds, the plastic viscosity decreases with an increase in temperature

or oil content.

a) Causes for increase in PV

ƒ Drilled solids
ƒ Rapid penetration rates with inadequate drilling solids control
and extended drilling with a PDC bit produce more drilled solids
particles per unit of volume
ƒ Surface additions
ƒ Oil additions to water muds; water additions to oil muds; asphalt
additions to water or oil muds. Lost circulation materials; weighting
materials, (e.g. graded calcium carbonate, barite, ilmenite, iron
carbonate, galena, etc.)

b) Cross reference

ƒ Retort - drilled solids content high

Average specific gravity solids low considering the density of mud.

c) Solutions to reduce plastic viscosity

ƒ Dilution
ƒ Employment of mechanical solids removal devices
ƒ Surfactants (Water or oil wetting agents)
07 basic pilot testing & contamination
Section 4

yield point
Yield Point is a function of the concentration of mud solids and their
surface charges and potentials which affect interparticle forces.

Dispersants and deflocculants are believed to adsorb on the mud

particles. This action changes the chemical nature of the surfaces and
likewise affects the interparticle forces, resulting in viscosity and YP
reductions.

a) Causes for Increase YP

ƒ Flocculation due to soluble contaminants produced from

formation (e.g., calcium, magnesium, sulphides, carbon dioxide)
ƒ Surface Additives:
• Polymers
• Clays
• Surfactants
• Lubricants
• Lime
• Cement
• Detergents
• Lost circulation materials
ƒ Drilling hydratable shales
ƒ pH too low to solubilise deflocculants or dispersants

b) Cross References

ƒ Filtrate analysis
ƒ Methylene blue determination (CEC)
ƒ pH

c) Solution to reduce yield point

ƒ Reduction of interparticle attraction forces

ƒ Chemical thinners
ƒ Deflocculants
ƒ Surfactants
ƒ Precipitation of flocculating ions
basic pilot testing & contamination 08

Section 4
retort analysis
Determine percent by volume of oil, water and solids. Compare results
with solids and average specific gravity of solids graphs.

a) A frequent error encountered in the retort analysis is the result of

loading the cell with gas-cut mud. A higher solids content than actual is
therefore calculated.

Causes for increases in the liquid phase originate from formation

fluids or from surface additions (inadvertent or on purpose).

Increases of solids can be caused by fast drilling rates, penetration

of salts, sands or failure or absence of solids separating devices.

b) Cross reference

ƒ Rheometer - plastic viscosity

ƒ Mud balance - rapid density fluctuation

c) Solution (see rheological properties - plastic viscosity).

ƒ Dilution.
ƒ Employment of mechanical solids removal devices (e.g., decanting
centrifuges) and/or reduction of screen size openings of shale
shakers and mud cleaners.
09 basic pilot testing & contamination
Section 4

Solids Check List for Diagnosing

and Treating Non-Dispersed Mud Systems

ACCEPTABLE RANGE FOR

Mud Wt. Bentonite Total Barite Drilled
Solids Solids
lb/gal lb/bbl % by vol. lb/bbl lb/bbl
9.0 14 3-4 29 - 13 0 - 28
9.5 14 5-7 60 - 32 0 - 28
10.0 14 7-8 83 - 64 0 - 28
10.5 14 9 - 11 115 - 85 0 - 28
11.0 14 11 - 12 138 - 115 0 - 28
11.5 14 12 - 14 160 - 136 0 - 28
12.0 13 14 - 16 194 - 166 0 - 26
12.5 13 16 - 18 230 - 200 0 - 26
13.0 12 18 - 20 249 - 218 0 - 24
13.5 11 20 - 22 270 - 246 0 - 22
14.0 10 22 - 24 300 - 269 0 - 20
14.5 10 24 - 26 336 - 306 0 - 20
15.0 9 25 - 27 360 - 335 0 - 18
15.5 9 27 - 29 380 - 358 0 - 18
16.0 8 29 - 30 420 - 400 0 - 16
16.5 8 30 - 32 455 - 432 0 - 16
17.0 8 32 - 34 475 - 455 0 - 16

Relative Proportion of Clay and Barite

S.G. of mud solids 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4

% by wt barite 0 18 34 48 60
% by wt clay / drilled solids 100 82 66 52 40

S.G. of solids 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.3

% by wt barite 71 81 89 100
% by wt clay / drilled solids 29 19 11 0
basic pilot testing & contamination 10

Section 4
filtrate analysis
Generally, the results from the filtrate analysis will confirm the departure
from normal of the values of yield point and gel strengths from rheological
tests.

Increases in mud volume due to liquid or gas intrusions should also be

noted. Salt water flows are almost always accompanied by methane gas.
Methane does not affect the chemical properties of either oil or water-
based muds. Hydrocarbon gases can thin an oil-based mud through
becoming dissolved in the base oil.

Sour gases (i.e. hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide), are generally
found together, although rarely in one to one proportions. When
carbon dioxide is the major component of the intrusive gas, it will mask
the hydrogen sulphide. The reverse, however, is not true.

All salt water flows bring some calcium, magnesium, sodium and chloride
ions into the mud. High concentrations of magnesium chloride in water
are not uncommon in North Sea drilling. Water flows in other areas
have shown high concentrations of calcium chloride.

In addition to gases and liquids, soluble formation salts can contribute to

the contamination of the mud system. The common ones encountered
are :
• Halite, rock salt, (NaCl)
• Sylvite (KCl)
• Tachhydrite (2MgCl2 - CaCl2 - 12H2O)
• Anhydrite (CaSO4)
• Gypsum (CaSO4 - 2H2O)

Calcite, CaCO3 (common name, limestone) and dolomite, (CaCO3 - MgCO3)

are not considered chemical contaminants because their solubilities are too
low.

Cements are made from limestone and clay or shale. If the clay or shale
does not contain enough iron and aluminium oxides, these materials
are added to the cement. The finely ground raw material, either wet or
dry processed, is fired in a rotary kiln and the carbon dioxide is driven off.
The resultant “clinker” is finely ground and mixed with small amounts of
gypsum. This is the basic “common cement”. Cement can be considered
a contaminant, especially if it is entrained in a water base mud before it
has hardened or set. As much as 2% borax may be found in some cements.
Borax has an extreme viscosifying effect on some polymers, especially the
guar family.
11 basic pilot testing & contamination
Section 4

Contaminants and Precipitating Chemicals

Contaminant Chemical to Remove

Calcium soda ash
Calcium w/bicarbonate lime
Gypsum or anhydrite barium carbonate
Magnesium soda ash
Soluble sulphides zinc oxide (OBM)
zinc carbonate (WBM)
zinc chelate (WBM)
sodium chromate
lime/caustic soda
Ironite sponge
Soluble carbonate lime
Soluble bicarbonate lime
Phosphate lime
Sulphate with calcium available barium carbonate
Sodium chloride Dilution
Cement sodium bicarbonate
and/or chemical thinner

alkalinity
Most contaminants with the exception of cement will lower the pH and/
or alkalinity.

Virtually all water base muds perform better on the alkaline side of
neutral. In addition, corrosion is retarded by an alkaline environment.
The exception is when aluminium drill pipe is being used in which case
the pH is controlled below 10 to prevent attack of the metal by hydroxyl
ions.

Sodium carbonate (soda ash) and sodium bicarbonate precipitate soluble

calcium in water-based muds. Mud properties, after a continued use of
either, become difficult to control. Poor filtration control, high viscosity and
gels and ineffectiveness of dispersants are a result of that treatment. The
Pf-Mf test is accurate for water but because muds contain ions other than
hydroxyls, carbonates and bicarbonate which interfere with the test, the
back titration method (P, P1, P2) is preferred.
basic pilot testing & contamination 12

Section 4
Pm (Pmud) is the test to determine the amount of alkalinity present
from soluble caustic soda and insoluble lime present in the mud.

Lime reacts with sodium bicarbonate to give caustic soda and a precipitate
of limestone (CaCO3).

The chemical formula for this is as follows:

Ca (OH)2 + NaHCO3 = CaCO3 + NaOH + H2O

The pH is increased and soda ash is formed:

NaOH + NaHCO3 = Na2CO3 + H2O

The product soda ash reacts with lime also to give limestone:

Ca (OH)2 + Na2CO3 = CaCO3 + 2NaOH

Bicarbonate is converted to CO3 and OH ion alkalinity by lime treatment.

If the bicarbonate is present as calcium bicarbonate, lime treatment will

remove it:

Ca (OH)2 + Ca (HCO3)2 = 2CaCO3 + 2H2O

Lime will not always improve unstable muds high in bicarbonate

probably due to the effect of a high sodium concentration. There is no way
to reduce this sodium concentration. Avoidance of long periods of
treatment with soda ash or sodium bicarbonate for soluble calcium
is advisable. Instead, the use of some lime is recommended. Similarly,
maintenance of alkalinity with caustic soda for prolonged periods should
be avoided by switching to lime or using a combination of both.

ion analysis
a) Chloride - Cl-

In water muds, an increase in chlorides signifies the penetration of a

salt water flow, formation salt, or the swabbing of a salt water sand
by sudden withdrawal of the drill pipe and bit in a near gauge hole.
13 basic pilot testing & contamination
Section 4

Generally, an increase in chlorides is accompanied by an increase in

the amount of filtrate; a decrease in filtrate alkalinity, and an increase in
viscosity and gels of the mud.

Dilution and restoration of the alkalinity are recommended. There is

no chemical treatment to precipitate the Chloride ion to render it
ineffective.

b) Sulphate - SO4 - -

Sulphates are usually derived from formation waters and anhydrite or

gypsum. “Gyppy” make-up water is common in wells or stock tanks.
Anhydrite and gypsum are found as formations in many drilling areas. In
the cap rock of salt domes, anhydrite and gypsum are commonly
found. Some drilling fluid products that contain sulphates are plaster of
Paris (sulphate-hemihydrate), gypsum, salt cake (sodium sulphate), and
cement.

A result of excessive soluble sulphates in water-based muds is flash

gels or high 10-minute gels. An oilfield term, “soda ash gels”, is
derived from the addition of soda ash to a water-based mud,
producing high gels when agitation ceases. The sodium ions react
with soluble sulphates to cause flash thickening of some polymers and
clays.

Muds treated with chemical thinner and dispersant can tolerate high
sulphates. Barium carbonate can be used to convert the soluble sulphate
to an insoluble precipitate of barium sulphate if enough calcium is
available to react with the excess carbonate of the reaction. Epm of
sulphate x 0.0346 equals the lb/bbl of chemical treatment by barium
carbonate.

The Hach Meter is preferred to the test tube estimation for determining
sulphate value even though dilution of the filtrate sample is necessary.

c) Calcium and Magnesium - Ca++ and Mg++

Generally considered together, they are termed “total hardness”.

Soluble calcium and magnesium are found in salts and formation
basic pilot testing & contamination 14

Section 4
waters. They are common in make-up water whether it be from
the sea, producing wells, rivers, or stock ponds. The solubility of
calcium is 600 - 800 ppm when derived from gypsum and anhydrite.

Most water based muds can tolerate 200 - 400 ppm of hardness.
Filtration control is affected by the calcium flocculating the clays
and/or polymers in the drilling fluid. Magnesium reacts generally
the same with polymers. Exceptions exist however with certain
high quality PAC materials tolerating magnesium but not working
very well with calcium in excess of 1,000 ppm. Calcium will affect
the thinning performance of lignite also although it does not
inhibit the thinning ability of ferrochrome lignosulphonate.

Calcium can be precipitated from solution by several common

chemicals. The choice depends on conditions and the mud type (e.g.
No hardness solubility would be anticipated in a high pH lime mud.)
They are :

Salt Cake - Na2SO4

Recommended for salty muds. Does not affect magnesium. Reacts

with calcium to form calcium sulphate (solubility of 600 - 800 ppm). Use
only when calcium is in excess of 1000 ppm. One lb/bbl will reduce
calcium by about 800 ppm. Use of salt cake in fresh water muds is not
recommended for the reasons already described under “sulphate”. Salt
muds are already flocculated so increase of sulphates has little effect
on mud properties.

Soda Ash - Na2CO3

Forms CaCO3 (limestone). About 0.2 lb/bbl for every 200 ppm of calcium

Polyphosphates

Small amounts of polyphosphates are used for light calcium

contamination in fresh water muds. The calcium is precipitated as an
insoluble phosphate. Treatments should not in general exceed 0.5 lb/
bbl.

Polyphosphates are unstable above 180° F and can cause mud

thickening.
15 basic pilot testing & contamination
Section 4

Commonly used Polyphosphates

(1% In Water)

Chemical Name Formula pH

sodium Na6P4O13 7.5
tetraphosphate
sodium (Na PO3)6 4.8
hexametaphosphate (Calgon)
sodium acid Na2H2P2O7 4.8
pyrophosphate (SAPP)
tetra sodium Na4P2O7 10.0
pyrophosphate (TSPP)

d) Bicarbonates, Carbonates - HCO3-, CO3- -

Soluble carbonates or bicarbonates found in drilling fluids generally

originate from these sources ; (1) formation carbon dioxide gas, (2)
make-up water, (3) decomposition of mud products and (4) reaction
products from the use of sulphide scavengers. Carbon dioxide in an
alkaline environment forms bicarbonate which then proceeds to the
carbonate.

i.e. CO2 + OH- = HCO3- + OH- = CO3- - + H2O

Carbon dioxide is generally found along with methane and hydrogen

sulphide. Although coexisting with hydrogen sulphide, it will sometimes
mask it and go undetected in an alkaline environment. Taking the
carbonate from the above reaction, it is believed to react in the following
way:

H2S + CO3- - = HS- + HCO3-

HS- + CO3- - = S- - + HCO3-

Raising the pH is not recommended for treatment of soluble calcium

derived from cement contamination because pH is already high.
basic pilot testing & contamination 16

Section 4
Sodium Bicarbonate - NaHCO3

Reacts with soluble calcium to form limestone. Recommended

for cement contamination because pH is lowered and calcium
precipitated.

Small amounts of carbon dioxide are derived from lignite subjected to

high bottom hole temperatures.

Limestone - CaCO3 is almost insoluble in drilling mud, as is dolomite

CaMg (CO3)2.

A build up of soluble carbonates or bicarbonates in the mud filtrate

is accompanied by a drop in alkalinity, an increase in filtrate, gel
strengths and yield point. (See discussion under “Alkalinity”). One
reaction product of hydrogen sulphide and zinc carbonate (metallic
scavenger) is a soluble carbonate. Heavy usage of scavenger with
continued sulphide influx has contributed to mud instability.

Soluble carbonates and bicarbonates can be converted to insoluble

calcium carbonate through the use of some form of calcium such as
lime, gypsum, or calcium chloride. Generally, lime is used although
the pH will be raised. The gypsum or calcium chloride will affect pH
very little but will contribute sulphates and chlorides, respectively.
Slight fluctuation may occur upon the entry of any of the three if reactive
clay content is high.

Epm of carbonate or bicarbonate:

x 0.013 = lb/bbl Lime

x 0.024 = lb/bbl Gyp
x 0.025 = lb/bbl Calcium
Chloride (78%)

Carbonates, which are reacting out, are generally evidenced after

several minutes of stirring through reduced viscosity and gels.

e) Sulphides - S--
17 basic pilot testing & contamination
Section 4

f) Soluble sulphides are generally derived from the sour formation

gas, hydrogen sulphide. Packer fluids, but rarely drilling fluids, are
attacked by sulphate-reducing bacteria which produce sulphides.
Some formation waters as well as crude oil contain sulphides that can
possibly contaminate muds. Some additives, such as liquid asphalt or
other asphalt derivatives contain soluble sulphides.

Flocculation of clay solids, increased viscosity, yield point, gels and

filter loss, are some of the effects of sulphide contamination. A
decrease in alkalinity and a colour change (dark green to black) of
mud, along with a rotten vegetation or rotten egg odour are common
symptoms of a sulphide contaminated mud.

A useful general equation to determine the amount of H2S (ppm) a

given mud can neutralise:

ppm H2S = 682 (Pm) (8.33/Mud Wt.)

cationic exchange capacity of clays

This test is based on the dye adsorption capacity of clays in mud. Methylene
blue (methylthionine chloride) solution, 1 ml = 0.01 milliequivalents, is
added in small increments to an acidified, diluted mud sample until an
excess is reached. An excess is noted when a drop of test solution on
appropriate paper seems to radiate a halo of brighter blue than the central
dot.

This is one of the most overlooked tests in the field but its significance
related to viscosity, filtration, filter cake quality, high temperature
gelation, and drilling rate is very important. Sampling and testing the
cuttings using the same technique will produce an insight as to effect of
the borehole on the drilling fluid. The following table is a guide for clay
content of four mud types.
basic pilot testing & contamination 18

Section 4
Recommended Bentonite Content
(lb/bbl)

Mud Wt, lb/gal 9 10 11 12 13 14

Non-dispersed low solids 14 14 14 13 12 10
Fresh water caustic 26 24 22 20 18 16
lignosulphonate
GYP/Lignosulphonate 30 27 24 22 20 18
Lignite surfactant (400° F) 16 15 14 13 12 11

Mud Wt, lb/gal 15 16 17 18 19 20

Non-dispersed low solids 9 8 8 7 - -
Fresh water caustic 14 12 10 8 7 6
lignosulphonate
GYP/Lignosulphonate 16 14 12 10 8 7
Lignite surfactant (400° F) 10 8 6 4 3 2

The solution to the problem of excessive reactive clay entrained in the

drilling mud can be approached from two directions:

1. If more of the mud-making formation is to be drilled, a more inhibitive

mud system would be recommended.

2. Treating the symptoms :

ƒ Addition of more dispersant or deflocculant.

ƒ Dilution with water.
ƒ Introduction of a surfactant to coat the cuttings and reduce the
activity of clays already incorporated into the system. As a general
rule, one lb/bbl of the surfactant is recommended per 4 lb/bbl
of clay.
ƒ Combinations of the above.

filtration
The rate of loss through a cake is dependent upon particle size
distribution in the mud and the incorporation of droplets of water and/
or oil in the openings between the solids. The openings are controlled
by the filtration control agents. The basic filtration control agent of
many water base muds is bentonite (whether it is to be as little as 3 - 4
lb/bbl in low solids non-dispersed muds, or as much as 25 - 35 lb/bbl
in seawater dispersed muds).
19 basic pilot testing & contamination
Section 4

It should be noted that to have liquid loss, a porous medium must be

present. The viscosity of the filtrate has some effect also on rate of loss.
Although shales are practically impermeable, hole stability in some areas
is directly related to liquid loss. Some shales are micro-fractured and the
migration of liquids through these passages has a lubricating effect. This
effect is thought to occur in certain areas using oil base mud. When the
shales are steeply-bedded, semi-collapse of the borehole has been a result
of this phenomenon.

In some areas the chemical nature of the filtrate, rather than the amount, is
more important as related to shale stability. Importance is also attached to
productivity of porous zones as affected by mud filtrates.

1. The significance of increase in filtration at room temperature and 100

psi pressure is that it is associated with contaminants.

ƒ Salt Water flow

Increase in : Volume
Calcium
Magnesium
Sulphates
Chlorides

ƒ Acid gases, i.e., hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide

Increase in : Soluble sulphides

Soluble carbonates

ƒ Salt stringers or salt domes

Increase in : Chlorides
Calcium

ƒ Gypsum of anhydrite associated with massive beds or stringers

and the cap rock of salt domes

Increase in : Sulphates
Calcium
basic pilot testing & contamination 20

Section 4
ƒ Contaminants are often found in bulk products, such as barites and
clays, due to carelessness in transportation and handling.

ƒ Drilling personnel on offshore rigs have mistakenly pumped cement

or seawater into the active mud system.

ƒ Drilled solids, especially sand, can increase the filtrate. Some shales
will reduce the filter loss.

2. Cross references to the increase in filter losses are almost always

detected by increases in the viscosity measurements and in the ion
analysis of the filtrate.

3. The significance of increases in bottom hole temperature. 500 psi

filtration losses are generally associated with the lack of certain mud
products or the thermal degradation of the products being used. The
presence of oxygen with some mud materials lowers their thermal
stability. However, in analysing a mud’s performance in regard to
temperature, the following should be considered :

ƒ Circulating temperatures never reach the bottom hole

temperature.
ƒ Heat transfer in mud is very slow.
ƒ Unless the drill pipe is out of the hole for extended periods,
mud temperature will not be in equilibrium with the formation
temperature.
ƒ Temperature stabilities are exceeded on the following products at
the designated temperature :

Polyphosphates 185° F
Starch 250° F
Fermentation-resistant starch 265° F
CMC 275° F
PAC 280° F
Xanthan gum 280° F
Ferrochrome lignosulphonate 350° F
Certain lignite thinners + 400° F
Various high Temperature + 400° F
polymers (e.g. polyacrylates)
21 basic pilot testing & contamination
Section 4

ƒ The amount of clay (bentonite) should be carefully observed.

Too little can give high filter losses. This can be the case where
decanting centrifuges are being used on a regular basis. Excessive
clays however, can produce undesirable gelation and viscosity at
elevated temperatures.

static aging
This test is an effort to duplicate the effect of temperature on the mud
left in the hole during a trip for a new bit, a logging run, running casing,
or any other extended period of time when the pumps are idle.

The standard cells are normally pressured to 500 psi, or less, and that, in
essence, is where part of the test loses its credibility with oil muds. Tests
have shown that pressure increases do not affect the viscosity of water
based muds. Oil based muds become thinner at higher temperature but
more viscous at higher pressures. Thus, the pressure partially offsets the
effect of the higher temperature.

The significance of the test is that it indicates:

ƒ The degree of suspension to prevent weighting materials from

settling under temperature and pressure. This is very important
for muds which are used as packer fluids. One of the criteria for
success is being able to pull the packer without having to wash
down to the top of it.
ƒ The degree of trouble getting casing, logging tools, and drill bits
to the bottom of the hole after extended periods without
bottom hole circulation. This indicator is the shear strength of the
aged sample.
ƒ Thermal stability after long-term aging with regard to filter loss.
This is tested by both room temperature, 100 psi and HTHP
filtrations.
ƒ The effect of temperature on the mud chemicals and resulting
alkalinity.
ƒ The amount of fluid separating from the mud itself. This applies
to oil muds only.
ƒ The effect of temperature on the degree of emulsification. This
refers to oil muds only and electrical stability specifically.
basic pilot testing & contamination 22

Section 4
Suspension in several water based muds is generally related to the
amount and type of commercial clays used. Excessive drilled solids,
bentonite, alkalinity, and temperature can form cement. Some
suspension as well as temperature stability regarding fluidity can
be achieved with large amounts (15 - 30 ppb) of thinner (lignite) or
leonardite (brown coal). Both are aids to filtration control as well as
suspension in hot holes. More modern fluids however rely solely on
polymers for suspension with bentonite added only in high temperature
applications to provide desired filter cake characteristics/fluid loss
control.

Much success has recently been experienced in large diameter hole

drilling, milling operations and horizontal hole drilling using mixed metal
hydroxide systems which demonstrate significantly improved suspension
characteristics and superior return permeability data.

Alkalinity must be maintained for good mud performance as far as

corrosion, filtration, and fluidity are concerned; but excess in alkalinity
leads to high temperature gelation and / or solidification.

Decreasing the shear strength of a particular mud generally involves

dilution, reduction of drilled solids and/or commercial clays, adjustment
of alkalinity, and increase in dispersant or deflocculant.

Top oil separation can be decreased by an increase of water content;

additions of organophilic clays (gellants) accompanied by some fluid loss
additive; certain emulsifiers. This applies to oil muds only.

Reduction of gellant content and drilled solids by oil dilution,

accompanied by oil mud thinner and oil wetter additions, will reduce
excessive shear strengths of oil muds.