Section 14 - Solids Control and Drilling Waste Management PDF

drilling waste dwm
management
section 14
drilling waste management background
Section 14
No well can be drilled without the generation of wastes. The types of
waste generated include drill cuttings, waste water, spent drilling fluids,
completion fluids and filtration wastes. The contaminants on the waste
depend largely on the types of drilling fluids used to drill the well.
With increasing legislation, public awareness and minimum operator

environmental standards, the containment, handling and treatment of
drilling waste has increased in importance and now ranks in importance
along side that of drilling fluids in many countries around the world.
The treatment processes utilised on the waste generated vary from c

ountry to country and very much depend on the local legislation. In
countries where no legislation exists, many operators will fall back on
minimum standards used in other countries or standards set at a corporate
level.
The Four R’s are one of many ways to describe the waste management
hierarchy approach and are important when considering what our
drilling waste management product line consist of. The four R’s are:
• Reduce
• Reuse
• Recycle
• Recover
Reduce – if we do not generate the waste in the first place, then a reduction
is obvious. However, no well can be drilled without the generation of
waste. It is possible though to reduce the volumes through a number of
means including better planning, a reduction in hole sizes, minimising
washout through the selection of appropriate drilling fluids etc.
Reuse – solids control equipment is key to the reuse strategy. Solids

control efficiencies will dictate how much drilling fluid is recovered in a
suitable state for reuse in further drillings activities. Poor solids control
efficiencies will lead to more solids entering the active system, further
reducing their particle size, and ultimately resulting in the requirement
to dump fluids as waste, or to dilute, thereby increasing volumes and
costs, all of which have a negative environmental impact.
drilling waste management background
Section 14
Other specialist equipment is used to further improve the recovery of

drilling fluids such as the Oil Free Plus Dryer (vertical) and Extractor Dryer
(horizontal), which reduces the residual oil on cuttings to a level not
achievable using traditional solids control equipment.
Liquid waste such as waste water and spilt drilling fluids can also be
reused in many cases provided they are collected, treated if necessary, and
checked prior to reuse.
Recycle – after recovery of the drilling fluid for reuse, the drill cuttings
may require further processing. The low temperature thermal treatment
of NADF cuttings offers the opportunity to recycle the recovered base
oil to build new drilling fluids.
Similarly, slop water generated during the use of NADF can be treated with
chemicals to recover and ultimately recycle much of the NADF portion.
Recover – high temperature thermal treatment of drill cuttings will

generate a recovered hydrocarbon which is not suitable for reuse in
drilling fluids due to “cracking” of the oil caused by the higher treatment
temperature. However, this hydrocarbon is often suitable for recovery as
a fuel oil.
The Drilling Waste Management product line is designed to help

maximise compliance with the waste management hierarchy principles,
as well as ensuring that local regulations and standards are complied
with. Ultimately, disposal will be required in all cases, be it solids and / or
liquids.
solids control
section 14a
solids control
Section 14a
contents
overview .................................................................................................................................1
sources and sizes of solids ...............................................................................................1
impact of drill solids ...........................................................................................................2
drill solids removal ..............................................................................................................3
dilution ....................................................................................................................................3
gravity settling method ....................................................................................................4
mechanical solids removal equipment ......................................................................4
solids control equipment .................................................................................................6
shale shakers ........................................................................................................................6
vibration patterns ..............................................................................................................7
acceleration ........................................................................................................................11
frequency (rpm), stroke length ....................................................................................12
deck angle ...........................................................................................................................12
screen fastening and support ......................................................................................13
three dimensional screens ...........................................................................................15
blinding, plugging ...........................................................................................................15
estimating number of shakers required ...................................................................16
summary...............................................................................................................................17
position in the system .....................................................................................................18
set up ....................................................................................................................................18
hydroclone - desander ....................................................................................................19
hydroclone – desilter ......................................................................................................22
principle and theory of operation ..............................................................................22
function ...............................................................................................................................25
flow rates through hydrocyclones .............................................................................27
position in the system ....................................................................................................28
mudcleaners ......................................................................................................................28
solids control
Section 14a
contents
principle and theory of operation ...............................................................................28
function ................................................................................................................................28
set up and variables .........................................................................................................29
summary ..............................................................................................................................31
performance operation ..................................................................................................31
centrifuge ............................................................................................................................33
principle & theory of operation ...................................................................................33
function ................................................................................................................................38
centrifuge uses ..................................................................................................................39
centrifuge set up ...............................................................................................................41
summary...............................................................................................................................56
shale shaker screens ........................................................................................................57
screen identification ........................................................................................................58
mesh size designation ....................................................................................................59
API RP 13C Designation ..................................................................................................60
cut points .............................................................................................................................69
causes of premature screen failure .............................................................................69
screen blinding ..................................................................................................................72
screen panels ......................................................................................................................73
hook strip screens .............................................................................................................73
bonded screens .................................................................................................................74
three-dimensional screen panels ................................................................................74
screen effectiveness ........................................................................................................75
screen designations .........................................................................................................77
system layout .....................................................................................................................78
solids control
Section 14a
contents
fundamental principles ...................................................................................................78
tank design ..........................................................................................................................79
compartment equalisation ............................................................................................79
sand trap...............................................................................................................................80
equipment arrangement ................................................................................................82
do’s and don’ts ...................................................................................................................82
zero discharge set-up ......................................................................................................83
01 solids control
Section 14a
overview
Solids control is the process of controlling the build-up of undesirable
solids in a mud system. The build-up of solids has undesirable effects
on drilling fluid performance and the drilling process. Rheological and
filtration properties can become difficult to control when the
concentration of drilled solids (low-gravity solids) becomes excessive.
Penetration rates and bit life decrease and hole problems increase
with a high concentration of drill solids.
Solids control equipment on a drilling operation should be operated like

a processing plant. In an ideal situation, all drill solids are removed from a
drilling fluid.
Under typical drilling conditions, low-gravity solids should normally be

maintained below 6 percent by volume.
sources and sizes of solids

The two primary sources of solids (particles) are chemical additives and
formation cuttings. Formation cuttings are contaminants that degrade
the performance of the drilling fluid. If the cuttings are not removed
they will be ground into smaller and smaller particles that become more
difficult to remove from the drilling fluid.
Most formation solids can be removed by mechanical means at the

surface. Small particles are more difficult to remove and have a greater
effect on drilling fluid properties than large particles. The particle size
of drilled solids incorporated into drilling fluid can range from 1 to 250
microns (1 micron equals 1/25, 400 of an inch of 1/1000 of a millimetre).
The following table lists the approximate sizes of contaminating solids.
Material Diameter Screen Diameter

(Microns) Mesh (Inches)
Required to
Remove
Clay 1 - 0.00004
Colloidals 5 - 0.00002
Bentonite
solids control 02
Section 14a
Material Diameter Screen Diameter
(Microns) Mesh (Inches)
Required to
Remove
Silt 6-44 1,470-400 0.0004-0.0015
Barites
Fine Cement Dust
Fine Sand 44 325 0.0015
53 270 0.002
74 200 0.003
API Sand 105 140 0.004
149 100 0.006
Coarse Sand 500 35 0.020
1,000 18 0.040
Table 1 – Solids Sizes (Common solids found in drilling fluids range in
size from 1 to 1,000 microns)
The following table details the common particle size classification:
API Class Size Range Common Screen

(microns) Term Mesh
Coarse >2000 Sand 10
Intermediate 250 – 2000 Sand 60
Medium 73 - 250 Silt 210
Fine 44 - 73 Silt 460
Ultra Fine 2 - 44 Clay
Colloidal 0-2 Clay
Table 2 – Common Particle Size Classification
impact of drill solids

Drill solids are the main contaminant of all drilling fluids and therefore
their control is of the utmost importance. The importance of good solids
control include:
• Increased Penetration Rates
• Reduced Mud Costs
03 solids control
Section 14a
• Less Water Requirements

• Less Mixing Problems
• Less Differential Sticking
• Reduced Hole Drag and Torque
• Lower Pumps Costs
• Pumps Operate More Efficiently
• Better Cementing Jobs
• Reduced Annular Pressures
• Minimise Lost Circulation
• Reduced Formation Damage
• Environmental Protection
• Reduced Disposal Costs
The consequences of poor solids control:

• Stuck pipe
• Reduced Drilling rate
• Thick Filter cake
• Increased Drilling Fluid Dilution
• Increased Chemical consumption
• Increased Torque and Drag
• Formation Damage
• Problems with well Evaluation
• Poor cement jobs
• Increased surge/swab pressures, ECD
• Increased equipment wear and tear, decreased bit life
drill solids removal

There are 3 main ways of controlling solids:
• Dilution
• Mechanical removal
• Gravity Settling
dilution
Oil muds can be diluted with base oil (or clean oil mud) and water
muds can be diluted with water (or clean water mud) to keep the
concentration and surface area of solids within bounds. Two approaches
for dilution are:
1. Dump and dilute continuously while drilling. This is the most
expensive approach to solids control in most situations.
2. Dump periodically and dilute while drilling. This is more cost
effective than the first approach. Certain practices can be applied to
make it less costly.
solids control 04
Section 14a
The total costs of dilution are: the cost of the water hauled to the rig, the
cost of converting that water into a mud of correct density, plus the cost
of disposal of the mud that was dumped. To make dilution less expensive,
these practices should be followed:
1. minimize the total volume of mud to be diluted.
2. dump (displace) the maximum possible dirty mud before adding
water and materials, and
3. do as much dilution as possible in a single step- not a series of small
dilutions.
Therefore, as mud becomes more expensive, dilution becomes a less

attractive option and mechanical separation should be pursued.
gravity settling method

In locations where large, shallow earthen pits can be built, a mud can
be circulated through the pits and drill solids allowed to settle out. It is a
rare situation today when this can be done; but, it is an alternative to be
considered. On rigs with steel pits, the sand trap (under the shale shaker)
is the only place where settling should occur.
mechanical solids removal equipment

Equipment that removes solids mechanically can be grouped into two
major classifications:
• Screen Devices
• Centrifugal Separation Devices.
The following table identifies the particle sizes (in microns) the equipment
can remove.
Solids Control Equipment Particle Sizes Removed

Screen Devices 61 micron cut with 250 mesh screen
Centrifugal Separation Devices
- Decanting Centrifuges Colloidal Solids to 5 micron
- Hydrocyclones 20-70 micron solids, depending on
cone size
Table 3 – Solids Control Equipment and Effective Operating Ranges in
Microns (the particle size removed depends on the type of solids control
equipment.
05 solids control
Section 14a
Table 4 - Summary table of solids particle size versus mechanical

removal device
solids control 06
Section 14a
Screen Devices
The most common screen device is a shale shaker, which contains one
or more vibrating screens that mud passes through as it circulates out of
the hole. Shale shakers are classified as circular/elliptical or linear motion
shale shakers.
Circular/elliptical motion shaker. This shaker uses elliptical rollers to

generate a circular rocking motion to provide better solids removal
through the screens.
Linear motion shaker. This shaker uses a straightforward and back

rocking motion to keep the fluid circulating through the screens.
Centrifugal Separating Devices

The devices rely upon exerting a substantial “G” force on the fluid to
separate the denser particles from the lighter fluids.
They include all hydroclones, Desanders, Desilters etc, and centrifuges.

In the case of a mud cleaner the two principles of screen and centrifugal
separation are combined.
solids control equipment

shale shakers
Function
The shale shakers performance can be easily observed, all aspects of
its operation are visible. Shale shakers provide the advantage of not
degrading soft or friable cuttings. When well operated and maintained,
shale shakers can produce a relatively dry cuttings discharge.
In unweighted muds, the shale shaker’s main role is to remove as much

solids as possible and reduce the solids loading to the downstream
hydrocyclones and centrifuges to improve their efficiency. In muds
containing solid weighting agents such as barite, the shale shaker is
the primary solids removal device. It is usually relied upon to remove all
drilled cuttings coarser than the weighting material. Downstream
equipment will often remove too much valuable weighting material.
Enough shakers should be installed to process the entire circulating

rate with the goal of removing as many drilled cuttings as economically
feasible. Given the importance of the shale shaker, the most efficient
07 solids control
Section 14a
shakers and screens should be selected to achieve optimum economic

performance of the solids control system.
Shaker performance is a function of:

• Vibration pattern
• Vibration dynamics
• Deck size and configuration
• Shaker screen characteristics
• Mud rheology (plastic viscosity)
• Solids loading rate (penetration rate, hole diameter)
The impact of each is discussed in detail in this chapter. Guidelines for

shaker and screen selection are also provided.
Principle of Operation
Simply stated, a shale shaker works by channelling mud and solids
onto vibrating screens. The mud and fine solids pass through the
screens and return to the active system. Solids coarser than the screen
openings are conveyed off the screen by the vibratory motion of the
shaker. The shaker is the only solids removal device that makes a
separation based on physical particle size. Hydrocyclones and
centrifuges separate solids based on differences in their relative mass.
vibration patterns
Shale shakers are classified in part of the vibration pattern made by the
shaker basket location over a vibration cycle (e.g. linear motion shakers).
The pattern will depend on the placement and orientation of the
vibrators. Four basic vibration patterns are possible,
• circular
• balanced elliptical motion
• unbalanced elliptical
• linear
Circular Motion
As the name implies, the shaker basket moves in a uniform circular
motion when viewed from the side. This is a “balanced” vibration
pattern because all regions of the shaker basket move in phase with
the identical pattern. In order to achieve “balanced” circular motion,
a vibrator must be located on each side of the shaker basket at its
centre of gravity (CG) with the axis of rotation perpendicular to the side
of the basket. The Brandt Tandem is a common example of a circular
motion shaker.
solids control 08
Section 14a
Solids Conveyance and Fluid Throughput
Circular motion shakers will not efficiently convey solids uphill.
Therefore, most shakers of this type are designed with horizontal
configurations. Fluid throughput is limited by the deck angle, but
augmented slightly by the higher “G”’s normally used (see Vibration
Dynamics section). The “soft” acceleration pattern does not tend to drive
soft, sticky solids, such as gumbo into the screens.
Recommended Applications
• Gumbo or soft sticky solids conditions
• Scalping shakers for coarse solids removal
Balanced Elliptical Motion

The latest design have the motors placed above the basket and produce
a ‘lazy’ elliptical motion
• General solids removal. Equally good in water based and oil based
drilling fluids
09 solids control
Section 14a
Unbalanced Elliptical Motion

The difference between circular motion and unbalanced elliptical notion
is a matter of vibrator placement. To achieve unbalanced elliptical
motion, the vibrators are typically located above the shaker basket.
Because the vibrator counterweights no longer rotate about the
shaker’s centre of gravity, torque is applied on the shaker basket.
This causes a rocking motion which generates different vibration
patterns to occur along the length of the basket, hence the item
“unbalanced”.
This figure illustrates how the vibration pattern may change along the
length of the basket. At the feed end of the shaker, an elliptical vibration
pattern is created; the angle of vibration is pointed toward the discharge
end. In this region, forward solids conveyance is good. However, at the
discharge end of the shaker, angle of the elliptical pattern is point back
towards the feed end. This will cause the solids to convey backwards
unless the deck is pitched downhill at a sufficient angle to overcome the
uphill acceleration imparted on the solids by the shaker motion.
Solids Conveyance and Fluid Throughput

The downhill deck orientation restricts the unbalanced elliptical
motion shaker’s ability to process fluid, mud losses can be a concern.
However the deck orientation is beneficial for removing sticky solids such
as gumbo.
• Gumbo, or soft sticky solids conditions
• Scalping shakers for coarse solids removal
solids control 10
Section 14a
Linear Motion
Linear motion is achieved by using two counter rotating vibrators which,
because of their positioning and vibration dynamics, will naturally operated
in phase. They are located so that a line drawn from the shaker’s centre of
gravity bisects at 90˚ a line drawn between the two axis of rotation.
Because the counterweights rotate in opposite directions, the net force

on the shaker basket is zero except along a line passing through the
shaker’s centre of gravity. The resultant shaker motion is therefore “linear”.
The angle of this line of motion is usually at 45-50˚ relative to the shaker
deck to achieve maximum solids conveyance. Because acceleration is
applied through the shaker CG, the basket is dynamically balanced; the
same pattern of motion will exist at all points along the shaker.
Solids Conveyance and Liquid Throughput

Linear motion shakers have become the shaker of choice for most
applications because of their superior solids conveyance and fluid
handling capacity. Solids can be strongly conveyed uphill by linear
motion. The uphill deck configuration allows a pool of liquid to form at
the shaker’s feed end to provide additional head and high fluid
throughput capability. This allows the use of fine screens to improve
separation performance. The Derrick Flo-Line Cleaner is one example
of a linear motion shale shaker.
11 solids control
Section 14a
One drawback to linear motion shakers is their relatively poor

performance in processing gumbo. The short vibration stroke length
when combined with long basket lengths, uphill deck angles and strong
acceleration forces tends to make the soft gumbo “patties” adhere to the
screen cloth. The removal of gumbo is important prior to feeding to a
linear motion shaker.
• All applications where fine screening is required.

acceleration
During the vibration cycle, the shaker basket undergoes acceleration
which changes in both magnitude and direction. As discussed previously,
the placement of the vibrators determines the vibration pattern and
therefore the net acceleration direction during the vibration cycle. The
mass of the counterweights and the frequency of the vibration determines
the magnitude of the acceleration.
The vertical component of acceleration has the most effect on shaker

liquid throughput. We relate the vertical components of acceleration and
stroke length to frequency by the following equation:
G’s = stroke (in.) x RPM2

70, 490
where the stroke length is the total vertical distance travelled by the
shaker basket and the G-force is measured from midpoint to peak.
An acceleration of one “G” is the standard acceleration due to gravity

(386 in./sec2). Most shakers operate at accelerations within the range of
2.5-7.0 G’s, depending upon the vibration pattern. Field experience
has shown this range offers the best compromise between throughput
capacity and screen life.
Many manufacturers report the acceleration of linear motion shakers

along the line of motion. This yields a larger number and looks good on
the specification sheet. However, unless the angle of vibration is also
specified, it reveals little about the performance of the shaker.
solids control 12
Section 14a
Some shakers have adjustable counterweights to vary acceleration.
Although flow capacity and cuttings dryness improves with increased
acceleration, screen life is negatively affected. By reducing the “G”s
when extra flow capacity is available, screen life may be improved.
frequency (rpm), stroke length
The vibrator frequency of most shale shakers is not normally adjustable.
The vibrators typically rotate at a nominal RPM or 1200 or 1800 at 60Hz.
Stroke length varies inversely with rpm. A higher rpm will result in a
shorter stroke length at the same acceleration.
The effect of vibrator frequency and stroke length on shaker processing

rate has been evaluated in the laboratory. The results of these tests
show improved shaker flow capacity in the presence of solids with
decreased rpm (or conversely, increased stroke length) at the same G
level. Therefore, the term “high speed” should not be used to mean “high
performance” since the opposite relationship is often more correct.
The main disadvantage to lower frequency shale shakers is that the

mud tends to “bounce” much higher off the screens and cover the
area around the shakers with a fine coating of mud. More frequent
housekeeping is required to maintain a safe environment around the
shakers. Longer stroke lengths also tend to reduce screen life.
deck angle
Because linear motion shakers will convey uphill, most provide an easily
adjustable deck angle feature to optimise fluid throughput capacity
and cuttings conveyance velocity. Uphill deck angles also provide
protection against overflow due to surges at the flowline.
At deck angles greater than 3o, solids grinding in the pool region can
be a problem. Although fluid throughput increases with uphill deck
angle, cuttings conveyance decreases. Solids conveyance within the
pool region is slower than out of the pool due to viscous drag forces
and the differential pressure created across the cuttings load by the
hydrostatic head of the fluid. If the deck angle is too high, a stationary
mound of solids can build up in the pool even though conveyance
is observed at the discharge end. The vibrating action of the screen
and extended residence time will tend to grind soft or friable cuttings
before they have the opportunity to be conveyed out of the pool.
This condition should be avoided since the generation of fines in the
mud is definitely not desired.
13 solids control
Section 14a
To check for this problem, observe the feed end of the shaker at a
connection immediately after circulation is stopped. There should not
be a disproportionate amount of solids accumulated at the feed end.
The problem can be rectified by lowering the deck angle until the solids
mound is eliminated.
screen fastening and support
The type of screen panel dictates the type and amount of support and
fastening system necessary. The screen fastening and support structure
provide the following functions:
• Prevent leakage past the screens
• Expedite screen replacement
• Provide even tension on screens to extend screen life
The two types of screen panels are commonly labelled as “pretensioned”

and “nonpretensioned” panels. However, these terms do not exactly
describe the construction since many nonpretensioned panels are, indeed,
pretensioned. The terms “rigid frame” and “hookstrip” more correctly
differentiate the two main panel types.
hookstrip screen panels

This is the most common type of panel, consisting of one to three layers
of screen cloth. The cloth is frequently bonded to a thin perforated
metal grid plate or a plastic grid. The next figure shows the construction
of a typical hookstrip screen. The screen panel is tensioned on the
shaker deck by an interlocked hookstrip and drawbar arrangement
located on both sides of the shaker. Three or more tensioning bolts
are used to pull each drawbar down and towards the side of the basket.
This seats the screen on the shaker deck and distributes even tension
along the hookstrip.
solids control 14
Section 14a
Coarse Backing Layer
Fine Middle Layer
These panels are not rigid; the shaker deck must be crowned to
maintain screen
1. The screen cloth is tensioned and glued directly to the steel frame.
Additional glue lines may be included between the frame members
to provide additional support. The bonding pattern divides the
panel into 3- to 4-in. wide strips orientated parallel to the flow. This
design is used in the fluid systems Model 500.
2. This panel design maximises usable screening area. However,
the large unsupported area normally limits cloth selection to the
heavier grades with lower flow capacity. The panel is not normally
considered repairable.
3. Alternatively, the screen cloth may be bonded to a perforated
metal backing plate similar to a hookstrip screen. The metal
backing plate is then bonded to the support from to create a rigid
panel. The Brandt ATL-1000 and the Thule VSM-100 use this type of
panel.
15 solids control
Section 14a
Usable screen area is reduced by the performed plated design, but this
is offset by the option of using higher conductance screen cloth,
reparability and better screen life under high solids loading conditions.
three dimensional screens
In recent year three dimensional screens have been introduced to the
oil industry. This wave design increases the area of the screen by 40%
over the flat screens. This increase in conductance is only relevant if the
screen is completely submerged in drilling fluid.
blinding, plugging
Screen blinding occurs when grains of solids being screened lodge in
a screen hole. This often occurs when drilling fine sands, such as in the
Gulf of Mexico. The following sequence is often observed during screen
blinding.
1. When a new screen is installed, the circulation drilling fluid falls

through the screen in a short distance.
2. After a time, the fluid endpoint travels to the end of the shaker.
3. Once this occurs, the screens are changed to eliminate the rapid
discharge of drilling mud off the end of the shaker.
4. After the screens have been washed, fine grains of sand that are
lodged in the screen surface can be observed. The surface of the
screen will resemble fine sandpaper because of the sand particles
lodged in the openings.
One common solution to screen blinding is to change to a finer or

coarser screen that he one being blinded. This tactic is successful if the
sand that is being drilled has a narrow size distribution. Another solution
is to change to a rectangular screen, although rectangular screens can
also blind with multiple grains of sand.
Blinding – the “plastering” of a soft material over and in the mesh,

rendering it blocked.
Remedy = wash with high pressure fluid using the base fluid of the drilling
fluid. If this fails, fit coarser screens temporarily.
Plugging – the blocking of the mesh by a particle (usually sand) fitting into
the pore throat of the mesh.
Remedy = wash with high pressure fluid using the base fluid of the
drilling fluid. This is best done from beneath the screen (after removal).
solids control 16
Section 14a
It is often successful to place a finer screen on to reduce the “near size”
plugging.
Lost Circulation Material

Do not bypass the shakers to avoid screening out the LCM material.
Scalping shakers can be used to recover LCM when high concentrations

are continuously required in the mud, provided.
Cuttings size distribution is sufficiently fine to pass through the scalping

screens.
• Solids loading rates do not negatively impact the performance of

the downstream shakers and cause solids build-up in the active
system.
estimating number of shakers required
Base the number of shakers required on the economics and physical
constraints of the specific application.
A “ballpark” estimate of shaker requirements, based on average drilling

conditions can be made from the following table. This is a very rough
estimate and should be used only as a guide.
Shakers Required
Approximate Number of High Performance Linear Motion Shakers
Maximum Viscosity (cP)
GPM 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60
300 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
400 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
500 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3
600 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
700 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4
800 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4
900 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4
1000 2 2 3 3 4 4 4
1100 3 3 3 4 4 4
1200 3 3 3 4 4
1300 3 3 4 4
1400 3 3 4
Table 5 – Shakers Required
17 solids control
Section 14a
The guide however does not reflect the performance of the most
modern market leading shale shakers. The Derrick Flo-Line Cleaner 514
will out perform smaller units and allow less units to be used with
finer screens to produce the same fluid handling ability.
summary
• The shale shaker is the only solids control device that makes a
separation based on the physical size of the particle. The separation
size is dictated by the opening sizes in the shaker screens.
Hydrocyclones and centrifuges separate solids based on differences
between their relative mass and the fluid.
• Shale shakers with linear vibratory motion are preferred for most
applications because of their superior processing capacity and fine
screening ability. Circular motion or unbalanced elliptical motion
shakers are recommended as scalping shakers in cascading systems.
• Vibration of the shaker basket creates G-forces which help drive shear
thinning fluids such as drilling mud through the screens. Vibration
also conveys solids off the screens. Most linear motion shakers
operate in the range of 3 to 4 G’s to balance throughput with screen
life. G-force is a function of vibration frequency (rpm) and stroke
length.
• “High-Speed” should not be equated with “high performance”.
Laboratory tests indicate that, in the normal operating range for
linear motion shale shakers, lower frequency vibration and longer
stroke lengths improve throughput capacity. Most linear motion
shakers operate at 1200 to 1800 rpm.
• Avoid deck inclinations above 3˚. High deck angles reduce solids
conveyance and increase the risk of grinding soft or friable solids
through the screens.
• Shakers are designed to accept either hookstrip or rigid frame screen
panels. Hookstrip screen panels are the most common and are
usually cheaper, although cuttings wetness can be a concern due
to deck curvature. Flat, rigid frame panels promote even fluid
coverage, but can cost more.
• Shakers may have single or tandem screening decks. Single deck
shakers offer mechanical simplicity and full access to the screening
surface. Single deck shakers may be arranged to process mud
sequentially as a “cascading” system to improve performance
under high solids loading conditions. Tandem deck shakers offer
improved processing capacity under high solids loading conditions
when space is limited.
solids control 18
Section 14a
• Manifolds should provide even distribution of mud and solids to
each shaker. Avoid branch tee’s. Recommended manifold designs
are illustrated.
• Operating guidelines are provided for optimising screen life and
cuttings dryness, handling sticky solids, polymer muds, blinding and
LCM problems.
position in the system
Positioned downstream of the gumbo trap and flow distribution system.
May comprise a single set or a dual set or cascade system.
set up
Use enough shakers to provide sufficient non-blanked screen area to
run 100 mesh or finer screens. Shaker set up should be sufficient to
process solids-laden fluids at maximum flow rates over any significant
hole interval.
For double-deck shakers, run a coarser screen on top and a finer screen
on bottom. The coarser screen should be at least two meshes coarser.
Watch for a torn bottom screen. Replace or patch torn screens at once.
Cover 75% to 80% of the bottom screen with mud to maximise utilisation
of the available screen area. Flow back pans are recommended for
improving coverage and throughput.
For a single deck shaker with parallel screens, try to run all the same
mesh screens. If coarser screens are necessary to prevent mud loss, no
more than two meshes should be on the shaker at one time, with the
finer mesh screen closest to the possum belly. The two meshes should
have approximately the same size opening. For example, use a
combination of 100 mesh (140u) and 80 mesh (178u), not 100 mesh
(140u) and 50 mesh (279u). Cover 75% to 80% of the screen area with
mud to properly utilise the screen surface area.
Use spray bars (mist only) as needed for sticky clay, etc. Use spray bars
only with unweighted water based muds. Spray bars are not recommended
for weighted or oil based muds.
19 solids control
Section 14a
Do not bypass or operate with torn screens; these are the main causes
of plugged hydrocyclones. Use screens with mesh back-up so that
coarser solids will be screened out when the finer mesh tears.
For improved screen life with non-pretensioned screens, make sure

the components of the screen tensioning system, including any rubber
supports, nuts, bolts, springs, etc are in place and in good shape. Install
screens according to the manufacturer’s recommended installation
procedure.
Check the bearing lubrication according to manufacturer’s maintenance

schedule. Lubricate and maintain the unit according to manufacturers
instructions.
Rig up with sufficient space and walkways with handrails around the
shaker skid to permit easy service. The shaker skid should be level.
Check for correct direction of motor rotation for shakers with one vibrator.
The flow line should enter at the bottom of the possum belly to prevent
solids settling and build-up in the possum belly. If the flow line enters
over the top of the possum belly, the flow line should be extended to
within 8-10 inches of the bottom of the possum belly.
Rig up for equal fluid and solids distribution when more than one shaker
is used. A cement bypass is desirable.
hydroclone - desander
Think of a tornado inside a bottle and you have a rudimentary idea of
how a hydrocyclone operates. The following figure illustrates the basic
concepts of hydrocyclone operating principles.
solids control 20
Section 14a
Hydrocyclone Operating Principles
A large hydrocyclene can process large volumn of mud due to this upright
spiral design.
LIQUID DISCHARGE
CLEANED DRILLING MUD
(OVERFLOW)
FEED NOZZLE VORTEX FINDER
DRILLING MUD
SAND AND SILT, DRIVEN

TOWARD WALL AND
DRILLING MUD MOVES
DOWNWARD IN
INWARD AND UPWARD
ACCELERATING SPIRAL
AS SPIRALLING VORTEX
SAND AND SILT

(UNDERFLOW)
Mud enters the feed chamber tangentially at a high velocity provided by

pump pressure. As the mud spirals downward through the conical section,
centrifugal force and inertia cause the solids to gravitate towards the wall.
The solids settle according to their mass, a function of both density and
volume. Since the density range of drilled solids is normally quite narrow,
size has the largest influence on settling. The largest particles will settle
preferentially.
As the cone narrows, the innermost layers of fluid turn back toward
the overflow creating a low pressure vortex in the centre of the cone. This
low pressure area causes air to be pulled in from the underflow outlet.
Correctly operating cones should exhibit a slight vacuum at the cone
underflow. The air and cleaned fluid then report to the overflow
through the vortex finder. The purpose of the vortex finder is to prevent
some of the feed mud from “short circulating” directly into the overflow.
Solids with sufficient mass cannot make the turn back towards the
overflow because of their momentum and continue out of the underflow.
Maximum cone wear usually occurs at or near the underflow exit, where
velocities are the highest. In cones which have a “balanced design” whole
mud losses out of the underflow are slight.
21 solids control
Section 14a
Only the solids and bound liquid will report to the underflow. If the
solids are too fine to be removed by the cyclone, no liquid should be
discharged. “Unbalanced” hydrocyclones will discharge mud without
the presence of solids in the mud.
Because fine solids have more specific area (surface area per unit volume)
than large particles, the amount of liquid removed per pound of solids is
higher with fine solids than with coarse solids. Therefore, the difference
between the feed and underflow density is not a reliable indicator
of hydrocyclone performance. The Cone Efficiency graph shows the
relationship between underflow density and cone efficiently for an
unweighted mud. Observe how overall cone efficiency decreases as
underflow density increases.
Cone Efficiency
Function
Desanders consist of a battery of 10-inch or larger cones. Even though
desanders can process large volumes of mud per single cone, the
minimum size particles that can be removed are in the range of 40
microns (with 6 inch cones).
solids control 22
Section 14a
Use
To remove solid sized particles from drilling fluid. Used predominantly in
top hole sections where fine screens cannot be used on the shale shakers
and when screens become blinded by sand particles and coarse mesh
screens have to be used.
Position in the system

The first levels of solids removal after the shale shakers. Fed by a dedicated
centrifugal pump and sized appropriate for pressure drop in fluid
dynamics.
hydroclone – desilter
principle and theory of operation

The cone separator relies on propelling drilling fluid water pressure
tangentially into a cone vessel. The differential setting creates separation
with the lighter solids depleted fluid being expelled from the overflow,
the denser solids laden fluid is ejected from the hose.
The diameter of the cone controls the cut point and particle size separated.
The larger the cone diameter the larger particle diameter that can be
separated.
23 solids control
Section 14a
Desilter Desander
Use of high performance shakers reduces the drilled solids loading on

the hydrocyclones. However, during the drilling of large diameter holes,
high penetration rates and high flow rates (greater than 50 feet/hour),
10” or 12” hydrocyclones are recommended to reduce solids loading
on the smaller hydrocyclones. There should be sufficient 10” or 12”
cones to process 110% of the mud circulating flow rate normally
only water based muds.
The underflow from these cones, since it is fairly dry, should go to the
cuttings pit. If the underflow is not sufficiently dry, it may be further
dewatered by screening or centrifuging. If dewatering desander
underflows is inconvenient, an extra shale shaker might be used to
negate the need of the desander. This may not be true for gumbo areas.
A desander may be utilised with a light weighted drilling fluid (<13.0 lb/
gal) to discard sand size solids. Be careful not to discard too much Barite
or liquid mud.
The next type of solids removal equipment, downstream of the

shakers or large hydrocyclones, are usually 4” desilters, which may be
followed by 2” or 2” microcones. The 3” hydrocyclones may be used for
replacements of the 4” units, based on fine screening (<175m) ahead of
the cyclones.
solids control 24
Section 14a
There should be enough hydrocyclones to process at least 110% of the
rig mud circulation rate. If hydrocyclones are sized to process surface
hole circulation rates, there will be sufficient hydrocyclone capacity for
the remaining hole sections.
A hydrocyclone underflow will have an estimated 10% to 25% solids

content, which means that over 3 to 7 barrel of fluid can be wasted with
one barrel of cuttings under the best operating conditions. A 2” or 3”
cone is more efficient because of finer particle size separation but the
discharge is wetter. A new 3” cone design removes 50% more solids than
a typical 4” hydrocyclone. The price for improvement in efficiency is again
paid in terms of discarding more liquid with the solids. A high performance
shaker may be used to de-water hydrocyclone underflows prior to being
fed to a centrifuge.
All hydrocyclones must operate at their specified Feet of Head (Fh) for
maximum efficiency, gallons per minute capacity, and particle size cut
points.
Optimum Hydrocyclone Operation

Fh D50u GPM
10” Desander 80 38 450
12” Desander 75 45 500
4” Desilter 75 24 50
3” Desilter 100 10 35
2” Desilter 120 08 25
Table 6 – Optimum Hydrocyclone Operation
Any variance in Feet of Head (Fh) delivery to the hydrocyclones will affect
the performance. For example:
Feet of Head
4” Desilter (16 cones) operating at 25 psi, feed mud at 9.5ppg
25 psi (.052 x 9.5ppg) = 50.6 Fh, actual
(Sq. of (50.6/75Fh) x 50 gpm = 41.0 gpm per cone
41 gpm x 16 cones = 656 GPM

25 solids control
Section 14a
Rule of Thumb:
Feed pressure should be 4 x the mud weight in lb/gal.
Table 7 - Hydrocyclones – Operating Pressures
Recommended Operating Pressure - Desilter Units

(@ 75 ft. of Head)
Mud weight Specific Operating
(ppg) Gravity Pressure (psi)
8.33 1.00 32
9.00 1.08 35
10.00 1.20 39
11.00 1.32 43
12.00 1.44 47
13.00 1.56 51
14.00 1.68 54
15.00 1.80 58
16.00 1.92 62
17.00 2.04 66
Where:
PPG = Pounds Per Gallon
Specific Gravity = Mud Weight ÷ 8.33
1 PSI = 2.309 Feet of Head
Operating Pressure = [ Feet of Head ÷ 2.309] X [ Mud Weight ÷ 8.33]
function
Hydrocyclones, classified as desanders or desilters, are conical solids
separation devices in which hydraulic energy is converted to centrifugal
force. Mud is fed by a centrifugal pump through the feed inlet
tangentially into the feed chamber. The centrifugal forces thus
developed multiple the settling velocity of the heavier phase material,
forcing it toward the wall of the cone. The lighter particles move inward
and upward in a spiralling vortex to the overflow opening at the top.
The discharge at the top is the overflow or effluent; the discharge at the
bottom in the underflow. The underflow should be in a fine spray with a
slight suction at its centre. A rope discharge with no air suction is
undesirable.
solids control 26
Section 14a
Example of Normal Discharge
Example of Rope Discharge

27 solids control
Section 14a
Spray Patterns
The sizes of the cones and the pump pressure determine the cut obtained.
Lower pressures result in coarser separation and reduced capacity. The
following table shows the flow rate capability of different diameter cones.
flow rates through hydrocyclones

Designation Cone Diameter Flow Rate Through
(in.) Each Cone
(gpm)
Desilter 2 10-30
Desilter 4 50-65
Desilter 5 75-85
Desander 6 100-120
Desander 8 200-240
Desander 10 400-500
Desander 12 500-600
Table 8 – Hydrocyclone flow rates
Desilters consist of a battery of 4-inch or smaller cones. Depending on
the size of the cone, a particle size cut between 6 and 40 microns can be
obtained.
Even though hydrocyclones are effective in removing solids from a

drilling fluid, their use is not recommended for fluids that contain
significant amounts of weighting materials or muds that have
expensive fluid phases. When hydrocyclones are used with these fluids,
solids control 28
Section 14a
not only will undesirable drilled solids be removed, but also the weight
material along with base fluid, which can be cost prohibitive.
The second stage of non-screening separation used to remove silt sized
particles.
mud cleaners
principle and theory of operation
By accelerating mud through a curved vessel, solids and mud are
separated according to Stokes Law. These solids are passed over a screen
to recover excess fluid.
function
The mud cleaner is a solids separation device that combines a desilter
with a screen device. The mud cleaner removes solids using a two stage
process. First, the drilling fluid is processed by the desilter. Second, the
discharge from the desilter is processed by a high-energy, fine mesh
screen shaker. This method of solids removal is recommended for muds
containing significant amounts of weighting materials or having expensive
fluid phases.
Note: When recovering weight material with a mud cleaner, be aware that
any fine solids that go through the cleaner’s screen are also retained in
the mud. Over time, the process can lead to a fine-solids build-up.
29 solids control
Section 14a

A desilter positioned over a screen is a mud cleaner.
set up and variables

A mud cleaner is a bank of hydrocyclones mounted over a vibrating
screen. Free liquid and particles smaller than the screen openings are
returned to the circulating system. Solids removed by the screen are
discarded. Screen sizes between 100 mesh and 325 mesh are commonly
available. Mud cleaners were originally developed for use in weighted
muds to remove drilled solids down to the size of barite (<74 microns)
when shakers could only run 100 mesh (149 microns) screens at best.
However, with the fine-screening capability of today’s linear motion
shakers, the applications for mud cleaners are limited.
Where possible, the installation of sufficient fine screen shakers is

recommended for weighted muds in lieu of a mud cleaner. Shakers
equipped with fine mesh screens guarantee that all of the circulation rate
is processed, whereas mud cleaners may treat only a portion of the
circulation rate. Shakers are more dependable and their screens typically
last longer.
Barite losses measured over mud cleaner screens are higher than losses
over shaker screens at the same mesh size. This is due to the high
viscosity of the cone underflow and the relatively small screening area
of most mud cleaners. Derrick, among others, have addressed this by
mounting desilter cones over a full size shaker deck.
solids control 30
Section 14a
Derrick uses a specially designed High-G shaker which will also improve
cuttings dryness. Regardless, overall system efficiency would be better
served by an additional shaker at the flowline rather than a mud cleaner in
most cases.
Trouble shooting
Since the mud cleaner is both a hydrocyclone and a shaker, many of the
operating guidelines listed for these devices apply to mud cleaners.
A decrease in solids coming off the screen may indicate a torn screen,
which should be replaced immediately.
Plugged cones or large solids coming off the screen can imply a problem
with the upstream shale shakers. The likely causes are bypassed screens,
torn screens or dumping the shaker box into the active system.
The desilter cones on the mud cleaner should be 6 in. diameter or

smaller. The median cuts of larger cones are too coarse to be useful.
Unweighted Muds
• In unweighted water based muds, the mud cleaner should be used as
a desilter by blanking off the screen and discharging the underflow
directly.
• Because the mud cleaner is operated as a desilter, it must be
run in parallel with other desilters (same suction and discharge
compartments). As with desilters, the suction should be from the
desander discharge compartment and the overflow discharged to a
downstream compartment.
• If the hydrocyclone underflow is to be processed by a centrifuge,
the screens may be used to reduce solids loading to the centrifuge.
Run the finest screens possible.
• In closed loop systems, route the desanders underflow onto the
mud cleaner screens to help dry the discharge. Note: however, that
the mud passing through the screen should be processed by a
centrifuge.
• The hydrocyclones on the mud cleaner should be run as wet as possible
to improve solids removal efficiency.
Weighted Muds
• Use the mud cleaners when 150 mesh (100 micron) screens cannot be
run on the shale shakers, (water based mud).
31 solids control
Section 14a
• At higher mud weights, the screen may become overloaded with

solids. If the screen overloads, remove enough cones to keep it from
discharging excess fluid.
• Monitor the composition and rate of losses over the screens,
especially in oil based muds. Use the same procedure as outlined in
the shaker section.
• For water based muds, dilution water added at the mud cleaner
screen may reduce barite losses by reducing the viscosity of the
hydrocyclone underflow. However, the amount of drilled solids
discarded may also be reduced.
summary
• A mud cleaner is a desilter mounted over a vibrating screen. The
desilter underflow is screened. Fluid and solids finer than the screen
are returned to the active system. Only solids coarser than the
screen openings are removed.
• Mud cleaners were originally designed for use in weighted muds
when shakers were incapable of screening down to the size of the
weighting material. With today’s fine screen shakers, the applications
for mud cleaners are limited.
• Fine screen shakers are recommended in lieu of mud cleaners.
Screen life is better, all of the circulation rate is processed and barite
losses are reported to be lower.
• In unweighted mud, the mud cleaner should be used as a desilter.
Screening the underflow is unnecessary unless the mud cleaner is
used to screen abrasive solids that will be processed by a centrifuge.
• Use the mud cleaner on existing solids control systems, when 150 mesh
(100 microns) screens cannot be run on the shakers in weighted mud.
performance operation
If a mudcleaner were to be utilised, a number of areas should be
addressed:
• The unit should be installed in such a way that access, both for
monitoring and maintenance purposes is adequate.
• It is extremely important that the centrifugal feed pump is correctly
matched to whatever mud system is in use, so as to guarantee the
correct feed pressure.
• Impeller size and condition is critical to operational efficiency. Any
found to have seriously washed blades should be replaced at the
earliest opportunity.
solids control 32
Section 14a
• The output of the electrical motor in relation to impeller size and
mud weight should be given serious consideration. An under
powered pump will seriously affect performance by constantly cutting
out.
• In order for the system to be effective it must have the capacity
to process at least 120% of the maximum circulating rate, ideally
150%. Cone sizes and processing rates should be checked
accordingly.
• Ensure that all cones are in place so as not to compromise system
capacity.
• If a system has not been in use for a considerable time it would be
advisable to remove all cones and carry out a thorough inspection.
Any parts that are observed to be washed (eroded) should be replaced,
as should any clamps that may appear to be loose.
• A pressure gauge should be fitted to the cone manifold.
• Under normal conditions the screen fitted to the mudcleaner should
be finer than the finest fitted to the shale shakers.
• Unit underflow should be routed to a catch tank to be further
processed by the centrifuge system. The catch tank should be fitted
with an overflow facility or equalised with adjacent process tanks.
• During operation the mudcleaner must be monitored on regular basis.
• Any blocked cones should be immediately unplugged by the use of
a welding rod or similar. If necessary, the unit should be shutdown
and any blocked cones removed and cleaned out. Operating the
mudcleaner with a number of blocked cones will be extremely
detrimental to the mud system, surface equipment and downhole
tools.
• If screen flooding is apparent, this may indicate either that the free
pressure is too low, resulting in poor separation (practically all fluid
being discharged as underflow) or the screen is of too fine a mesh.
Remedial action should be taken immediately.
• If an adjustable screening unit is used, extreme caution should be
exercised in using any adjustment to prevent whole mud carryover.
Screen life of the less robust finer screens will be seriously diminished,
with any damage resulting in the reintroduction to the system of
large quantities of concentrated solids.
• Only use where appropriate:
- Unweighted muds
- Where the primary solids control cannot screen satisfactorily.
• Ensure the cones are operating correctly
- spray discharge
• Always ensure correct feed pressure
33 solids control
Section 14a
• Rule of Thumb
4 x (MW in lb/gal)
e.g. 12 lb/gal = 48 psi required.
• Screen appropriately – 230 mesh or finer.
• Avoid use in oil/synthetic based systems to avoid solids breakdown.
• Be aware that as viscosity increases, efficiency decreases!
centrifuge
principle & theory of operation

A centrifuge works on the principle of accelerated settling. By imparting
addition “G” forces to the content of a centrifuge, solids (in a solids laden
fluid) will settle much quicker.
To understand how a decanting centrifuge works, first look at a simple

sedimentation vessel. Solids in this fluid will settle to the bottom of
the vessel over a period of time. One way to speed the process of settling
is to reduce the height of the vessel so the solids do not have as far to
drop. If a specific volume is required, the vessels dimensions can be
lengthened or widened . Depending on the rheological properties of the
fluid and the size and density of the solids, settling time can still prove
quite slow.
Stokes Law
Particles will settle in a given fluid according to Stokes’ Law, which is
expressed as follows:
2
(
V1= aD P2 – P1 X 10)
-6
116U
where Vt = terminal or settling velocity

a = bowl acceleration, in./sec2 = 0.0054812 x bowl
diameter x rpm2
D = particle diameter, micron
PS = solid (particle) density, grams/cm3
P1 = liquid density, grams/cm3
U = liquid viscosity, centipoise (dyne-sec/100 cm2)
Stokes’ Law shows that as fluid viscosity and density increases, the
settling rate decreases.
solids control 34
Section 14a
Figure - Simple Sedimentation Vessel
h1
It is impossible to separate a drilled solid particle of equivalent mass by

settling.
d 2
ds
=
(
P ds – P1 )
d 2
ds (
P ds – P1 )
where dds = diameter of drilled solids particle
db = diameter of barite particle
pds = density of drilled solids particle
pb = density of barite
p = density of liquid
Figure – Vessel with Small Sedimentation Height
h2
Assuming barite has a specific gravity of 4.25 and drilled solids 2.65, the
equivalent diameter ratio for settling in a 14 pound per gallon mud (specific
gravity = 1.68) is:
d ds2 4.25 – 1.68 2.57
= = = 2.65
d ds2 2.65 – 1.68 0.97
or
d ds
= 1.63
dd
In a drilling fluid weighing 14 lb/gal, a 50 micron barite particle will settle

at the same rate as a an 81 micron drilled solid particle. All solids, including
35 solids control
Section 14a
low gravity and barite particles 2 microns and smaller (colloidal), can
have a detrimental effect on drilling fluid viscosity. That is, a low specific-
gravity particle that has an equivalent spherical diameter that is 1.6 times
that of a barite particle, will settle at the same rate as the barite particle.
The low gravity solid will have the same mass as the barite particle. This is
the reason that a centrifuge does not separate barite from low gravity
solids.
The particles in a vessel experience an acceleration of 1 “G”. The force on

a particle is the product of the particle mass and the acceleration. This
is called a “G” force. One way to increase the “G” force is to rotate the
vessel about an axis. In doing so, a simple centrifuge is created.
One problem with this design is that as the solids accumulate on the walls
of the centrifuge, there is no way to remove them while rotating the
centrifuge. Therefore, only small batches of fluid can be treated at one
time.
One method that would enable the continuous removal of settled solids
is to design a tank as shown. This unit uses a drag chain system to remove
the settled solids. As the solids are conveyed out of the pool and up
the ramp, or beach, they are partially dried prior to discharge. As new
fluid is poured into the tank, cleaner fluid may spill out of the weirs.
Unfortunately, only 1G is applied to the particles so settling will be very
slow.
Another way to remove solids from the tank would be to use an auger,
or conveyor, in the tank as shown. However, this would not remove the
solids that settle away from the conveyor. This could be solved by
wrapping the tank around the conveyor. This process results in the creation
of a complete centrifuge.
solids control 36
Section 14a
Figure – A Simple Centrifuge
The entire assembly is rotated while increasing the “G” force on the
solids, which accelerates settling. The fluid moves with the outer cylinder
of the centrifuge, so there is no shear within the fluid. This is the reason
that dilution fluid is normally added to the input stream of a decanting
centrifuge. The low shear rate viscosity of most drilling fluids is increased to
aid hole cleaning and to provide weighting agent support. This low shear
rate viscosity elevation will also inhibit settling within a centrifuge.
To convey the solids out of the centrifuge, the conveyor and bowl must
rotate at slightly different speeds. This is accomplished using a planetary
gearbox for belt drive centrifuges. Typically the entire assembly rotates in
the same direction, but the conveyor rotates at a slightly slower sped. The
conveyor moves the solids to the solids discharge end and the liquid, or
effluent, empties out of the weirs at the liquid discharge end.
To calculate the “G” factor, a centrifuge imparts to solids, the formula is as

follows:
bowl diameter inxrpm2
G Factor =
70422
where G is the ratio of the centripetal acceleration of the bowl compared to
the acceleration of gravity. (Note, this is the same equation used to calculate
the “G” factor of shale shaker vibrators).
37 solids control
Section 14a
A centrifuge provides a method of increasing the settling force on

particles suspended in liquid. The force depends on the mass of the particle
and not the chemical composition. Particles with the same mass, whether
they are a barite, low gravity solids, gold, iron or silver will settle at the same
rate. Centrifuges are able to separate solids above and below the 2- to 10-
micron size range. In weighted drilling fluids, centrifuges are capable of
eliminating very small particles that can cause dramatic increases in both
the low and high shear rate viscosities. In unweighted drilling fluid they are
used as “super desilters”.
Figure - Tank for Continuous Removal of Solid Particles from a

Process Liquid
Figure - Centrifuge Bowl Cross Section

solids control 38
Section 14a
Solids discharge with
Solids absorbed liquid only
Colloidal
liquid
discharge
Feed inlet
Colloidal Gearbox
liquid
discharge
Pool level Feed ports Beach
controlled
by weir settings
function
The two types of centrifugal separation devices are:
• Decanting centrifuges
• Hydrocyclones.
A decanting centrifuge consists of a conical, horizontal steel bowl that

rotates at high speed using a double screw type conveyor. The conveyor
rotates in the same direction as the outer bowl but at a slightly slower
speed.
A single centrifuge unit set for total solids discard should be used for low-
density systems. The primary function of a centrifuge is not to control total
percent solids in a system, but rather to maintain acceptable and desirable
flow properties in that system. Two centrifuges operating in series are
recommended for the following systems:
• Invert emulsion (i.e. synthetic and oil based systems)

• High-density, water based systems
• Water based systems in which base fluid is expensive (i.e. brines)
• Closed loop
• Zero discharge
39 solids control
Section 14a
The first centrifuge unit is used to separate barite and return it to the
mud system. The second unit processes the liquid overflow from the first
unit, discarding all solids and returning the liquid portion to the mud
system.
Note: Centrifuge efficiencies are influenced by mud weight and mud

viscosity. During centrifuge operation, the underflow should be analysed
regularly to determine the amount of low gravity solids and barite being
removed and retained.
centrifuge uses
Centrifuges are typically used to:
• De-water hydrocyclone underflow;
• Remove drilled solids from the active mud system; and
• Control rheological properties by removing colloidal particles in
weighted drilling fluids.
A decanting centrifuge is so named because it decants or removes free

liquid from separated solids. It consists of a conveying screw inside a
rotating bowl By exerting increased G-force on the drilling fluid, the
particles are accelerated and settle on the outside of the bowl The free
liquid pool is removed and the solids are pushed away and discharged from
the bowl.
Dewatering
For unweighted drilling fluid, the centrifuge use appears cost justified
when the drilling fluid and fluid disposal costs increase. This is based
solely on the economics of dewatering hydrocyclone underflow. As
fluid costs increase, centrifuge use is highly recommended for reducing
costs. Greater portions of the circulating flow should be processed. The
improved separation efficiency that can be derived from wider use of
centrifuges is recommended for reducing drilling wastes.
Drilled Solids Removal

To minimise the dilution rate in an unweighted mud, the centrifuge is cost
effective operating on the active mud system. With solids content less
than 10%, a centrifuge can operate at high speeds, thus removing a larger
volume of the clay size solids. In some cases, this process can be enhanced
with the use of a polymer flocculation system.
solids control 40
Section 14a
Control of Mud Properties
To minimise drilling waste on weighted muds (oil/water) two stage
centrifuging is viable provided the centrifuges are properly chosen and
adjusted. The first centrifuge should be adjusted for solids recovery, with
the second centrifuge providing maximum liquid-solids separation. This
process also can be enhanced by using a polymer flocculation system on
the water base muds only.
Proper upstream drilled solids removal is necessary to obtain the maximum

benefits from centrifuging an active weighted drilling fluid system. Shale
shakers should achieve a solids separation in the 70 – 75 micron range.
Since the majority of the barite distribution is below this range, maximum
drilled solids can be removed with minimal barite loss.
Operating Range of Centrifuges
Speed G-Force Capacity

Unweighted
DE-1000 (14” x 49”) 3250 2100 150
DE-1000 2450 1194 150
DB-1 (24” x 45”) 2000 1364 170
DB-2 (24” x 38”) 1800 1105 130
Weighted
DB-2 1450 717 25-50
DB-3 (18” x 28”) 1450 537 10-35
DS-2 (14” x 30”) 1950 756 10-35
DS-3 (14” x 22”) 1950 756 10-30
Table 9 – Centrifuge Operating Range
G-Force for a Centrifuges

G Force for a centrifuge: G’s = RPM2 x .0000142 x Diameter of Bowl
(in inches)
41 solids control
Section 14a

Dependent on exact application and fluid types. Typical installation has
suction downstream of desilter and return downstream. If a dual system
is used, an intermediate tank is used.
centrifuge set up
The effect of various design and feed parameters on centrifuge
performance has been evaluated. The results of this study are summarised
to assist in the selection and operation of centrifuges. Since many
centrifuge parameters are related, one aspect of performance cannot
be discussed singularly without implicating others. However, in general,
centrifuge performance is affected by the following parameters in
decreasing order of importance.
“G” Force
According to Stokes Law, particle setting velocity is proportional to
G-force.
Since G-force increases with the square of bowl RPM, it is an important

parameter. G-force also increases linearly with bowl diameter. Figure 1
shows how solids removal efficiency improves with increasing G-force.
For a given particle size and fluid properties, there is a minimum G-force
necessary to invoke settling. Although high G-force is desirable, the cost
is proportional to the cube of the bowl rpm and there are similar
economic limitations on bowl diameter as well. Thus, the required G-
force must be obtained from a practical combination of speed and
diameter. Most oilfield centrifuges have bowl dimensions from 14 to
28 inches in diameter and lengths from 30 to 55 in. Rotational speeds
range from 1000 rpm to 4000 rpm, depending on the application.
solids control 42
Section 14a
The more expensive, high “G” machines can provide up to 3,000 G’s. The
specifications for each centrifuge are listed in Equipment Specifications.
Note: however, that increasing G-force eventually reduces solids

conveyance capacity due to torque limitations. As G-force increases,
more solids are settled in the bowl and they adhere more tightly. More
conveyor or torque is required to move the solids out. Once the torque
limitations of the machine are reached, conveyance ceases.
Effect of G-Force on Separation (Higher G’s Improve Separation

Performance)
Viscosity
From Stokes Law, particle settling velocity is inversely proportional to
fluid viscosity. The following figure illustrates the beneficial effects of
a feed mud with a low yield value. This shows the merit of diluting the
centrifuge feed to improve performance. It also helps explain the relatively
poor performance of centrifuges when processing polymer fluids with
characteristically high viscosities at low shear rates.
43 solids control
Section 14a
Effect of Viscosity on Separation Performance (higher yield values

degrade centrifuge separation performance)
Cake Dryness
Discharge dryness is commonly considered a direct indication of
centrifuge performance. However, test results have shown that cake
dryness is more correctly a function of particle size, and therefore,
is inversely related to separation efficiency. Test points have yielded the
driest solids corresponded to the lowest efficiency and coarsest D50
separation. As shown in Figure 3, Solids dryness occurs at a threshold G-
force level. Subsequent increases in G-force do not remove additional
liquid. Length of the dry beach within the centrifuge bowl (a function of
pond depth) also has little effect on dryness. Dry beach length refers to
the distance from the solids discharge ports to the surface of the fluid
pond within the centrifuge bowl. But the small difference in dryness
made a significant difference in the appearance of the solids. At 71% by
weight, the solids were quite runny and at 75% weight, the solids seemed
much more “stackable”.
solids control 44
Section 14a
Effect of G-Force on Cuttings Dryness (above a certain threshold G-
force, cuttings dryness does not improve)
Pond Depth and Processing Capacity

Pond depth controls both fluid residence and dry beach length. With
increased pond depth, residence time increases separation. However,
increased pond depth reduces centrifuge flow capacity. Maximum flow
capacity is controlled by the height of the cake discharge port. When
the fluid depth in the centrifuge bowl reaches this height, drilling fluid
flows out along with the discarded cake. The flowrate as which liquid
spills out the cake discharge port is called the “flood out” point. Since
one objective of centrifuging is to limit liquid waste, it is obviously not
advantageous to run the centrifuge at a flow rate beyond the “flood out”
point.
Flooding is controlled by a combination of pond depth and flowrate. The

pond depth is set mechanically by an adjustable weir. The flowrate increases
pond height according to the viscous drag forces which increase the
fluid head required to drive the liquid through the centrifuge. The head
height is added to the fixed pond depth to give a total depth of fluid of
3 in. before flood-out (closed fluid exit ports). If 300 gpm is the maximum
flow rate at floodout with a 1 in. pond depth setting, this means 2 in. of
fluid head was developed. If the pond depth setting is adjusted to 2 in.
then only 1 in. of fluid head is available before the 3 in. floodout point is
reached.
45 solids control
Section 14a
Obviously, the maximum flowrate for this pond depth setting will have to
be much less than 300 gpm.
Maximum flow capacity is achieved when the shallowest pond depth

is used at the expense of separation efficiency. Conversely, deep ponds
maximise separation efficiency at the cost of flowrate capacity. The best
combination is determined by the coarseness of the solids to be separated.
Figure 3 illustrates how, for a fine solids size distribution, a deep pond
depth at lower flowrates can produce almost the same cake rate as a
shallow pond depth at higher flowrates. This is due to improved
separation efficiency of the deep pond case. Figure 4 shows how, for
coarse solids, the higher flow capacity of the shallow pond produces
more solids removal than the deep pond case. The results suggest that,
for coarse particle size distributions as encountered in top hole drilling,
shallow pond depths are advantageous, whereas deep ponds should be
used for all other applications.
Effect of Pond Depth on Fine Solids Removal (deeper ponds are more
efficient than shallow ponds when the solids are very fine)
solids control 46
Section 14a
Effect of Pond Depth on Coarse Solids Removal (shallow pond depths are
preferred for coarse solids distributions)
Bowl – Conveyor Differential RPM and Torque

Differential RPM is the difference between the bowl RPM and the
conveyor RPM. The differential is provided by the gearbox which
transmits power from the bowl to the conveyor. Differential RPM is simply
calculated by dividing the bowl RPM by the gearbox ratio. Many
centrifuge manufacturers provide a “backdrive” which can independently
alter the RPM. Backdrive units are, in effect, hydraulic gear reduction
systems used to vary the speed of the conveyor relative to the bowl. On
“backdrive” units RPM depends upon the rotation of the gearbox pinion
and the orientation of the flights on the conveyor. For these units RPM may
be calculated by:
RPM = (Bowl RPM – Pinion Speed)/Gearbox Ratio
RPM is important because it determines the velocity at which solids are

conveyed through a centrifuge. For example, a RPM of 50 and a flight pitch
of 3 in. yields a conveyance velocity of 150 in./min. Another expression
takes the flight pitch and number of leads on the conveyor into account
to describe the surface area of the bowl swept by the conveyor flights
per unit time. The faster the rate at which the area is swept, the greater
the solids capacity.
47 solids control
Section 14a
As = 2 r cyl x RPM x Sn
Where:
As = swept area/unit time

Rcyl = ylindrical bowl radius
S = flight pitch
N = number of leads on the conveyor
This equation suggests that solids capacity can be increased by increasing

the RPM (lowering the gearbox ratio). Low swept area values could
indicate potential torque problems. For example, centrifuges with 130:1 or
higher gearbox ratios and centrifuges with 80:1 gearbox ratios with single
lead conveyors may be limited in flowrate by torque.
Test data indicates that by increasing RPM reduces torque. Also, torque
pressure as feed median particle size increases. Despite the common belief
that high RPM values agitate the pond and inhibit sedimentation, test
results indicate that the effect of RPM on solids removal efficiency is slight,
provided sufficient differential exists to remove the solids.
Centrifuging Unweighted Mud

Centrifuging unweighted muds provides two major benefits (1) the
removal of drilled solids that are too fine to be removed by any other solids
removal device, and (2) a relatively dry discharge. Although the centrifuge
cannot remove ultrafine, colloidal solids, it is important to remove the fine
solids before they degrade into these submicron particles. As a rule, at
least 25% of the circulating rate should be centrifuged. It is usually
uneconomic (and logistically unfeasible) to process the entire circulating
rate. Regardless, the benefits of centrifuging to remove fine solids cannot
be understated.
High-G high capacity centrifuges are recommended to maximise

separation performance. Since separation efficiency varies inversely with
feed rate and residence time, the optimum feed rate is not necessarily
the highest possible rate. Rather, it is the combination of pond depth and
feed rate that produces the highest solids discharge rate.
solids control 48
Section 14a
The maximum efficient processing rate for a large oilfield centrifuge
will seldom exceed 250 gpm, even for relatively coarse drilled solids and
low fluid viscosities. If the particle size distribution is very fine, more solids
may be removed with a lower feed rate and deeper pond depths.
Centrifuging Hydrocyclone Underflow

When liquid discharge must be strictly controlled due to high mud cost,
high liquid disposal cost or limited reserve pit capacity, the centrifuge
should process the underflow of the desilter cones. In this configuration,
the hydrocyclones are used to concentrate solids to the centrifuge which
then separates the drill cuttings from the free liquid and colloidal solids.
System performance can be improved by opening the cone apexes to
discharge more liquid. This improves the separation efficiency of the cones
and produces a less viscous slurry at the underflow. Figure 5 gives an
example of how centrifuging desilter underflow becomes economic
with increasing mud cost and desilter underflow rates. Enough
centrifuge capacity must be available to process slightly more than the
cone underflow rate. Additional make-up volume should be provided from
the active system downstream of the hydrocyclone feed.
Because the hydrocyclone underflow must be segregated from the

active system, a separate centrifuge feed compartment is required.
Figure 6 and 7 illustrates two designs for the centrifuge feed compartment.
The compartment should be small (<50 bbl) to prevent solids settling.
Both high and low equalisation should be provided. The low equaliser
supplies make-up volume from the active system during normal processing.
A valve (normally open) should be installed on the low equaliser. This
valve may be used to check that the centrifuge feed rate exceeds the
cone underflow rate. If the centrifuge is to be used in weighted mud to
process the centrate of the barite recovery centrifuge, the valve should be
closed to isolate the feed compartment. The high equaliser is provided
to prevent accidental overflow.
49 solids control
Section 14a
Economics of Centrifuging Hydrocyclone Underflow (substantial

savings are possible by recovering the liquid from cone underflows)
Centrifuging Unweighted Mud

1. When processing the active system, the centrifuge feed should be
taken from the desilter discharge compartment or downstream. The
centrate should be returned to the next downstream compartment.
2. Provide enough centrifuges to process at least 25% of the circulation
rate, large, high-G units are usually required.
3. Run at maximum bowl RPM to achieve highest G-Force and best
separation.
4. Operate the centrifuge just below the flood-out point.
5. The best feed rate and pond depth will depend on the size distribution
of the drilled solids. Use shallow ponds and high feed rates when
coarse solids predominate. Conversely, deeper ponds and lower feed
rates are more efficient when fine drilled solids are to be removed.
Field experimentation is necessary to optimise centrifuge set-up.
6. Always wash out the centrifuge on shutdown. (water based mud only)
7. If the centrifuge is to be used on both unweighted and weighted
muds, rig up to allow either option. Both the centrate and solids
solids control 50
Section 14a
streams should be rigged up to allow each to be discarded or
returned to the active system.
8. The solids discharge chute should be angled at greater than 45˚
to prevent solids build-up. If this is not possible, a wash line may be
necessary to assist in moving the solids. On land based operations,
use the reserve pit as a source for wash fluid. Do not create unnecessary
reserve pit volume by using rig water.
Fluid Routing to the Centrifuge Hydrocyclone Underflows (the desilter

underflow is segregated from the active system for processing by the
centrifuge)
51 solids control
Section 14a
Internal Centrifuge Feed Compartment Design (the dense desilter

underflow will displace the lighter active system mud from the centrifuge
feed compartment)
Centrifuging Weighted Muds

The centrifuge is used in weighted mud applications to recover
valuable weighting material from mud which must be discharged due to
unacceptable colloidal solids content. The centrifuge settles out barite
and coarse drilled solids which are returned to the active mud system
to maintain density. The relatively clean centrate containing liquid and
colloidal solids is discarded. These colloidal solids cause many drilling
fluid problems, such as high surge/swab pressures and ECD, differential
sticking and high chemical costs. Usually the value of the weighting agent
in these mud systems makes it economic to recover the weighting agent
from the whole mud before it is discarded.
Ideally, the barite recovery process should remove only colloidal solids
without losing the larger particle sizes used as weighting material.
Discarding potentially reusable barite increases barite use and drilling
fluid cost. Barite losses can be reduced when the centrifuge makes the
maximum liquid/solids separation. As discussed in the previous section,
this means operating the centrifuge at high G-force.
solids control 52
Section 14a
Figure 8 shows the effect of G-force on the amount of barite discarded
in the centrate.
Centrifuges are usually torque limited in weighted muds due to the high
solids content. Typically, torque is reduced by slowing bowl RPM. This
reduces G-force and RPM resulting in less effective liquid/solids separation
and the likelihood of increased torque from reduced solids conveyance.
Figure 8 – Benefits of Increased G-Force on Barite Recovery (less barite

is lost in the centrifuge centrate with increased G-force)
53 solids control
Section 14a
Operating Guidelines, Barite Recovery Mode

1. The following procedures are recommended to reduce torque when
operating centrifuges in barite recovery mode to maximise liquid/
solids separation:
• For a given flowrate, increase the pond depth until the recovered
solids become “runny”. Buoyant force reduces the torque needed
to convey solids out of the centrifuge. A shallow pond creates a
long beach section. Once the solids exit the pool, the extra
energy required to convey these solids results in higher torque.
• Process weighted mud continuously at a reduced feed rate rather
than intermittently at higher feed rates. This reduces solids loads
and results in less torque. It also increases residence time which
will result in finer separation.
• At higher mud weights, use hydrocyclones to reduce the solids
loading in the feed mud to the centrifuge. The cone underflow
is returned to the active system. The overflow, containing fewer
solids is fed to the centrifuge. Since solids concentration is
reduced, torque from conveying settled solids is reduced and
permits higher G-force centrifuging.
2. Provide sufficient centrifuge capacity to process 5-15% of the rig
circulation rate. Centrifuge capacity is reduced in weighted mud; the
25% target recommended for unweighted mud is usually difficult to
attain in weighted mud.
3. Add as much dilution fluid as possible to the centrifuge feed to reduce
the mud viscosity and improve centrifuge separation performance.
4. Return the solids to a well-agitated compartment upstream of the
suction and mixing tanks. (preferably jet them back in)
5. Use a high weir between the barite return compartment and the
next downstream compartment to keep the fluid level high. This
will promote better mixing.
6. Always wash out the centrifuge on shutdown. (water based
muds only)
7. Routinely check the centrifuge performance by measuring the flowrate
and solids composition of the cake and centrate.
solids control 54
Section 14a
Two-Stage Centrifuging
Two-stage centrifuging is used in weighted muds when the liquid phase
cannot be discarded for economic or environmental reasons. The most
frequent application is in weighted, oil based muds where the expensive
liquid phase cannot be discarded. The first centrifuge recovers weighting
material from the weighted mud as discussed in the previous section on
single stage centrifuging for barite recovery. The centrate, instead of being
discarded is fed to a second centrifuge operating at higher G-force. This
centrifuge is used to discard the solids and return the cleaned liquid phase
into the active mud system.
55 solids control
Section 14a
Two Stage Centrifuging (the first centrifuge recovers barite; the

second centrifuge dries its centrate and recovers valuable fluid)
For two-stage centrifuging to be efficient, the first centrifuge must

make a good separation since most of the solids in its centrate will be
discarded. The poorer the separation, the more barite which will be
carried over in the centrate and discarded by the second centrifuge.
Similarly, the second centrifuge must operate at the highest possible
G-force to remove the most solids. Pond depths should also be
deepened to just under the flood out point for the best separation
efficiency.
Economics of two-stage centrifuging are site dependent. Variables such

as time, drilling fluid, buy back agreements and well plans contribute to
the overall economics. Field experience has been mixed on the cost
effectiveness. As a rough “rule of thumb”, oil based muds with barite
concentrations greater than 4 lb/gal (i.e. 12 lb/gal mud) are usually
candidates for two-stage centrifuging. Below this concentration,
centrifuging to strip all solids including barite may be more economical,
especially at lower mud weights. At intermediate mud weights, “dump
and dilute” may be a viable option depending upon the conditions of
the buy back agreement. “Dump and dilute” in this case means
transferring mud laden with low gravity solids from the active mud
system to storage tanks for return to the mud company. Clean whole
mud is used to replace the “dumped” mud in the active system.
Another option is to “do nothing” except screen the mud and dilute
when possible to maintain mud properties.
solids control 56
Section 14a
The decision to employ this alternative should be made judiciously. It is
usually better to err on the side of caution. Over time, low gravity solids
will become a large percentage of the weighting material. Filtercake
thickness, mud viscosity and material consumption also may increase.
However, this may be the least expensive alternative when drilling time is
short and hole sizes are small. Oil based muds are quite “solids tolerant”
and can withstand some build-up of low gravity solids. This option is
not generally recommended for water based fluids.
summary
• With the emphasis on reduced waste volumes and improved solids
removal efficiency, the centrifuge has become an integral part of the
drilling solids removal system. Centrifuges are capable of removing
very fine solids that cannot be removed by any other mechanical solid
removal device. The solids discharge is relatively dry.
• Laboratory tests indicate that centrifuge performance is chiefly a
function of G-force, pond depth, bowl conveyor differential rpm and
mud viscosity. G-force, a function of bowl rpm and diameter has the
greatest impact on separation efficiency. Pond depth controls both
fluid residence time and flow capacity. Differential rpm is a factor
in solids conveyance and torque limitations. Increasing yield values
detrimentally affect separation efficiency.
• Once a minimum threshold G-force is reached, cake dryness is relatively
unaffected by G-force. However, a minor difference in dryness may
change the appearance of the solids from runny to stackable.
• Large, high G-force machines are recommended for centrifuging
unweighted muds. Use deep pond depths and lower flow rates for find
solids distributions. Coarse solids distributions may be more efficiently
processed using shallow pond depths and higher flow rates.
• Centrifuging hydrocyclone underflows becomes increasingly
economic as mud formulation and waste disposal costs increase. The
centrifuge should process in excess of the hydrocyclone underflow
rate. A low-G, high capacity centrifuge is recommended for these
coarse solids.
• The centrifuge is used in weighted mud to recover valuable
weighting material from mud which must be discharged due to
unacceptable colloidal solids content.
57 solids control
Section 14a
The economics of barite recovery centrifuging is usually positive

when the liquid phase is inexpensive and disposal costs are not
prohibitive. G-force should be maximised to improve barite recovery.
• Two-stage centrifuging is necessary in weighted muds when liquid
discharge must be minimised. The first centrifuge recovers barite, its
effluent is fed to a second centrifuge operating a maximum Gs, which
discards solids and returns the liquid phase. Colloidal solids are not
removed. The economics of two-stage centrifuging are site dependent.
• Recommended features on a centrifuge include (1) Accelerator for
the feed, (2) Tungsten carbide feed port entries and conveyor tiles
(3) universally adjustable pond dams and (4) stainless steel bowl and
conveyor. However, quality of service is paramount.
shale shaker screens

Shale shakers remove solids by processing solid-laden drilling fluid over
the surface of a vibrating screen. Particles smaller than the screen
openings pass through the screen along with the liquid phase of the drilling
fluid. Larger particles and trapped finer particles are separated into the
shaker overflow for discard.
For any particular shale shaker, the size and shape of the screen
openings have a significant effect on solids removal. For this reason, the
performance of any shaker is largely controlled by the screen cloth used.
Desirable characteristics for shaker screens are:
• Economical drilled solids removal

• Large liquid flow rate capacity
• Plugging and blinding resistance
• Acceptable service life
• Easy identification
The first four items in the above list are largely controlled by the actual
screen cloth used and the screen panel technology. Improvements in
shale shaker performance are a direct result of improved screen cloth and
panel fabrication.
solids control 58
Section 14a
The plain square and rectangular weaves are simple over/under weaves
in both directions. These weaves can be made from the same diameter
wire in one or both directions. The square weave is made by making the
spacing between the wires the same in both directions. The rectangular
or oblong weave is made by spacing the wire in one direction longer than
the wire in the opposite direction. The advantage of plain square and
rectangular weaves is that they provide a flow path that has low resistance
to flow.
Layered screens were introduced to the industry in the late 1970’s. They
are often chosen because they provide a high liquid throughput and
a resistance to blinding from drilled solids lodging in the openings. A
layered screen is the result of two or more wire cloths and overlaying each
other. Both square and rectangular cloths can be layered, and reducing
the diameter of the wires increases liquid throughput. A large
assortment of opening sizes and shapes are produced by the multiple
screen layers and the diameter of the screen wire. Because of this, a wide
variety of particle sizes pass through the screen.
In 1993, a three dimensional surface screen, the “pyramid” was introduced.

The screen surface is corrugated, supported by a rigid frame for use
primarily on linear motion shale shakers. As drilling fluid flows down
these screens, solids are transported in the valleys and the vertical
surfaces provide additional area for drilling fluid to pass. This increases
the fluid capacity of a particular mesh size when compared with a flat
surface screen.
screen identification
The nomenclature used to describe screens is important in obtaining
an accurate representation of the screen performance. Over the past few
years, many new screen designs and types have created much confusion
in the drilling industry.
Traditionally the mesh count, opening size and percent open area have
been used to characterise a screen. However, this description, along
with a multitude of different screen clothes led to confusion over that
actual screening ability of an individual product.
59 solids control
Section 14a
In 2005 a new recommended practice was accepted and issued know as

API RP 13C which does away with the traditional mesh size description
and replaces it with a quantitative set of testing criteria to accurately
describe the screen cut point (d100) and conductance.
However, at the time of writing, not all screen manufacturers will be

using the new recommended practice and so the market place will
contain screens using both the original mesh size labelling system and the
new API RP 13C standard labelling system.
The following describes terms presently used within the industry, relating
to the previous mesh size designations.
mesh size designation

Plain square and rectangular weaves are often referred to by the number
of wires (or openings) in each direction per linear inch. This is known as
the mesh count. The mesh count is determined by starting at the centre of
one wire and counting the number of openings along the screen grid to
the next wire centre, one linear inch away. For example, an 8-mesh screen
has 8 openings in two directions at right angles to each other. When
counting mesh, a magnifying glass scale designed specifically for this
purpose is helpful.
Use of a single number for describing screens implies a square mesh.

For example “20 mesh” usually describes a screen having 20 openings
per inch in either direction along the screen grid. Oblong mesh screens
are generally labelled with two numbers. A “60 x 20 mesh”, for example
is usually understood to have 60 openings in one direction and 20
openings per inch in the perpendicular direction. Referring to a “60 x 20
mesh” screen as an “oblong 80 mesh” is confusing and inaccurate.
The actual separation that a screen is capable of is largely determined by

the size of the openings in the screen. The opening size is the distance
between wires measured along the screen grid and is expressed in either
fractions of an inch or in microns, although it is most often stated in
microns. One inch equals 25,400 microns. Keep in mind, specifying the
mesh count does not specify the opening size. This is because both
the number of wires per inch and the size of the wires determines the
opening size.
solids control 60
Section 14a
If the mesh count and wire diameter are known, the opening size can be
calculated as follows:
D = 24,400((I ÷n)-d
Where D = opening size (microns)

n = mesh count, number of wires per inch (l/inch)
d = wire diameter (inch)
The above equation indicates that screens with the same mesh count
may have different size openings depending on the diameter of the
wire used to weave the screen cloth. Smaller diameter wire results in
larger screen openings, thereby allowing larger particles to pass through
the screen. Such a screen will pass more drilling fluid than an equivalent
mesh screen made of larger diameter wires.
In summary, specifying the mesh count of a screen does not indicate

screen separation performance since screen opening size, not mesh
count, determines the particle sizes separated by the screen.
Comparing the open area with the ability of a screen to transmit fluid, a
better measure is the screen’s conductance (or equivalent permeability
of the screen cloth). Conductance takes into account both the openings
and the drag of the fluid on the wires.
API RP 13C Designation

API RP 13C Testing and Labelling Procedure
API RP 13C is a new physical testing and labelling procedure for shaker
screens. To be API RP 13C compliant, a screen must be tested and
labelled in accordance with the new recommended practice. The
tests describe a screen without predicting its performance and can be
performed anywhere in the world. Internationally, API RP 13C will become
ISO 13501.
61 solids control
Section 14a
The lack of commonly accepted screen labelling procedures and great

disparity in screen designations throughout the oil and gas drilling
industry led to the development of API RP 13C. The new procedure
is a revision of the previous API RP 13E, which was based on optical
measurements of the screen opening using a microscope and computer
analysis. Under API RP 13E, screen designations were based on individual
manufacturer test methods, producing inconsistent labelling.
Following a review of labelling practices under API RP 13E, the API

standards committee concluded that physical testing would be preferred
for screen designations. API RP 13C was then developed as an objective
method of describing shaker screens. Two tests were devised: cut point
and conductance.
Screen Cut Point Determined by ASTM* Sieves
The API RP 13C cut point test is based on a time-proven testing

method used by ASTM to classify particles by size. The procedure utilizes
a series of standard-size screens (sieves), which have been used for such
analysis since 1910. The API standards committee simply adapted the
use of these sieves to designating shaker screens. The shaker screen
designation is identified by matching the screen’s cut point to the closest
ASTM sieve cut point.
The cut point test uses aluminium oxide, a Rotap, a set of ASTM sieves,
a test screen, and a digital scale for weighing the quantity of test
particles retained by the test screen. The d100 cut point is used for
assigning screen designations. d100 means that 100 percent of the
particles larger than the test screen will be retained, and all finer
particles will pass through. After conducting three Rotap tests, the
results are averaged, and the screen is given an API number of the test sieve
having the closest d100 cut point.
For example:
Using the table below, Table 5 of API RP 13C, pages 40 and 41, the
average of three Rotap tests = 114.88 microns. Therefore, the API
designation = API 140.
solids control 62
Section 14a
Table 5
D100 Separation and
API Screen Number
D100 Separation API Screen
(Microns) Number
>780,0 to 925,0 API 20

>655,0 to 780,0 API 25
>550,0 to 655,0 API 30
>462,5 to 555,0 API 35
>390,0 to 462,5 API 40
>327,5 to 390,0 API 45
>275,0 to 327,5 API 50
>231,0 to 275,0 API 60
>196,0 to 231,0 API 70
>165,0 to 196,0 API 80
>137,5 to 165,0 API 100
>116,5 to 137,5 API 120
>98,0 to 116,5 API 140
>82,5 to 98,0 API 170
>69,0 to 82,5 API 200
>58,0 to 69,0 API 230
>49,0 to 58,0 API 270
>41,5 to 49,0 API 325
>35,0 to 41,5 API 400
>28,5 to 35,0 API 450
>22,5 to 28,5 API 500
>18,5 to 22,5 API 635
TABLE 10 – ARI RP 13C Screen Designation

63 solids control
Section 14a
ASTM* sieves mounted on Rotap with the test screen in the centre.
Sieves used for this test range from 70 to 140. Cut point is determined
by comparing quantity of test particles trapped by test screen with
quantities in ASTM sieves above and below test screen.
* American Society for Testing and Materials
Conductance Test Determines Permeability
Conductance is a measure of the ability of a fluid to pass through a

screen. This property is determined by flowing 5W30 motor oil through a
screen sample and then applying the pressure differential to a formula
to calculate the conductance. Motor oil was selected because it oil-wets
the screen and has a high viscosity. A large volume of motor oil is
needed to allow equilibrium and to prevent large temperature changes.
solids control 64
Section 14a
Screen Shape and Conductance
Corrugated screens have up to 125 percent more surface area than

conventional flat screens. Gravity forces the solids into the corrugated
screen’s troughs, thus allowing more fluid to pass through the top of
the screen. With conventional flat screens, conductance is reduced as
solids form a continuous bed that impedes fluid flow.
65 solids control
Section 14a
Required Screen Label Information
After identifying the cut point and conductance, complying with API RP
13C requires application of a permanent tag or label to the screen in
a position that will be both visible and legible. Both cut point expressed
as an API number1 and conductance shown in kD/mm are required
on the screen label. Previously, screens were labelled in accordance
with manufacturer specifications.
solids control 66
Section 14a
1The API designation text MUST be at least twice the size of any other text
on the label.
Independent Lab Test Results
Cut point and conductance were tested on four shaker screens by an

independent lab for API’s Task Group 5. Compared to an ASTM 200
screen, it is obvious that one screen will have a vastly different cut point
than the other. The photographs below are magnified 200x and clearly
show that cut points vary significantly among screen manufacturers.
67 solids control
Section 14a
solids control 68
Section 14a
API RP 13C (ISO 13501)
Part Number Conversion Chart
Example: New Part #: PMD500HP-A120 Old Part #: PMD500HP150
NEW Part# OLD Part #
According to API RP 13C According to API RP 13E
Screen Panel API Screen Screen Panel
Designation Number Designation
DX-A200 API 200 DX 250
DX-A170 API 170 NEW
DX-A140F API 140 DX 210
DX-A140 API 140 DX 175
DX-A120 API 120 NEW
DX-A100 API 100 DX 140
DX-A80 API 80 DX 110
DX-A70 API 70 DX 84
DX-A60 API 60 DX 70
DX-A50 API 50 NEW
DX-A45 API 45 DX 50
DX-A40 API 40 DX 44
DX-A35 API 35 DX 38
HP-A325 API 325 HP 310

HP-A270 API 270 NEW
HP-A230 API 230 NEW
HP-A200F API 200 HP 265
HP-A200 API 200 HP 230
HP-A170 API 170 HP 200
HP-A140 API 140 HP 180
HP-A120 API 120 HP 150
HP-A100 API 100 HP 125
HP-A80 API 80 HP 100
HP-A70 API 70 HP 80
HP-A60 API 60 HP 70
HP-A50 API 50 HP 60
HP-A45 API 45 HP 50
HP-A40 API 40 HP 45
HP-A35 API 35 HP 40
DF-A230 API 230 DF 280

DF-A200 API 200 DF 230
DF-A140F API 140 DF 200
DF-A140 API 140 DF 165
DF-A120 API 120 DF 145
DF-A20 API 20 DF 24
TABLE 11 – Derrick API RP 13C Conversion Chart
69 solids control
Section 14a
cut points
In general, screens on shale shakers reject solids larger than their
opening sizes and retain the drilling fluid and smaller solids. Drilling fluid
properties, as well as screen conditions may affect screen performance.
For example, high gel strengths and high surface
tensions tend to bridge small screen openings and prevent screens

from passing small solids and liquid; filtration control additives, such as
starch, tend to plug screen openings and prevent small solids and liquid
from passing; and in an oil based drilling fluid, water wet, fine mesh
screens may reject a large portion of the drilling fluid from flowing onto
the screen.
When 50% of the mass of a particular solid size is found in the underflow
of a screen and 50% of the mass of that size is found in the overflow,
that size is sand to be the d50 or 50% cut point. Cut point curves, or
a percent separated curve, is a graphical representation of the actual
measured separation of solids made by the screen. For example, a d20 cut
point would be the size where 80% of the mass of solids of that size are
returned to the drilling fluid (pass through the shaker screen) and 20% of
the mass of that size solid is rejected from the system (discarded).
causes of premature screen failure

Several factors may contribute to premature screen failure. Most
failures result from improper screen installation or damage to the
shaker itself. Cracked or warped shaker beds, which may result from
many years of continuous use or improper maintenance, will cause
poor vibration patterns. This may cause improper maintenance, will
cause poor vibration patterns. This may cause improper solids
conveyance, which in turn, may cause solids to gather on certain areas
of the screen, wearing holes in that section. Damaged beds may also
affect the tensioning ability of the tension system, inducing flexure in
the screen. This increase in flex causes the screen itself to vibrate
separately from the basket against the screen support stringers,
damaging the spot on the screen where this is occurring.
solids control 70
Section 14a
An increase in screen flexure ultimately results in most cases of early
screen fatigue. All screen tensioning components must be in proper
working order to eliminate screen flexure and maximise screen
life. Some of the screen tensioning system materials that must be
maintained include the cross and side supports, channel rubbers, and
tension bolts. As prolonged use of the shakers continues, the support
rubbers – rubber liners that cover the support stringers – will begin to
wear. In order for the support rubbers to tension the screens properly,
they must be all the same thickness; however, this is rarely the case
once these rubbers begin to wear. Flexure develops in the areas where
the greatest amount of wear has occurred on the rubbers, reducing the
screen life. The side and cross supports – fibreglass strips on which the
screens rest along the inside of the shaker bed – will wear in a similar
manner. This interferes with the ability of the bolts to apply the proper
amount of tension on the screens, which will again cause loose screens
and rapid failure. Bent steel supports that interlock with hook strips on
the screens to fasten the screens directly to the shaker bed – will not allow
tension to be applied evenly throughout the full length of the screen, also
resulting in early screen failure.
To achieve maximum screen life, all tension bolts must be operating

properly. If early screen failure occurs, check to make sure that one or
more of the tension bolts are not missing and that they are tightened
correctly. The tension bolts should be tightened to manufacturers
recommendations.
Before installing any screens, the shaker bed must be washed clean of
any debris. Proper tensioning of the screen cannot be achieved if any
substance comes between the screen and the bed. Improper installation
or maintenance of the tensioning devices results in premature screen
failure.
71 solids control
Section 14a
Excessive solids accumulation in conjunction with poor solids

conveyance, causes increased wear on the screens where is occurring.
This problem may arise, particularly with the three dimensional screen,
if the screen is not in alignment. Where misalignment occurs, solids tend
to accumulate and wear screens in that area.
Another possible cause of improper solids conveyance, and therefore,

screen wear is the linear motion vibrators running in the same direction,
which causes an improper vibration pattern. This results in massive
amounts of solids accumulating on the first screens, causing them to wear
quickly. This can easily be remedied by reversing the electric wiring to the
motors. The vibrators of the shakers should be tested before spudding he
well. Also, be certain that both vibrators are operating. If not, replace the
inoperable vibrator.
solids control 72
Section 14a
screen blinding
Screen blinding occurs when grains of solids being screened lodge
in a screen hole. This often occurs when drilling fine sands, such as in
the Gulf of Mexico. The following sequence is often observed during
screen blinding.
1. When a new screen is installed, the circulation drilling fluid falls
through the screen in a short distance.
2. After a time, the fluid endpoint travels to the end of the shaker.
3. Once this occurs, the screens are changed to eliminate the rapid
discharge of drilling mud off the end of the shaker.
4. After the screens have been washed, fine grains of sand that are
lodged in the screen surface can be observed. The surface of the
screen will resemble fine sandpaper because of the sand particles
lodged in the openings.
One common solution to screen blinding is to change to a finer or

coarser screen that he one being blinded. This tactic is successful if
the sand that is being drilled has a narrow size distribution. Another
solution is to change to a rectangular screen, although rectangular screens
can also blind with multiple grains of sand.
Blinding – the “plastering” of a soft material over and in the mesh,

rendering it blocked.
drilling fluid. If this fails, fit coarser screens temporarily.
Plugging – the blocking of the mesh by a particle (usually sand) fitting

into the pore throat of the mesh.
drilling fluid. This is best done from beneath the screen (after removal).
It is often successful to place a finer screen on to reduce the “near size”
plugging.
73 solids control
Section 14a
screen panels
Shale shaker screens changed as demands on the shale shaker
increased. Shaker screens have three primary requirements:
• High liquid and solids handling capacity
• Acceptable life
• Ability to be easily identified and compared.
Early shale shaker screens required durability. This demand was

consistent with the shaker designs and solids removal philosophies of
their period. These shakers could only remove the large coarse solids
from the drilling fluid while the sand trap, reserve pit and downstream
hydrocyclones removed the bulk of the drilled solids.
Changes in drilling fluids, environmental constraints, and a better

understanding of solids/liquid separation have modified the role of
the shale shaker. Generally, the more solids removed at the flow line,
the higher the effectiveness of downstream equipment. The results
include reserve pits that can be smaller (or eliminated altogether), lower
clean-up costs, and increased drilling efficiency.
As important as the mechanical aspects of newly designed shale

shakers may be, improvements in screen panels and screen cloth have
also significantly increased shaker performance. Older shakers have
benefited from these improvements, as well. Two design changes have
been made to extend the economic limit of fine screen operation:
• A coarse backing screen to support the fine mesh cloth(s), and

• Tensioned cloth bonded to a screen panel (pretensioned screen
panel).
hook strip screens
Hook strip screens are also available. Because of the superior life
characteristics of the panel mount units, they have been relegated to a
minor role on linear motion machines, although they are used extensively
on circular and elliptical motion machines. Proper tensioning (and
frequent retensioning) of all screen types is good screen management
and can significantly increase screen life. Individual manufacturers
operation manuals should be consulted to obtain the proper installation
methods and torque requirements, where applicable, for specific screens/
panels.
solids control 74
Section 14a
bonded screens
Several types of bonded screens are available. The repairable perforated
plate screen has one or more layers of fine mesh cloth bonded to a sheet
of metal or plastic with punched, patterned holes. Perforated plate
designs are available in various opening sizes and patterns. Additional
designs include a special application where backing and fine screen(s)
materials are bonded together, eliminating the need for perforated
plates. Flat-surfaced, pretensioned screen panels are becoming popular
because of their even tensioning, easy installation, and the even
distribution of liquids and solids across the screen deck.
three-dimensional screen panels
Three-dimensional screen panels were introduced in the mid 1990’s.
These typically offer more screening area than flat-panel, repairable plate
screens while retaining the ability to be repaired.
This type of screen panel adds a third dimension to the previous two-
dimensional screens. The screen surface is rippled and supported by a
rigid frame. Most three-dimensional screen panels resemble the metal
used in a corrugated tin roof.
Construction consists of a corrugated, pretensioned screen cloth and

bonded to a rigid frame.
Like bonded flat screens, the three-dimensional screen panel needs

only to be held firmly in place with a hookstrip or other means to
prevent separation between the shaker bed and the screen panel during
vibration. Three-dimensional screen panels can be used to support any
type or style of wire cloth and can be used with any type of motion.
Three-dimensional screen panels allow solids to be conveyed down

into the trough sections of the screen panel. When submerged in a
liquid pool, this preferential solids distribution allows for higher fluid
throughput than is possible with flat screen panels by keeping the
peaked areas clear of solids. A three-dimensional screen panel improves
distribution of fluid and solids across the screen panel. This reduces
the characteristic “horseshoe effect” caused by shakers using crowned
screen beds.
75 solids control
Section 14a
screen effectiveness
Two factors that determine the effectiveness of a screen are mesh size
and screen design.
Mesh Size. The screen opening size determines the particle size a shaker
can remove. Screen mesh is the number of openings per linear inch as
measured from the centre of the wire. For example, a 70 by 30 oblong
mesh screen (rectangular opening) has 70 openings along a one inch line
one way and 30 openings along a one inch line perpendicular to the first.
Actual separation sizes are determined by factors such as particle shape,

fluid viscosity, feed rates and particle cohesiveness. Some muds can form
a high surface tension film on the wires of the screen and reduce the
effective opening size of the screen. The following table lists specifications
for different screen sizes and mesh shapes.
Table 12 – Square and Oblong Mesh Screens (This table provides

specifications for square mesh screens of different sizes)
Square Mesh Screens
Wide Opening Width Percent
Mesh Diameter
Open Area
Inches Inches Microns
20 x 20 0.016 0.0340 863 46.2
30 x 30 0.013 0.0203 515 37.1
40 x 40 0.010 0.0150 381 36.0
50 x 50 0.009 0.0110 279 30.3
60 x 60 0.0075 0.0092 234 30.5
80 x 80 0.0055 0.0070 178 31.4
100 x 100 0.0045 0.0055 140 30.3
120 x 120 0.0037 0.0046 117 30.5
150 x 150 0.0026 0.0041 104 37.4
170 x 170 0.0024 0.0035 89 35.1
200 x 200 0.0021 0.0029 74 33.6
250 x 250 0.0016 0.0024 61 36
solids control 76
Section 14a
Square Mesh Screens
Wide Opening Width Percent
Mesh Diameter
Open Area
Inches Inches Microns
20 x 30 0.014 0.036/0.0193 914/490 41.8
20 x 40 0.013 0.037/0.012 940/305 35.6
20 x 60 0.009 0.041/0.0076 1041/193 34.0
40 x 60 0.009 0.016/0.0076 406/193 29.4
40 x 80 0.0075 0.0181/0.0055 457/140 35.6
Screen Design. Screens are available in two and three dimensional designs.
Two-dimensional screens can be classified as:
Panel Screens, with two or three layers bound at each side by a one piece,
double folded hook strip.
Perforated Plate Screens, with two or three layers bonded to a perforated,
metal plate that provides support and is easy to repair.
Three-dimensional screens are perforated, plate screens with a corrugated

surface that runs parallel to the flow of fluid. This configuration provides
more screen area than the two-dimensional screen configuration. The
different types of three-dimensional screens are:
• Pyramid
• Plateau
The following figures shows the difference between two and three
dimensional screens.
77 solids control
Section 14a
screen designations
The API (RI13E) recommends that all screens be labelled with the screen
name, separation potential and flow capacity. Optional screen labels
include US sieve number, aspect ratio and transmittance. The following
table depicts how screens can be labelled using all descriptors.
Separation Potential,
Screen US Microns Flow Capacity Aspect Transmittance
Name Sieve Ratio
No. d50 d16 d84 Cond Area
Pyramid 48 318 231 389 6.10 7.42 1.45 45.3

PMD
DX50
Flat PI 47 327 231 349 8.85 7.28 1.43 64.4
Table 13 – Screen Designation Example
The following definitions apply to this table.
Separation Potential. The percentage of particles of the specific size, in

microns, that can be removed.
Examples:
d50 Particle sizes in microns where 50 percent of the particles are removed
Note : d50 is listed first in most tables because it is the most common.
solids control 78
Section 14a
Separation Potential (The percentage of microns removed increases as the
equivalent spherical diameter of particles increases.
Flow Capacity. The two parts of flow capacity include conductance

(Cond) and non-blanked (open space) area (Area).
Conductance is the amount of open space between wires in kilodarcies

per millimetre.
The non-blanked (open space) area is the total effective screening area per
panel in square feet.
Aspect Ration. The volume weighted average length to-width of the screen
openings.
Transmittance. The net flow capacity of individual screens; the product of

conductance and unblocked screening area.
system layout
fundamental principles
It is common to experience instances where incorrect pit and tank
configuration occurs when this happens increased waste production
results, inefficient separation and in some instances it creates
hazardous conditions.
79 solids control
Section 14a
tank design
The surface pits that comprise the active circulating systems should be
designed to contain enough usable mud to maintain mud properties
and to fill the hole during a wet trip at the rig’s maximum rated depth.
Usable mud is defined as the mud volume which can be pumped
before suction is lost. For example, a typical 10,000 ft well will normally
require a minimum active system tank volume of 500 bbl.
The active surface system can be divided into two sections; solids
removal and addition suction. All solids removal equipment and
degassing occurs in the solids removal section. The addition suction
section is used to add fresh mud to the circulating system and provide
sufficient residence time for proper mixing to occur before being
pumped downhole. A slug tank is usually available to pump small “pills”
such as LCM or barite slugs for tripping.
Each section must be further divided into enough compartments to

efficiently carry out its designed function. The number of compartments
needed will depend upon the amount and type of solids removal
equipment, system size and circulation rate. Each compartment must
have enough surface area to allow entrained air to break out of the mud.
A rule of thumb for the minimum surface area is calculated by:
Area (sq ft) = Maximum Circulating Rate (GPM)/40
To maximise solids suspension and usable volume, the best tank shape
is round with a conical bottom. Next best is a square or rectangular
shape with a v-bottom. The least preferred shape is the square or
rectangular box with a flat bottom. The ideal tank depth is equal to the
width or diameter of the tank. This design provides sufficient pump
suction head and is best for complete stirring.
compartment equalisation
Equalisation height between compartments will depend upon the duty
of the compartment. As a rule, an adjustable equaliser is needed only
between the solids removal section and the addition suction section.
solids control 80
Section 14a
High equalisation between the solids removal and addition suction
sections also increases the ability to detect volume changes due to
influx or losses to formation. Because the volume of the solids removal
section remains constant, any volume change is apparent as a liquid level
change in the addition suction section only. This increases the sensitivity
to volume fluctuations since the change in fluid level will be more
pronounced per unit volume.
Recommended equalisation between specific compartments is summarised

below:
Location Equalisation
Sand Trap Exit High
Degasser High
Desander Low
Desilter Low
Centrifuge Low
Solids Removal – Addition High (Adjustable)
Addition-Blend Low
Blend-Suction Low
sand trap
A sand trap is the settling compartment located downstream of the
shale shakers. It should be the only settling compartment and preferably
should not be used in closed-loop systems. Its main function is to remove
large solids that might plug the downstream hydrocyclones. With the fine
screen capabilities of today’s shale shakers, the sand trap mainly serves
as a back-up should the shakers be bypassed or operated with torn
screens. The sand trap should be the first compartment the mud enters
after passing through the shaker screens. Since it is a settling tank,
it should not be stirred and the mud should exit the sand trap over a high
weir.
The sand trap floor should have a 45˚ slope to its outlet. A 20 to 30 bbl
volume is sufficient. A quick opening solids dump valve that can be
closed against the mud flow is recommended to reduce mud losses. The
sand trap should be dumped only when nearly filled with solids, since
whole mud is lost when the sand trap is dumped (not oil based muds).
81 solids control
Section 14a
Optimum System Layout

solids control 82
Section 14a
equipment arrangement
The solids removal equipment should be arranged to sequentially
remove finer solids as the mud moves from the flowline to the suction
pit. The purpose of this arrangement is to reduce the solids loading on
the next piece of equipment. Each device must take mud from an
upstream compartment and discharge into the next compartment
downstream. This applies to both unweighted and weighted mud
equipment arrangements. The amount and type of equipment
required will depend upon the drilling conditions and economics
specific to each well.
Proper routing of fluids through the solids removal system is essential

to achieve maximum solids removal efficiency. Mistakes in fluid routing
can drastically reduce separation performance by causing a large
percentage of the circulation flow to be bypassed. These errors are most
commonly associated with mud cleaners and hydrocyclones. In addition
to suction and discharge routing, overflow discharges to mud ditches
and mud gun use are other common sources of routing errors.
do’s and don’ts
General Guidelines for Surface System Arrangements
The following guidelines are common to all equipment arrangements.
1. All removal compartments except the sand trap should be well

agitated to ensure even solids loading.
2. Mechanical stirrers are recommended. Check that they are properly
sized and installed correctly.
3. Mud guns are not recommended for the solids removal section.
4. When installed, the degasser should be located immediately
downstream of the shale shaker and upstream of any equipment fed
from a centrifugal pump.
5. Use a high equaliser between degasser suction and discharge.
6. All solids removal equipment should discharge immediately
downstream of their suction compartments.
7. All equipment except the centrifuge should process at least 100%
of the circulation flow. Backflow should be observed in these
compartments.
8. Low equalisation between suction and discharge for all solids removal
equipment.
83 solids control
Section 14a
9. Different solids control devices must not share suction

compartments or share discharge compartments unless they are
making the same cut. For example, two desilters may share the
same fluid routing, but a desander and desilter should not.
10. Adjustable equaliser between solids removal section and addition
suction section. This equaliser should normally be high except
when access to the additional volume in the solids removal
section is desired.
11. No solids removal equipment should discharge into the suction
pit with the exception of the centrifuge if suction is achieved from
the same pit.
zero discharge set-up
1. Minimisation of waste is paramount here. The use of large tank
volumes is largely unnecessary. Other than the degasser system, all
other pits should be bypassed wherever possible. The sandtrap is
largely made redundant by effective 21st century shale shakers.
2. Pit residue must be reduced to a minimum.
3. On completion of the section, the tanks should be circulated over
the shale shaker to recover as much free fluid as possible.
4. Never dump the traps, tanks and pits without understanding
the implications of that action on the waste generation. Cleaning
of the traps/pits/tanks in zero discharge situation requires planning
on strong procedurally driven actions. Dump and flush is
inappropriate. Where appropriate, recover all free fluid using pumps
and vacuum recovery equipment.
containment
section 14b
containment
Section 14b
contents
cuttings blowing pump 800 (cbp 800)........................................................................ 1
vccs (vacuum continuous collection system) and pit cleaning.......................... 5
cuttings discharge pump (cdp)...................................................................................... 9
screw conveyor................................................................................................................... 12
drilling waste container................................................................................................... 14
rig-vac™................................................................................................................................ 16
hippo™..................................................................................................................................18
slurry blowing pump 60 (sbp 60) ............................................................................... 20
01 containment
Section 14b
cuttings blowing pump 800 (cbp 800)

Summary:
The CBP 800 pneumatically blows drill cuttings and centrifuge waste
from a collection point on the rig, to a temporary bulk storage tank(s)
on the rig, or directly to a workboat / barge / truck. The movement of
cuttings directly from the rig to a workboat is often described as “bulk
transfer” as it negates the requirement for numerous smaller drilling
waste containers lifts previously the norm for ship to shore projects.
Features and Benefits:

ƒ Features
ƒ No moving parts in contact with the cuttings
ƒ Will convey solids, sludges and slurries
ƒ Conveying system is fully enclosed
ƒ Proven oilfield service using dense phase conveying
ƒ Flexible installation to suit the rig
ƒ Benefits
ƒ High capacity in excess of 35MT per hour
ƒ Allows cuttings to be blown straight to a boat / barge or bulk
storage tanks / containers on the rig
ƒ Reduces exposure to drilling wastes on the rig
ƒ Crane lifts are minimised, reducing the risks associated with
lifting numerous drilling waste containers from the rig to a boat.
Technical Description:
The CBP 800 moves cuttings in what is known as dense phase conveying,
with the air being generated by a compressor. A back up compressor or
duel compressor is recommended to eliminate any chance of downtime
due to failure of the compressor. The CBP 800 comprises of two (200 litre)
pressure vessels, a plc system, and a series of 8”, 6” and 1” valves to control
the cycles for filling and discharging the vessels.
containment 02
Section 14b
The duel vessel arrangement allows one to be filled whilst the other
is discharging on a continuous basis. The vessel sequence can be
controlled by weight, volume or time. The plc system records all the
data, which is available for subsequent downloading and analysis.
Each vessel is capable of moving 35 MT per hour of drill cuttings based on

a cuttings density of 2 grams / cm3. The vessels are typically fed by an
auger feed system from the shakers or centrifuge.
The cuttings are discharged into either a temporary bulk storage tank
on the rig, or onto tanks on the boat. On a land job the cuttings could
be blown directly to a truck or into a holding pit. The boat will
typically be laid out with a number of holding tanks with a 20MT to
40MT capacity each. A plc controlled manifold system with diverter
valves ensures that each tank can be filled in any given sequence. The
system is fully automatic with plc feedback to the CBP 800 plc on the rig
minimising operator intervention.
CBP 800 Unit

03 containment
Section 14b
Details of the CBP 800
CBP 800 PLC Control System

containment 04
Section 14b
Bulk Tanks in Norway
Bulk Tanks on Boat

05 containment
Section 14b
vccs (vacuum continuous collection system)

and pit cleaning
Summary:
The VCCS offers a safe and efficient means for containing drill cuttings
at a rigsite, both offshore and onshore. The movement of air through
the system allows the collection of drill cuttings and other drilling
wastes, such as centrifuge waste and pit cleaning operations, into vacuum
rated drilling waste containers.
The system can collect wastes from the shakers and centrifuges or it can
be configured to collect waste from pit cleaning operations. The vacuum
rated drilling waste containers can then be sealed and transferred to the
treatment and disposal location for processing.

ƒ Features
ƒ Low friction / non stick hoses reduce or eliminate hose blockages
ƒ Small 4” bore hoses between the drilling waste containers and
the vacuum pick-up improve manual handling
ƒ High velocity airspeed (280 ft / second) is capable of conveying
both wet and dry materials
ƒ The scrubber and filter units provide high efficiency solids removal
ƒ The primary air mover provided a vacuum source up to 15” of
mercury and operates below 85 dB
ƒ Manual or automatic pit cleaning systems available
ƒ Benefits
ƒ Quick hook up time due to the equipment being supplied pre-
assembled, necessitating attachment of interconnecting hoses
only before commissioning
ƒ Minimal deck space required as the VCCS framework has a small
footprint
ƒ Continuous vacuum collection and discharge possible due to
the system capacity to isolate and / or operate into one or two
drilling waste containers
containment 06
Section 14b
ƒ Collection into drilling waste containers in remote locations
on the rig due to jumper hoses connecting the VCCS and drilling
waste containers
ƒ The automatic pit cleaning system can negate the requirement
for man entry into the pits
The system consists of:
ƒ A primary air mover (PAM) to generate the vacuum source
ƒ A scrubber and filter unit to filter out small particles that do not
deposit in the drilling waste containers
ƒ A containment pipe manifold to divert the waste stream into the
appropriate container though the use of manually or automatically
activated valves
ƒ Drilling waste containers (DWC), designed and rated to withstand
the vacuum
Air moves through the system at high velocity (approximately 280

ft / second) from the cuttings pick up point to the vacuum rated
containers. Cuttings are moved in the fast air stream from the pick up
point and are then deposited into the containers as the air velocity
drops. Any fine particles that carry on through are captured in the
scrubber unit or the air filter fitted to the PAM Unit.
The system works on a continuous basis in that there are at least two
skips on the containment manifold allowing one DWC to be filled whilst
the full DWC is taken away and replaced.
The “Dry” pit cleaning configuration has a small pick up hopper on the
pick up line in the pit allowing the cuttings to be deposited into the
high velocity air stream and onwards into one of the waste containers.
The “Wet” pit cleaning system utilises an automated pressure washing

nozzle that directs high pressure to the pit surfaces to clean of any
fluids or solids debris. The nozzle provides 360 degree impact indexed
coverage for the cleaning of the inside of all tanks and pits. The liquid
waste at the bottom of the tank / pit is pumped into a closed loop pill
tank where the solids are allowed to settle out for collection and disposal.
07 containment
Section 14b
PRIMARY AIR
MOVER 2000
SCRUBBER
UNIT
KMC Oiltools Vacuum Continuous
Collection System (VCCS)
Arrows denote
with Drilling Waste Containers Air Flow
in Remote Discharge CUTTINGS
Configuration PICK-UP
POINT
VACUUM RATED
DRILLING WASTE
CONTAINERS
VCCS Drill Cuttings Collection System Layout
PRIMARY AIR MOVER

generate vacuum source
SCRUBBER & FILTER UNIT

a high efficiency
small particle
drop out tank
CONTAINMENT PIPE MANIFOLD
enables the co-ordination of containment
into various Drilling Waste Containers PIT CLEANING
HOPPER AND LANCE
enables the pit clearing
personnel to collect pit waste
VACUUM RATED DRILLING

WASTE CONTAINER
collection unit for the waste
vacuumed into the system
VCCS Dry Pit Cleaning System

containment 08
Section 14b
PILL TANK
holds wash water,
typically 30 bbls
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMP

pressure minimum 10 ber.
flow 100 USGPM RE-CIRCULATION PUMP
returns wash water back to pill tank
IN-LINE STRANER TANK CLEANING HEAD

protects tank cleaning head operates in a predetermined
from solids carried over from scope of movement to offer full
pill tank coverage to the pit being cleaned
Wet Pit Cleaning System

09 containment
Section 14b
cuttings discharge pump (cdp)

Summary:
The CDP is a safe and efficient vacuum system designed to collect drill
solids on a continuous basis and discharge them into drilling waste
containers on the rig. The system is fully contained reducing exposure to
drilling wastes.

ƒ Features
ƒ Rotary type cuttings discharge pump – provides an air lock
between the drop-out and recovery tank and discharge
chutes, enabling the continuous collection and discharge of
drill cuttings
ƒ Discharge chute – remotely operated with up / down and 270°
rotational actuator
ƒ Drop-our recovery tank – provides 2m3 containment volume
ƒ Remotely operated telescopic arm – enables the positioning
of the discharge chute to cover up to eighteen drilling waste
containers
ƒ Control platform – the remotely operated cuttings transfer
system is operated from a single elevated location providing
a panoramic view over the containment operations
ƒ Benefits
ƒ Continuous vacuum collection and discharge of drill cuttings
ƒ High containment capacity due to the telescopic arm supplying
cuttings to a maximum of eighteen drilling waste containers
ƒ Low resource requirement due to the arm being operated by
one person only
ƒ Exposure to drill cuttings reduced due to remote operation
ƒ Reduction in manual handling of suction hoses and / or dump
chute due to the remote operation of the telescopic arm and
discharge chute
containment 10
Section 14b
Air moves through the system at high velocity from the cuttings pick
up point, via the cuttings discharge pump to the airflow source, the
primary air mover. The drill cuttings are picked up in the air stream,
conveyed and subsequently deposited into one of multiple drilling
waste containers.
In the standard configuration, as many as eighteen drilling waste

containers can be deployed at one time, providing a containment volume
in excess of 110m3. The CDP provides and air lock between the drop-
out hopper and the discharge chute enabling the continuous vacuum
collection of drilling waste into drilling waste containers.
Cutting Discharge Pump

11 containment
Section 14b
PRIMARY
AIR MOVER
DROP.OUT
RECOVERY
TANK
CUTTING
DISCHARGE
PUMP (CDP)
DRILLING WASTE
CONTAINERS
Typical Cutting Discharge
Pump (CDP) System
Typical CDP System Layout

containment 12
Section 14b
screw conveyor
Summary:
Screw conveyors are a relatively inexpensive and oilfield proven method to
transport drill cuttings and centrifuge waste from one location on the rig
to another.

ƒ Features
ƒ Supplied with a metal lids / covers to minimise risks
ƒ Metal lids / covers are hinged for easy access once the system
is isolated
ƒ Versatile as different length can be built and bolted together to
suit the required configuration
ƒ Benefits
ƒ Low power requirement
ƒ Continuous discharge eliminates the need for holding tanks
ƒ Minimal operator intervention required
ƒ Easily sized to meet anticipated volume rates
The screw conveyor is designed to transport drilling wastes from one
point to another safely and efficiently. This is achieved by the use of a
scroll (auger), which is rotated inside a trough by an electric motor. The
drilling waste is fed into the screw conveyor and transported along by
the rotating scroll. The scroll is sealed inside the trough by a hinged metal
lid / cover which is bolted down for increased safety.
The screw conveyor typically feeds straight from the shaker discharge
/ centrifuge discharge into another screw conveyor and onwards to
the required delivery point. The waste is then unloaded by means of a
chute when it reaches the end of the screw conveyor. Where large
distances or turns are to be manoeuvred it may be necessary to place
several sections of screw conveyors together to achieve the desired
installation.
13 containment
Section 14b
Multi-Point Discharge Conveyor for Container Loading

containment 14
Section 14b
drilling waste container
Summary:
The Drilling Waste Container (DWC) is designed to hold drill cutting,
centrifuge waste and pit cleaning wastes generated during drilling
operations. The containers are available as vacuum rated units as
required, depending on the method of collection. The full containers
are typically transported to a treatment and disposal site for further
processing.

ƒ Features
ƒ The container is fully enclosed within a lifting frame
ƒ A large sealing door aids filling and emptying
ƒ The containers can be provided with certified lifting slings
included
ƒ The discharge door has an internal seal which is secured by
clasps to avoid spillage during transportation
ƒ Benefits
ƒ The containers are fully reusable avoiding the generation of
excess waste
ƒ The containers are designed to be safely stacked on top of one
another when empty to minimise storage space
ƒ The fork lift points at the bottom allow for easy movement
and rotation during loading and unloading
A typical DWC has an internal volume of 2.3m3 (other sizes are available)
with a gross weight of 8000 kg allowing the container to be filled with a
maximum of approximately 6600 kg of waste. The containers are typically
filled by an auger, or a vacuum / pneumatic transfer system. The access
door is easily sealed after filling for safe transport. Unloading normally
entails the containers being rotated by a suitable forklift at a process
facility.
15 containment
Section 14b
containment 16
Section 14b
rig-vac™
Summary:
The Rig-Vac™ is designed to clean up solids and fluids from a number
of potential sources on the rig including spills, the cleaning of ditches,
cellars and sumps, and general rig operations. The unit is located in a
central position and vacuum lines run to various pertinent locations
around the rig.

ƒ Features
ƒ Available with three tank capacities of 1590, 2385 and 3180 litres
ƒ Can be switched between vacuum loading and discharge for
tank emptying
ƒ Large 18” manway for ease of maintenance
ƒ System comes with built in pressure relief systems
ƒ Benefits
ƒ Improves workplace safety by allowing quick and easy removal
of spillages
ƒ More powerful than a regular vacuum truck
ƒ Collection points are set up at critical locations
ƒ Easy to operate with electrical and diesel driven options
ƒ Low maintenance
The Rig-Vac™ is a skid mounted system designed to be centrally located
for the reclamation, containment and handling of liquids waste and
sludges for both onshore and offshore applications.
There are three different models, the electrically operated RV-3500

and RV-3560 and the diesel operated RV-4500. Each system is made up
of two components. The first is a power plant which incorporates a
positive displacement blower, muffler, valve manifold and motor. The
second is a tank skid fitted with a tank, suction, discharge and inspection
connections.
17 containment
Section 14b
containment 18
Section 14b
hippo™
Summary:
The HIPPO™ is designed to reclaim drilling fluid spillages caused by
tripping, pulling wet strings or accidental spillages. It can also be used
for other waste stream spillages such as wastewater or slurries. The
cleaning of ditches, cellars and sumps plus the skimming of pits and
cuttings boxes is also possible.

ƒ Features
ƒ Oilfield Proven Technology – similar vacuum units have been
used reliably in the oilfield for many years
ƒ Anti-Static Construction – all parts are constructed from anti-
static or conductive materials to eliminate the build up of static
electricity
ƒ Compact Skid Design – provides easier installation of the
HIPPO™ System
ƒ Benefits
ƒ Safety – improves workplace environment by allowing quick and
easy removal of spillages
ƒ Quick Hook-up – only the rig air supply, suction and discharge
lines need to be connected for the unit to operate
ƒ Flexible Installation - due to the compact skid design, the
HIPPO™ can be installed almost anywhere onboard
The HIPPO™ System consists of a robust skid mounted package
designed for the reclamation, containment and handling of waste
liquids from both onshore and offshore operations. The system contains
the following components:
ƒ 30 Gallon tank
ƒ Air operated diaphragm pump
ƒ Associated pipe work & valves
19 containment
Section 14b
The 30 gallon tank is fitted with 2” suction and discharge lines and
a 3/4” air inlet.
The skid also contains an inline filter and an air operated diaphragm
pump.
The HIPPO™ Unit with Suction Hose and Head
The HIPPO™ in Action

containment 20
Section 14b
slurry blowing pump 60 (sbp 60)
Summary:
The SBP 60 is designed to reclaim drilling fluid, sludges, and solids,
transferring them on a continuous basis from one point on the rig to
another. It can also be used for other waste stream spillages such as
wastewater or slurries. The cleaning of ditches, cellars and sumps plus
the skimming of pits and cuttings boxes is also possible. Collected
wastes are typically blown into a drilling waste container or alike

ƒ Features
ƒ 60 litre holding tank can be filled and discharged on a continuous
bases
ƒ The unit can deliver up to 21.5” vacuum
ƒ No moving parts in the tank reducing maintenance
ƒ Can handle solids up to 30 mm in size
ƒ Designed with safety in mind having pressure relief protection
and non-return valves
ƒ Benefits
ƒ Improves workplace safety by allowing quick and easy removal
of spillages
ƒ Flexible, being compact and portable from one rig location to
another
ƒ Versatile – suction distances of up to 15m and discharge distances
in excess of 50m
ƒ Timers, jet pack and the air regulator are all self contained in
the unit making it easy to operate
The SBP 60 works by creating a vacuum to transfer liquids, sludges and
solids into the holding tank and then pressuring up the tank to a
maximum of 100 psi to discharge the material. The system consists of:
ƒ 60 litre holding tank
ƒ Air operated timer system
ƒ 2 Solid tyres and wheels
21 containment
Section 14b
The SBP 60 can be wheeled into position and can suck from up to 15
metres away, and blow the material a further 50 metres to the discharge
point.
SBP
BP 60 Unit
SBP 60 Schematic
treatment and disposal
section 14c
Section 14c
contents
cuttings re-injection (cri).................................................................................................. 1
drill cuttings thermal treatment.................................................................................... 5
extractor dryer....................................................................................................................
............................................. 15
filtration.................................................................................................................................
..........................................................20
chemically enhanced centrifugation (flocculation)..............................................
.............................................. 24
bio-remediation.................................................................................................................
......... 26
drill cuttings solidification and stabilisation............................................................31
01 treatment and disposal
Section 14c
cuttings re-injection (cri)

Summary:
Cuttings Re-Injection (CRI) is an in situ method for the disposal of drill
cuttings and other drilling wastes into a sub-surface stratum.
Drill cuttings are slurrified with water (fresh or sea water) and ground
down to a pre-determined particle size. The particle size is achieved by
passing through a shaker screen. Slurry of the correct particle size and
physical properties is injected via a pump, which is typically of a triplex
design, into the well head at a given pressure and down into the pre-
determined sub-surface injection zone. Oversize particles from the shaker
are re-circulated for further grinding.

ƒ Features
ƒ An efficient method for disposing of NADF drill cuttings
ƒ ARCO licensed slurrification system
ƒ Modular concept
ƒ Venturi feed system
ƒ Benefits
ƒ In-situ solution for the disposal of drill cuttings
ƒ Negates the need for ship to shore and double handling
ƒ Reduced environmental impact compared to other disposal
methods
ƒ Reduced long term liability for the operator
ƒ Suitable for disposal of other drilling wastes such as drilling and
well clean up fluids
KMC Oiltools has a vast amount of experience in cuttings re-injection,
with projects in many different countries of the world. The KMC Oiltools
Cuttings / Solids Injection System is designed to receive the drilled
cuttings from the rig’s Solids Control Equipment, and/or produced solids
containers.
treatment and disposal 02
Section 14c
The typical feed system is a screw conveyor collecting the cuttings
from the shale shakers and a venturi hopper to transport the cuttings to
the slurrification system. The venturi system reduces the need for augers
and moves the cuttings by using a stream of fast flowing water that can
move the cuttings over extended distances.
The solids are passed over a shale shaker with screens sized to meet the
required slurry particle size. The slurry unit normally consist of two tanks
(Fines & Grinding) and four centrifugal pumps. The fines tank holds the
fluid and solids which pass through the shaker screen. The grinding tank
holds the oversize particles. The grinding tank is continually circulated
through the ARCO patented hardened impellor pumps to further reduce
the particle size. This slurry is passed over the shaker screens again in a
continuous process. The slurrification system is normally designed to
grind and process up to 25MT of drill cuttings per hour. Smaller and
larges sizes can be accommodated.
Four pumps and numerous valves provide 100% contingency in case of

failure. This ensures that the injection process and drilling is not interrupted
due to a failure of a pump or a valve.
The slurry in the fines tank is pumped to a high pressure triplex pump
where it is injected into the well. The downhole configuration, injection
zone, and pump rate are determined by a separate study. In some cases
the study may determine that no suitable injection zone exists.
Section 14c
Disposal Well
Annular Injection
Shale Shakers Seawater
Supply
Grinding
Mill
Classification
Shaker
Chemical
Addition
Mixing
Hopper
Holding Tank
Shearing Tank Injection Pump

Transfer via
Wellhead
Screw Conveyor
Fines Tank
Injection
Injection System Schematic
Section 14c
04
Section 14c
drill cuttings thermal treatment

Summary:
Our current thermal product line is based on the Porcupine Processor. This
thermal process is designed to treat NADF Drill Cuttings (base oil can be
diesel, low toxicity, or synthetic), which reduces the oil on the solids exit
the process to < 1% dry weight, and recovers the valuable base oil in a state
suitable for reuse.
This process has been successfully operated and therefore licensed in the
UK and Holland. To date the operating plants have processed well in
excess of 100,000 MT of drill cuttings.
The process is not designed for processing water based waste or wastes
with a very high liquid content. The process is not suitable for processing
ester based drill cuttings, as the ester breaks down at the process
temperatures.

ƒ Features
ƒ An efficient method for treating NADF drill cuttings
ƒ PLC controlled safety systems
ƒ Non-explosive atmosphere
ƒ Precise and variable temperature control
ƒ Benefits
ƒ Reduces oil on cuttings to < 1% and in most cases to < 0.5%
ƒ Recovered oil is un-cracked and suitable for reuse in new drilling
fluid
ƒ Operator liability relating to land disposal is reduced
Technical Details:
The treatment of solids containing high levels of diesel oil contamination
can be achieved utilising a single stage indirect thermal desorption system.
The system is based on the use of the patented Porcupine Processor to
remove all water and oil, leaving a residual total petroleum hydrocarbon
on cuttings of less than 1%.
Section 14c
Contaminated solids are fed into the processor by the use of an adjustable
speed screw feeder. Conditioning of the feed with clean, hot recycled
solids will be completed using an automated paddle mixing system.
Heat transfer fluid from a hot oil heater is circulated through the inner
passages of the Porcupine dryer, which consists of a sealed tub with a
heated rotating paddle shaft. The oil-contaminated waste is contained
within the dryer tub where they are heated by contact with the hot
metal surfaces of the paddle shaft. Air locks are fitted at the inlet and
outlet of the dryer to minimise the infiltration of outside air. Nitrogen is
used to purge air from the airlocks and provide an inert gas atmosphere
within the dryer.
As the waste is mixed and folded inside the dryer, contact with the
rotating paddle shaft causes the liquids to evaporate. A mixture of
steam and oil vapour then passes into a Vapour Recovery Unit where it
condenses and leaves the system as liquids. The remaining solids exit
the system into a cooler and hydrator (to avoid dust) prior to being
discharged.
Process Flow Diagram

Section 14c
Heat transfer Fluid for the Porcupine Processor

The best approach involves the use of a heat transfer fluid (hot oil)
system. The unit employs the external boiler to heat the heat transfer
fluid. This liquid is capable of being heated to temperatures of 343° C
(650° F), and circulated by pump without boiling. A multi-fuel burner
is provided to cleanly burn a variety of fuels with high efficiency. The
burner heats the coil of pipe containing the circulating thermal fluid.
After being heated, the heat transfer fluid (hot oil) is circulated to the
dryer, where it transfers its heat to the metal surfaces. The cooler fluid
is then circulated back to be re-heated.
NITROGEN
EXPANSION
TANK
FUEL FROM
CIRCULATING
PORCUPINE
PUMP
TO
PORCUPINE
FUEL
Typical thermal fluid heater setup
Modern boiler system controls are used on the Hot Oil System to
assure safe operation. These include flame safety/fuel shutoff devices,
automatic re-start pilots and pressure and temperature shutoff switch.
Vapour Recovery Unit

A single vapour recovery unit is utilised to condense and recover (for
recycling) the vapours from the Porcupine Processor. The Vapour
Recovery Unit consists of two stages of vapour condensing, with non-
condensable gasses being oxidised in the boiler.
First Stage Condenser

Stage 1 consists of a gas scrubber / absorber tower equipped with a
continuous circulation of cooled liquor serving as a direct contact or
barometric condenser.
Section 14c
This water stream is circulated under pressure from the cooler into
a contactor column where it passes counter-current to the vapour
entering from the dryer system. Intimate contact of the gas and liquid
is increased by utilisation of specially designed internals that provide
maximum surface area while minimising the vapour stream pressure
drop. As the hot vapour comes in contact with the liquid the majority of
it is condensed.
VAPOUR
SEPARATOR
SECOND
STAGE
I.D.
CONDENSER
100-200 CFM GAS FLOW FAN
SCRUBBER-
CONDENSER RECOVERED
LIGHT
OILS
HEAT
VAPOUR EXCHANGER
FROM COOLING
TOWER
PORCUPINE
CHILLER
RECOVERED
RECOVERED WATER
& SOLIDS TO BOILER
OILS
Typical VRU Configuration
All liquid exiting the condenser/scrubber column passes into an oil /

water separator where two separation processes occur. Within the
entry section particulate that was previously entrained with the vapour
and captured by the scrubbing action of the water is removed via a
baffled chamber. In the following (exit) section, the water and any
oil occurring are separated through the use of a parallel plate module
that utilises the difference in the specific gravity to produce a two-phase
flow. A series of baffles and weirs provides skimming of the oil phase,
while allowing the water to be re-circulated to the air-cooled exchanger.
A removable gasket sealed lid contains any potential vapour leakage
from this vessel. A sight glass is mounted on the separator, permitting
visual examination of the “two-phase” section. This gives the system
operator an indication of how to adjust the rate at which an oil pump
removes oil from this section of the separator.
Section 14c
Second Stage Condenser

The second stage condenser is typically a shell and tube heat
exchanger. Mechanically refrigerated water/glycol solution is circulated
on the shell side of the heat exchanger. The remaining condensable
vapours in the gas stream are thus cooled to 5° C (4° F), condensed and
collected in a liquid recovery vessel.
The Mechanical Refrigeration System will reduce the water / glycol

temperature to approximately 3° C (37° F) before its entrance to the
condenser. The mechanical refrigeration system includes a compressor;
an air-cooled condenser with copper tubes and mechanically bonded
plate fins immediately follows the compressor. It is designed with
sufficient extended surface area to accommodate a condensing
discharge temperature of 115° F. Propeller-type fans driven by TENV
motors induce airflow. Fan cycling controls ensure the ability of the
system to maintain a proper condensing pressure even at low ambient
temperatures.
The evaporating refrigerant cools the re-circulated water in the

evaporator, which is constructed of 304 stainless steel to guard against
attack if aggressive chemicals are encountered. The control scheme
for the refrigeration system includes limit switches that protect
against unsafe operation of the system whenever operating
conditions such as high or low refrigerant or low compressor
lubricating oil pressure exist. Ancillary system safeties are provided
to stop operation of the refrigerant circuit whenever there is a loss
of water flow or the water system temperature drops too close to its
freezing point.
Blower
The non-condensable gas stream that remains after the second
stage Condenser / Scrubber is directed through a single positive
displacement blower that discharge the gas to the boiler ensuring complete
oxidation of any residual hydrocarbons. A manually variable frequency
control adjusts the blower volume. The blower’s volume is adjusted in
proportion to the dryer processing rate and the moisture content of
the feed material. The more bulk material fed to the dryer, the more air
is entrained in the material, necessitating a greater blower volume. The
higher the moisture content of the feed material, the greater the volume
of vapours generated by the drying process. This necessitates a greater
blower volume.
Section 14c
Oil and Water Condensate
Condensed liquids (oil and water) in the vapour recovery system are
separated for recycling. Oil is collected in a tank and water is utilised to
re-hydrate the dry solids exiting the Porcupine to avoid the generation
of dust.
Automatic Motor Control Centre

The thermal desorption system is controlled through an Allen-Bradley
Programmable Logic Controller model PLC5/20 mounted inside the
freestanding control container. The process can be monitored and
controlled through the use of PC/AT Operator Interface Platform on a
desktop computer and viewed on a full 19” monitor. Process conditions
are continuously monitored by an array of instrumentation installed
on the process equipment. The state of the instrumentation represents
real-time conditions of the process and allows for process information
to be reported by the PLC to the display screen. The microprocessor,
as an integral part of the PLC, monitors the information received from
the input field devices, performs the routines programmed in the ladder
logic code, and delivers commands to the output instruments to
automatically control system operations. The operator inputs required
process criteria directly to the terminal to specify the conditions of
the system operation. The PC based software relays this criteria to the
PLC, which performs the logic functions to meet the specific process
requirements.
Picture of a Typical Oiltools Motor Control Centre

Section 14c
Equipment status, process criteria and alarm conditions are displayed

on graphic display screens within the operator’s interface terminal,
allowing the operator to perform process and machine diagnostics. The
graphic display alarm and process screens also provide operators and
maintenance personnel with information that aids in troubleshooting
the alarm condition. The control system is user friendly and employs a
simplistic method of interfacing the operator with the equipment. DC-
5424
Plant in Shetland, Scotland, capable of processing 20,000 MT per

annum
Control Room
Section 14c
Vapour Recovery System
Feed Hopper / Storage

Section 14c
Product Cooler
Thermal Fluid Heater

Section 14c
Discharge Auger
Section 14c
extractor dryer
Summary:
The EXTRACTOR Dryer is designed to remove NADF from drill cuttings
exiting the shale shaker. The dryer is capable or reducing the oil on
cuttings to < 3% and to an overall total of < 6.9% when the centrifuge
waste is taken into account. Excess fluid is recovered after centrifugation
and returned to the active system for reuse. The system is not suitable for
the treatment of water based mud cuttings.

ƒ Features
ƒ Horizontal basket
ƒ Internal scroll turns solids to improve drying ability
ƒ Proprietary screen design minimises plugging
ƒ ‘G’ force of 375 ‘G’s
ƒ Resettable torque overload protection
ƒ Screen cleaning does not require removal
ƒ Benefits
ƒ Reduced environmental impact and increase drilling fluids
recovery
ƒ Reduced footprint and lower height compared with vertical
systems
ƒ Low noise and power requirement due to low friction Cyclo-Gear
ƒ Reduced maintenance
Technical Details:
The EXTRACTOR Dryer consists of a horizontally configured conical
screen placed within a balanced cage that is driven at high speed via an
electric motor through a Cyclo-Gear drive gearbox.
Positioned within the cage is a scroll that turns and transports the
filtered solids from the machine to obtain maximum cuttings dryness.
The conical basket contains a proprietary screen specially designed to
minimize screen binding. The unit is attached to an isolated sub-frame
which in turn is mounted on a rugged oilfield skid for transport.
Section 14c
The EXTRACTOR Dryer receives drill cuttings from the Solids Control
equipment via screw conveyor, vacuum system, and/or solids pump.
Drill cuttings are fed into the centre of the feed cone and distributed
evenly through feed holes by centrifugal action into the flighting
channels between the scroll and the screen. As the drill cuttings pass
through the conical screen, the solids layer becomes thinner and exposed
to progressively more G-force.
The high gravitational force allows the liquid portion of the feed to pass
through the cake bed and screen while the cake bed itself is continuously
turned and swept outward to be discharged at the outer diameter of
the screen. The dried drill cuttings exit from the front of the machine
where they are either discharged to the environment or collected for
further handling and/or treatment.
The effluent exits tangentially from the base of the unit into a holding
tank. This effluent should all be processed by a high speed centrifuge,
where practicable, prior to return to the active system.
DRILL
CUTTINGS IN
RECOVERED SOLIDS
LIQUID OUT OUT
Schematic of the dryer

Section 14c
The basket and crane
The Extractor Dryer

Section 14c
Scroll in position
Offshore Installation
Section 14c
Typical oil on cuttings graph

Section 14c
filtration
Summary:
A complete range of filtration equipment is available to process
completion brines, oily water, water injection and other oilfield
applications. The full range of equipment and consumables includes
horizontal and vertical filter presses, duplex cartridge and bag units,
high pressure vessels, automatic self cleaning filters, filter bags, and
cartridges (wound, spunbonded, pleated, oil and heavy metal absorption,
nominal, and absolute)

ƒ Features
ƒ Fully automatic self cleaning vertical filter press
ƒ Flexible duplex unit able to hold standard cartridges, magnum
cartridges or bag filters
ƒ Full range of cartridge micron sizes in nominal or absolute
ƒ Oil absorbing and heavy metal absorbing cartridges available
for water treatment applications
ƒ Benefits
ƒ Reduced cleaning time and reduced exposure to waste when
using the automatic self cleaning filter, saving rig time
ƒ Duplex unit are suitable for numerous applications
ƒ High efficiency filtration improves production rates
ƒ Water treatment offshore allows discharge and reduces costly
onshore disposal
Section 14c
Duplex Cartridge Unit
Horizontal DE Press
Section 14c
Vertical Pressure Leaf Press With Self Cleaning System
Section 14c
40” Cartridges 5 Bag Filters
7 Magnum Cartridges 50 Standard Cartridges

Section 14c
chemically enhanced centrifugation
(flocculation)
Summary:
Chemically Enhanced Centrifugation, CEC, otherwise known as
flocculation, is a method to enhance the remove of fine solids in WBM
through a centrifuge. Small quantities of additives are mixed with the
used WBM, which coagulate and flocculate fine colloidal solids into a
larger clumps, which are then easily removed using a centrifuge.
CEC reduces the volume of waste mud generated as it allows the

clarified fluid to be reused to build new drilling fluids. Overall the total
volume of waste, the size of the pits, and the quantity of water required
per well are all reduced.

ƒ Features
ƒ Mixing tank including agitator and twin screw pumps for the
coagulant
ƒ Powder dosing unit to make up flocculent
ƒ Flocculent batch tank with agitator and dosing pump
ƒ Dilution unit for reducing polymer concentration
ƒ Two variable speed metering pumps
ƒ In-line mixing system
ƒ Centrate tanks
ƒ Laboratory and work area
ƒ Benefits
ƒ Overall reduction in water usage and increased recycling
ƒ Smaller pit volumes and in closed loop system no need for a
reserve pit
ƒ Reduced environmental impact
ƒ Real time mixing reduces overall chemical consumption
ƒ Powder polymer unit reduces chemical consumption
Section 14c
During drilling with WBM, fine colloidal solids build up, eventually
leading to a requirement to dump or dilute. CEC offers an alternative as
it allow the fine particles to be coagulated, flocculated and removed by
the use of a centrifuge.
A coagulant is added to neutralise the negative charges holding the fine

colloidal particles apart followed a flocculent (typically a polymer) to
bridge together the small floccs into larger clumps, which can then be
removed by gravity separation or a centrifuge.
The CEC system is a containerised compact unit designed to meter in

the correct quantities of both coagulants and flocculent. It has tanks to
store the prepared chemical solutions and metering pumps to accurately
dose them into a mud mixing line. The flocculated mud should be
centrifuged at low speed to ensure the clumps are not broken up by
excessive shear.
30’ Containerised CEC System

Section 14c
bio-remediation
Summary:
Bioremediation utilises the ability of natural organisms to digest the
organic species found in Drill Cuttings, principally the base oil.
Bioremediation is used to treat NADF cuttings, reducing the residual oil
on cuttings to less than 1%.

ƒ Features
ƒ The solid product does not require any further processing or
disposal
ƒ Relatively inexpensive compared with other techniques including
CRI and Thermal
ƒ Limited mechanical equipment so inherently safe
ƒ Treatment material can be suitable for use as a soil amendment
ƒ Degradation can be carried out by native bacteria
ƒ Benefits
ƒ Treats the hydrocarbon and other organic compounds in the
waste
ƒ Suitable for variable quality wastes
ƒ Does not require utilities such as electricity and diesel fuel for
processing
ƒ Simple and safe to manage
Technical Details:
A containment area with an impermeable clay base is built to accept
and process the cuttings. The impermeable layer is important to stop
potential leaching of contaminants into the environment. The area is
selected for ease of access and having a suitable area to cope with the
projected waste volume.
Section 14c
Drill cuttings are placed in an empty cell and mixed with a suitable organic
substrate such as saw dust. Filler such as sand is added to improve the
drainage and increase the airspaces in the waste.
Nutrients and water are added as appropriate during the degradation

period to ensure growth of the bacteria culture is maximised. The
mixture is turned frequently, either by hand or machine, to ensure a
plentiful supply of air (oxygen) is available to the bacteria.
Over time the bacteria population will digest the oil. Samples of the
cuttings are taken frequently to monitor the degradation rate of the
base oil. When the residual oil level meets the customer specification
the site can be closed and the product either moved to another location
or left in-situ to re-vegetate.
Section 14c
The Six Steps
Section 14c
Application Summary
Cells in use
Section 14c
Watering the cells
Re-vegetation of a completed cell

Section 14c
drill cuttings solidification and

stabilisation
Summary:
Oily drill cuttings from the shale shakers may not be suitable for direct
disposal to land without further treatment. Regulations in some countries
require the “waste” to meet certain criteria such as the leachability of
specified contaminants. Solidification and stabilisation of the drilling
waste is a method whereby the raw cuttings from the shaker / centrifuge
are mixed with additives in order that the treated wastes will meet the
criteria for land disposal.
Solidification typically refers to encapsulating the waste such that the

leachability of contaminants is reduced by minimising the surface area
of the waste exposed to leaching, or by totally encapsulating the
waste with an impervious layer.
Stabilisation refers to chemical techniques that reduce the mobility

of contaminants by changing their form into less soluble, mobile
or toxic forms.
There are concerns that the long term stability of these waste is not yet
understood and as such this technique is now limited in its application
around the world to just a few countries.

ƒ Features
ƒ Available in semi-automatic (backhoe mixing) and fully automatic
(mixer and silos) configuration
ƒ Easy to operate and maintain
ƒ High throughputs
ƒ Low manpower requirement
ƒ Benefits
ƒ Relatively inexpensive
ƒ Formulation can be tailored to meet the legislative requirement
ƒ Additives are benign
ƒ Reduces the availability of most heavy metals to the environment
Section 14c
NADF Drill cuttings are typically mixed with cement or lime and at least
one more additive such as sodium silicate or organophilic clay. The
mixing is completed either by the use of a backhoe or through more
automated equipment such as a ploughshare mixer and associated
silos for the cement and additives. In most cases some water will also
be added to ensure complete hydration and reaction of the cement or
lime.
The final product will normally be required to meet a specification that

covers the leachability of specific contaminants and in some cases a
number of physical properties. The leachability requirements typically
cover heavy metals and hydrocarbons whilst the physical tests cover the
final strength of the product.
The Louisiana State-wide Order 29-B provides a useful reference for
these requirements and can often be quoted as a standard in the absence
of local regulations.
Picture Gallery:
Ploughshare Mixer and Feed System

Section 14c
Disposal Pit Excavation

Section 14c
Burial of Stabilised Drill Cuttings

Section 14 - Solids Control and Drilling Waste Management PDF

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Section 14 - Solids Control and Drilling Waste Management PDF

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

drilling waste dwm

With increasing legislation, public awareness and minimum operator

The treatment processes utilised on the waste generated vary from c

Reuse – solids control equipment is key to the reuse strategy. Solids

Other specialist equipment is used to further improve the recovery of

Recover – high temperature thermal treatment of drill cuttings will

The Drilling Waste Management product line is designed to help

Solids control equipment on a drilling operation should be operated like

Under typical drilling conditions, low-gravity solids should normally be

sources and sizes of solids

Most formation solids can be removed by mechanical means at the

Material Diameter Screen Diameter

The following table details the common particle size classiﬁcation:

API Class Size Range Common Screen

impact of drill solids

• Less Water Requirements

The consequences of poor solids control:

drill solids removal

Therefore, as mud becomes more expensive, dilution becomes a less

gravity settling method

mechanical solids removal equipment

Solids Control Equipment Particle Sizes Removed

Table 4 - Summary table of solids particle size versus mechanical

Circular/elliptical motion shaker. This shaker uses elliptical rollers to

Linear motion shaker. This shaker uses a straightforward and back

Centrifugal Separating Devices

They include all hydroclones, Desanders, Desilters etc, and centrifuges.

solids control equipment

In unweighted muds, the shale shaker’s main role is to remove as much

Enough shakers should be installed to process the entire circulating

shakers and screens should be selected to achieve optimum economic

Shaker performance is a function of:

The impact of each is discussed in detail in this chapter. Guidelines for

Balanced Elliptical Motion

Unbalanced Elliptical Motion

Solids Conveyance and Fluid Throughput

Because the counterweights rotate in opposite directions, the net force

Solids Conveyance and Liquid Throughput

One drawback to linear motion shakers is their relatively poor

• All applications where ﬁne screening is required.

The vertical component of acceleration has the most effect on shaker

G’s = stroke (in.) x RPM2

An acceleration of one “G” is the standard acceleration due to gravity

Many manufacturers report the acceleration of linear motion shakers

The effect of vibrator frequency and stroke length on shaker processing

The main disadvantage to lower frequency shale shakers is that the

The two types of screen panels are commonly labelled as “pretensioned”

hookstrip screen panels

Fine Middle Layer

1. When a new screen is installed, the circulation drilling ﬂuid falls

One common solution to screen blinding is to change to a ﬁner or

Blinding – the “plastering” of a soft material over and in the mesh,

Lost Circulation Material

Scalping shakers can be used to recover LCM when high concentrations

Cuttings size distribution is sufﬁciently ﬁne to pass through the scalping

• Solids loading rates do not negatively impact the performance of

A “ballpark” estimate of shaker requirements, based on average drilling

For improved screen life with non-pretensioned screens, make sure

Check the bearing lubrication according to manufacturer’s maintenance

FEED NOZZLE VORTEX FINDER

SAND AND SILT, DRIVEN

SAND AND SILT

Mud enters the feed chamber tangentially at a high velocity provided by