Consolidated Written Report

Group 4

Submitted by:

Barro, Jase Carl P.

Dagala, Vince Paolo

Nagal, Erwin L.

Sahidsahid, Jireh Jhay A.

Vido, Jemuel S.

Submitted to:

Engr. Showna Lee Sales

RCE, RMP, ME 1

July 08, 2019

 PAVEMENT

 A pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed materials

above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied
vehicle loads to the sub-grade.
 The pavement structure should be able to provide a surface of acceptable riding
quality, adequate skid resistance, favorable light reflecting characteristics, and low
noise pollution.

An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:

 Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the sub-
grade soil,
 Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it,
 Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles,
 Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed,
 Produce least noise from moving vehicles,
 Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing visibility,
 Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected, and
 Long design life with low maintenance cost.

Types of Pavement Design

 Rigid Pavement Design

 Flexible Pavement Design
Rigid Pavement Design

 Rigid pavement have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load stresses
to a wider area below.
 Compared to flexible pavement, rigid pavements are placed either directly on the
prepared sub-grade or on a single layer of granular or stabilized material. Since
there is only one layer of material between the concrete and the sub-grade, this layer
can be called as base or sub-base course.
 Rigid pavements are normally constructed of Portland cement concrete.

Rigid pavements are usually provided when road stretch is subjected to adverse
conditions:

 Very heavy rainfall

 Poor soil conditions
 Poor drainage
 Extreme climatic conditions
 Combinations of some of these conditions which may lead to development of cracks
in pavements.

Components of Rigid Pavement

 SUBGRADE - made up of native soil that has been compacted to withstand the loads
above it.
 SUBBASE COURSE – This is the layer (or layers) under the base layer.
 BASE COURSE - This is the layer directly below the surface course and generally
consists of aggregates (either stabilized or un-stabilized).
 SURFACE COURSE - The surface course is the layer in contact with traffic loads. It
consists of the PCC slab which is the stiffest layer and provides the majority of
strength.
MATERIALS USED IN RIGID PAVEMENTS:

 Portland Cement
- Portland cement is a basic cement mixture and a
fundamental ingredient for many construction.
- It is also often called “Ordinary Portland Cement” or simply
“OPC.” common cement applications.
- The original Portland cement was made using stones
extracted from Britain’s Portland Isle, the modern use of the
term Portland cement is much more general.

 Course Aggregates

 Fine Aggregates
  Water
- The main water requirement stipulated is that the water used
also should be suitable for drinking.
- The water should be free from salt, acid, oil and other organic
matter

 Reinforcing Steel
-Reinforcing Steel used in concrete pavements to reduce the
amount of cracking that occurs.

 Temperature Steel
-Temperature Steel is provided in the form of a bar mat or wire
mesh consisting of longitudinal and transverse steel wires
welded at regular intervals.

 Dowel Bars
- Dowel bars are mainly used as load transfer mechanism across
joints.
- Dowel bars are short steel bars that provide a mechanical
connection between slabs without restricting horizontal joint
movement.
- They increase load transfer efficiency by allowing the leave slab
to assume some of the load before the load is actually over it.
 Tie Bars
- Are used to tie two sections of the pavement together and therefore they should be
either deformed bars or should contain hooks to facilitate the bonding of the two
sections of the concrete pavement with the bar.

JOINTS IN CONCRETE PAVEMENTS

Expansion Joints
- Expansion joints are provided along the transverse direction to allow movement
(expansion/ contraction) of the concrete slab due to temperature and sub grade
moisture variation.

Contraction Joints
- It is another type of joints which controls the cracks happening due to shrinkages.
- The contraction joints are placed as a groove where the crack may form in concrete.
- If the shrinkage crack is formed in the concrete slab then the contraction joints
prevent spreading on the other area.
Construction Joints
- Construction joints are provided whenever the construction work stops temporarily.
The joint direction could be either along the transverse or longitudinal direction.

TYPES OF RIGID HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS

 Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)

- Uses contraction joints to control cracking and does not use any reinforcing steel
 Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP)
- JRCP designs contain both joints and reinforcement (e.g., welded wire fabric,
deformed steel bars). Joint spacing are longer (typically about 9 to 12 m [30 to 40
ft]), and dowel bars and tie bars are used at all transverse and longitudinal joints,
respectively.

 Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP)

- Continuously reinforced concrete pavement does not require any contraction
joints. Transverse cracks are allowed to form but are held tightly together with
continuous reinforcing steel.
TYPES OF FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENT

Scaling of cement concrete

 Scaling of rigid pavement simply means, peeling off or flaking off of the top layer or
skin of the concrete surface. This may be due to the following reasons:
- Improper mix design
- Excessive vibration during compaction of concrete
- Performing finishing operation while bleed water is on surface

Shrinkage cracks

 It occurs due to change in moisture of concrete.

 They expand when they absorb the moisture and shrink when they dry. This is the
main cause of concrete shrinkage cracks on drying.
Joint spalling

 Joint spalling is the breakdown of the slab near edge of the joint. Normally it occurs
within 0.5 m of the joints. The common reasons for this defect are:
- Faulty alignment of incompressible material below concrete slab
- Insufficient strength of concrete slab near joints
- Freeze-thaw cycle
- Excessive stress at joint due to wheel load

Pumping

 When material present below the road slab ejects out through the joints or cracks.
 When soil slurry comes out it is called mud pumping.
 The common reasons for this defect are:
- When there is void space between slab and the underlying base of sub-grade layer
-Poor joint sealer allowing infiltration of water
-Repeated wheel loading causing erosion of underlying material
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT:
- Flexible pavements are those which on a whole have low or negligible flexural strength
and rather flexible in their structural action under load.
Load transfer:
- Load is transferred to the lower layer by grain to grain distribution as shown in the
figure given below; The wheel load acting on the pavement will be distributed to a
wider area, and the stress decreases with the depth. Flexible pavement layers reflect the
deformation of the lower layers on to the surface layer

TYPICAL LAYERS OF A FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT :

-Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement includes seal coat, surface course,
tack coat, binder course, prime coat, base course, sub-base course, compacted sub-
grade, and natural sub-grade.
 Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water- proof the surface and to
provide skid resistance.
 Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt emulsion diluted with water. And
It provides bonding between two layers of binder course.
 Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent
surface like granular bases on which binder layer is placed and provides bonding
between two layers.
 Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and are
constructed with dense graded asphalt concrete.
 Binder course purpose is to distribute load to the base course. Binder course
requires lesser quality of mix as compared to course above it.
 Base course provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-
surface drainage
 Sub-base course the primary functions are to provide structural support,
improve drainage, and reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade in the
pavement structure.
 Sub-grade - the top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive
the stresses from the layers above
FACTORS AFFECTING PAVEMENT DESIGN
1. Design Wheel Load
- Max. Wheel load
- Axle configuration
- Contact pressure
- ESWL
- Repetition of loads
2. Climatic Factor
3. Pavement component material

Design Wheel Load.

Max. Wheel load - It is used to determine the depth of the pavement required to ensure
that the sub grade soil does not fail.
Contact pressure - It determines the contact area and the contact pressure between the
wheel and the pavement surface. For simplicity elliptical contact area is consider to be
circular.
Axle configuration - the axle configuration is important to know the way in which the
load is applied on the pavement surface.
Repetition of loads - Each load application causes some deformation and the total
deformation is the summation of all these. Although the pavement deformation due to
single axle load is very small, the cumulative effect of number of load repetition is
significant. Therefore, modern design is based on total number of standard axle load
(usually 80 KN single axle)

Climatic Factor
Temperature
- Wide temperature variations may cause damaging effects. Pavement becomes soft in
hot weather and brittle in very cold weather.
Variation in moisture condition
– It depends on type of the pavement, type of soil type, ground water variation etc.
It can be controlled by providing suitable surface and sub- surface drainage.
Failures of flexible pavements:
Different types of failure encountered in flexible pavements are as follow.
1. Alligator cracking or Map cracking (Fatigue)
2. Consolidation of pavement layers (Rutting)
3. Shear failure cracking
4. Longitudinal cracking
5. Frost heaving
6. Lack of binding to the lower course
7. Reflection cracking
8. Formation of waves and corrugation
9. Bleeding
10.Pumping

ALLIGATOR OR MAP CRACKING (FATIGUE CRACKING

Followings are the primary causes of this type of failure.
 Relative movement of pavement layer material
 Repeated application of heavy wheel loads
 Swelling or shrinkage of sub grade or other layers due to moisture variation

CONSOLIDATION OF PAVEMENT LAYERS (RUTTING)

Formation of ruts falls in this type of failure.
- A rut is a depression or groove worn into a road by the travel of wheels.
This type of failure is caused due to following reasons.
•Repeated application of load along the same wheel path resulting longitudinal ruts.
•Wearing of the surface course along the wheel path resulting shallow ruts.

SHEAR FAILURE CRACKING:

- Shear failure causes upheaval of pavement material by forming a fracture or cracking.
Followings are the primary causes of shear failure cracking.
•Excessive wheel loading
•Low shearing resistance of pavement mixture
LONGITUDINAL CRACKING:
This types of cracks extents to the full thickness of pavement.
The following are the primary causes of longitudinal cracking.
 Differential volume changes in sub grade soil
 Settlement of fill materials
 Sliding of side slopes

FROST HEAVING:
Frost heaving causes upheaval of localized portion of a pavement. The extent of frost
heaving depends upon the ground water table and climatic condition.

LACK OF BINDING WITH LOWER LAYER (POTHOLES & SLIPPAGE)

When there is lack of binding between surface course and underlying layer, some
portion of surface course loses up materials creating patches and potholes.
Slippage cracking is one form of this type of failure. Lack of prime coat or tack coat in
between two layers is the primary reason behind this type of failure.

REFLECTION CRACKING:
This type of failure occurs, when bituminous surface course is laid over the existing
cement concrete pavement with some cracks. This crack is reflected in the same pattern
on bituminous surface.

FORMATION OF WAVES &CORRUGATION:

Transverse undulations appear at regular intervals due to the unstable surface course
caused by stop-and- go traffic.

BLEEDING:
Excess bituminous binder occurring on the pavement surface causes bleeding. Bleeding
causes a shiny, glass-like, reflective surface that may be tacky to the touch. Usually
found in the wheel paths.
PUMPING:
Seeping or ejection of water and fines from beneath the pavement through cracks is
called pumping

REPAIRING DEFECTIVE FLEXIBLEPAVEMENTS

Care and good judgment are necessary in applying suitable methods and in selection of
proper materials for maintenance and repairs of bituminous surfaces. Both methods
and materials vary considerably with local conditions, but the principles of
bituminous work remain the same.
1. The first step in making repairs is to determine the cause of the failure.
Repairs must start at the source of the failure.
2. Removing Defective Flexible Pavement
The first step in removing a defective area is to mark out the area you want to
remove. If you are going to use a pavement saw to cut the pavement, make your
marks heavy and easy to use. The marks should be made with a waterproof
material, such as paint or crayon, to prevent it from being washed off by the saw
blade. The shape of the patch is important. If you expect the patch to be strong
enough to support traffic, you must make the marked area square or rectangular
in shape with two faces at right angles to the flow of traffic. By doing this, you will
ensure the patch does not shove or corrugate when traffic flows over the top of
it.
3. Pavement Cutting
After you mark the area you want to remove, you are now ready to make your cuts
along the marks. You can do this by using a pavement saw to make a fast, neat cut or
by using a pneumatic hammer with a 5-inch asphalt cutting bit. When the
pneumatic hammer is used, it leaves the edge

Thickness Determination

In many cases a 4-inch thickness may be adequate, but 5 or even 6 inches of full-
depth asphalt will assure you of a stronger, stable driveway under a wider range of
climate and loads. As an option, some contractors use 6 to 8 inches of compacted
aggregate, or gravel, as a base for 3 inches of asphalt pavement.
Concrete Pavement Thickness.
Typically, a large reduction in lot payment may result if the concrete pavement
thickness is 12.5 mm (0.5 in.) less than specified for as-designed pavement thicknesses
in the range of 250 mm to 300 mm (9.8 in. to 11.8 in.).

Drilled cores

- is the standard method to determine the thickness of the constructed pavement.

Although this method produces accurate thickness measurement the testing procedure
is destructive, time consuming, labor intensive, and costly. Normally only one core is
drilled per sub lot (typically every few hundred feet of pavement). With these few
sampling points, it is hard to establish a statistically robust representation of the
pavement thickness in a constructed lot. In addition, the measurement of the core
length can also be affected by base type, particularly by open-graded permeable base
where concrete can penetrate significantly into the base.

Equipment:

Diamond core drilling

FWD (THE FALLING WEIGHT DEFLECTOMETER)

-The condition or indication of structural strength is expressed in terms of the

Structural Number (SN). An existing method of determining the Structural Number was
used as benchmark with data from a recent detailed pavement investigation. The
benchmark SN determination also makes use of the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP)
method. Previously only limited aspects of the measured deflection bowl were used to
determine SN non-destructively. In this improved procedure additional deflection bowl
parameters were investigated for their possible improvement in the determination of
the SN or PN. The proposed method was therefore benchmarked against existing
methods to determine SN for a pavement to see if it can lead to an improvement in
determining SN values.
ai= ith layer coefficients;

Di = ith layer thicknesses (in inches), and

mi= ith drainage coefficient.

Component Coefficient Minimum

Thickness
Allowed
Surface / Intermediate Course
HMA with Type A Aggregate 0.44 1.5
Base Course
HMA with Type A Aggregate 0.44 2
Cement Treated Granular (Aggregate) Base 0.20* 6
Soil-Cement Base 0.15 6
Crushed (Graded) Stone Base 0.14* 6
Macadam Stone Base 0.12 6
PCC Base (New) 0.50
Old PCC 0.40**
Crack and Seated PCC 0.25 to 0.30
Rubblized PCC 0.24
Cold-in-Place Recycled Asphalt Pavement 0.22 to 0.27
Full Depth Reclamation 0.18
Subbase Course
Soil-Cement Subbase (10% cement) 0.10 6
Soil-Lime Subbase (10% lime) 0.10 6
Modified Subbase 0.14 4
Soil-Aggregate Subbase 0.05* 4

MIT (magnetic imaging topography)

- A technique based on pulse induction technology which uses reflectors inserted into
the pavement during construction. It’s used in both concrete thickness and asphalt
thickness applications. The measuring results arise from an analysis of magnetic fields.
Those so called answering fields are generated from eddy currents, which have been
induced inside aluminum or zinc-plated steel reflectors as a reaction to a pulsed
magnetic field. This measuring method is based on the principle of electro-magnetic
tomography. Crucial innovations are the application of a sensor field and the analysis of
the spatiotemporal answering signal.

The following reflectors are typical:

Asphalt– 7cm diameter Aluminum

Concrete – 30cm diameter Steel

Equipment:

MIT-SCAN-T3

CONCRETE MIX PROPORTIONING

Objective:

• To determine the most economical and practical combination of readily available

materials.
• To produce a concrete that will satisfy the requirements under given conditions
of use.
Factors to be considered:

• Workability
• Strength
• Durability
• Appearance
• Economy
Methods:

• American Method of Mix Design

• Graphic Method of Design
• Mix Design by Standard Indian Method
• American Concrete Institute Method of Mix Design
• Rapid Method of Mix Design
American Method of Mix Design

 method is based on the fact that for a given maximum size of aggregate the water
content in kilogram per cubic meter of concrete determines the workability of
concrete mix, usually independent of the mix proportions
Graphic Method of Design

• developed by Road Research Laboratory, London

 • the aggregates to be mixed together are served and their percentage passing
through standard sieves for fine aggregate serve 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm.
600 micron, 300 micron and 150 micron are used
• for coarse aggregate maximum size allowed, say 38 mm, 19 mm, 9.5 mm 4.75
mm, 2.36 mm sieves are used
Mix Design by Standard Indian Method

• based on the experimental work carried out in the national laboratories

• the mix design procedure is given in IS-10262- 1982
• hence IS 10262-1982 needs revision as the strength of cement available in the
country has improved significantly
American Concrete Institute Method of Mix Design:

• ACI committee published its method of mix design in 1944

• almost all Indian multipurpose concrete dams have been designed
• the latest method of concrete mix design is based on ACI 211-1 of 1991
Rapid Method of Mix Design

• the cement Research Institute of India (CRI) has developed this method
• compressive strengths of cement and concrete are obtained by using accelerated
curing method as discussed in IS 9013-1978
• this method reduces the period for finding the strength of trial mixes from 28
days to 3 days only
The typical composition of such as reference concrete mix per cubic meter of
concrete is as follows:

• Cement = 570 kg
• Fine aggregate = 400 kg
• Coarse aggregate = 1178 kg
• Water = 200 kg
• or Cement : F.A. : C.A
• 1 : 0.7 : 2.07
• Water/cement ratio = 0.35
The accelerated curing method as per IS 9013-1978:

Boiling Water Method:

 • Specimens are cured at 27 ± 2°C for 23 ± 1/4 hours under standard moist
conditions.
• At the end of this period the specimens are cured in boiling water (100°C) for
3½ hours ± 5 minutes.
• Specimens are cooled to a normal temperature of 27 ± 2°C in two hours before
testing.

Warm Water Methods:

• 1½ to 3½ hours after casting, the specimens are immersed in water at a

temperature of (55 ± 1°C) and cured for 20 hours ± 10 min.
• The specimen are de-molded and cooled at 27 ± 2°C for one hour before testing.

American Concrete Institute Method of Mix Design:

Though ACI committee published its method of mix design in 1944 and almost all Indian
multipurpose concrete dams have been designed using then prevalent ACI committee
method of mix design. Since then many improvements have been incorporated in the
original method. Here the latest method of concrete mix design based on ACI 211-1 of
1991 manual of concrete practice part-I recommendations is discussed.

Procedure of Mix Design:

For the design of the mix, following data is required data to be collected:
(a) Fineness modulus of selected fine aggregate.

(b) Unit weighs of dry selected fine aggregate.

(c) Specific gravity of coarse and fine aggregate in saturated, surface dry conditions.

(d) Absorption of coarse and fine aggregates.

(e) Specific gravity of cement.

 1. Choice of slump

If slump is not specified, a value appropriate for the work can be selected from
Table 20.42
  2. Choice of maximum size of aggregate

Commonly, maximum aggregate size should be the largest that is economically available
and consistent with dimensions of structural element. ACI 211.1-91 specify that,
maximum aggregate size shall not surpass:

o One-fifth of the narrowest dimension between sides of forms.

o one-third the depth of slabs

o 3/4-ths of the minimum clear spacing between individual reinforcing bars, bundles of
bars, or pre-tensioning strands.

 3. Estimation of mixing water and air content

The quantity of water per unit volume of concrete required to produce a given slump is
dependent on:

o nominal maximum size

o particle shape

o grading of the aggregates

o concrete temperature

o amount of entrained air

o use of chemical admixtures.

  4. Selection of water-cement or water-cementitious material ratio

Strength, durability, and determine water to cement ratio: Without strength vs. w/c
ratio data for a certain material, a conservative estimate can be made for the accepted
28-day compressive strength from Table 20.40

Additionally, if there are severe exposure conditions, such as freezing and thawing,
exposure to seawater, or sulfates, the w/c ratio can be obtained from table 20.41.
  5. Calculation of cement content

The amount of cement is fixed by the determinations made in Steps 3 and 4 above.
Weight of cement = weight of water/water to cement ratio

 6. Estimation of coarse aggregate content

The most economical concrete will have as much as possible space occupied by coarse
aggregate since it will require no cement in the space filled by coarse aggregate.

The percent of coarse aggregate to concrete for a given maximum size and fineness
modulus is given by Table 6. Coarse aggregate volumes are based on oven-dry rodded
weights obtained in accordance with ASTM C 29.
  7. Estimation of fine aggregate content

At the completion of Step 6, all ingredients of the concrete have been estimated except
the fine aggregate.

There are two standard methods to establish the fine aggregate content, the mass
method and the volume method. the “volume” method will be used because it is a
somewhat more exact procedure.

The volume of fine aggregates is found by subtracting the volume of cement, water, air,
and coarse aggregate from the total concrete volume.

Then once the volumes known the weights of each ingredient can be calculated from the
specific gravities.

The volume occupied in concrete by any ingredient is equal to its weight divided by the
density of that material (the latter being the product of the unit weight of water and the
specific gravity of the material).

 8. Adjustments for aggregate moisture

Aggregate weights
Aggregate volumes are computed based on oven dry unit weights, but aggregate is
typically batched based on actual weight.

Therefore, any moisture in the aggregate will increase its weight and stockpiled
aggregates almost always contain some moisture. Without correcting for this, the
batched aggregate volumes will be incorrect.

Amount of mixing water

If the batched aggregate is anything but saturated surface dry it will absorb water (if
oven dry or air dry) or give up water (if wet) to the cement paste.
This causes a net change in the amount of water available in the mix and must be
compensated for by adjusting the amount of mixing water added.
  9. Trial Batch Adjustments

The ACI method is written on the basis that a trial batch of concrete will be prepared in
the laboratory, and adjusted to give the desired slump, freedom from segregation, finish
ability, unit weight, air content and strength