BIO 38

HUMAN BIOLOGY

Three (3) Common Disorders of any Organ

System

Guide R. Dadang
BM-Piano IV

Prof. Michael Lawton Alcala

 OVARIAN CANCER

Ovarian cancer is a type of cancer that begins in the ovaries. The female reproductive system
contains two ovaries, one on each side of the uterus. The ovaries — each about the size of an
almond — produce eggs (ova) as well as the hormones estrogen and progesterone.
Ovarian cancer often goes undetected until it has spread within the pelvis and abdomen. At this late
stage, ovarian cancer is more difficult to treat. Early-stage ovarian cancer, in which the disease is
confined to the ovary, is more likely to be treated successfully.
Surgery and chemotherapy are generally used to treat ovarian cancer.
Symptoms
Early-stage ovarian cancer rarely causes any symptoms. Advanced-stage ovarian cancer may cause
few and nonspecific symptoms that are often mistaken for more common benign conditions.
Signs and symptoms of ovarian cancer may include:
• Abdominal bloating or swelling
• Quickly feeling full when eating
• Weight loss
• Discomfort in the pelvis area
• Changes in bowel habits, such as constipation
• A frequent need to urinate
Causes
It's not clear what causes ovarian cancer, though doctors have identified factors that can increase the
risk of the disease.
In general, cancer begins when a cell develops errors (mutations) in its DNA. The mutations tell the
cell to grow and multiply quickly, creating a mass (tumor) of abnormal cells. The abnormal cells
continue living when healthy cells would die. They can invade nearby tissues and break off from an
initial tumor to spread elsewhere in the body (metastasize).
Types of ovarian cancer
The type of cell where the cancer begins determines the type of ovarian cancer you have. Ovarian
cancer types include:
• Epithelial tumors, which begin in the thin layer of tissue that covers the outside of the
ovaries. About 90 percent of ovarian cancers are epithelial tumors.
• Stromal tumors, which begin in the ovarian tissue that contains hormone-producing cells.
These tumors are usually diagnosed at an earlier stage than other ovarian tumors. About 7
percent of ovarian tumors are stromal.
• Germ cell tumors, which begin in the egg-producing cells. These rare ovarian cancers tend to
occur in younger women.
Risk factors
Factors that can increase your risk of ovarian cancer include:
• Older age. Ovarian cancer can occur at any age but is most common in women ages 50 to 60
years.
• Inherited gene mutations. A small percentage of ovarian cancers are caused by gene
mutations you inherit from your parents. The genes known to increase the risk of ovarian
cancer are called breast cancer gene 1 (BRCA1) and breast cancer gene 2 (BRCA2). These
genes also increase the risk of breast cancer.
Other gene mutations, including those associated with Lynch syndrome, are known to increase the
risk of ovarian cancer.
• Family history of ovarian cancer. People with two or more close relatives with ovarian
cancer have an increased risk of the disease.
• Estrogen hormone replacement therapy, especially with long-term use and in large doses.
• Age when menstruation started and ended. Beginning menstruation at an early age or
starting menopause at a later age, or both, may increase the risk of ovarian cancer.
Prevention
There's no sure way to prevent ovarian cancer. But there may be ways to reduce your risk:
• Consider taking birth control pills. Ask your doctor whether birth control pills may be right
for you. Women who use oral contraceptives may have a reduced risk of ovarian cancer. But
oral contraceptives do have risks, so discuss whether the benefits outweigh those risks based
on your situation.
• Discuss your risk factors with your doctor. If you have a family history of breast and ovarian
cancers, bring this up with your doctor. Your doctor can determine what this may mean for
your own risk of cancer. In some cases, your doctor may refer you to a genetic counselor
who can help you decide whether genetic testing may be right for you. If you're found to
have a gene mutation that increases your risk of ovarian cancer, you may consider surgery to
remove your ovaries to prevent cancer
 OSTEOPOROSIS

Osteoporosis is a condition that weakens bones, making them fragile and more likely to break. It
develops slowly over several years and is often only diagnosed when a minor fall or sudden impact
causes a bone fracture.
The most common injuries in people with osteoporosis are:
• wrist fractures
• hip fractures
• fractures of the spinal bones (vertebrae)
However, they can also occur in other bones, such as in the arm or pelvis. Sometimes a cough or
sneeze can cause a rib fracture or the partial collapse of one of the bones of the spine.
Osteoporosis isn't usually painful until a fracture occurs, but spinal fractures are a common cause
of long-term (chronic) pain.
Although a fracture is the first sign of osteoporosis, some older people develop the characteristic
stooped (bent forward) posture. It happens when the bones in the spine have fractured, making it
difficult to support the weight of the body.
Who's affected?
Osteoporosis affects over 3 million people in the UK.
More than 500,000 people receive hospital treatment for fragility fractures (fractures that occur from
standing height or less) every year as a result of osteoporosis.

Causes of osteoporosis
Losing bone is a normal part of the ageing process, but some people lose bone density much faster
than normal. This can lead to osteoporosis and an increased risk of fractures.
Women also lose bone rapidly in the first few years after
the menopause (when monthly periods stop and the ovaries stop producing an egg). Women are
more at risk of osteoporosis than men, particularly if the menopause begins early (before the age of
45).
Many other factors can also increase the risk of developing osteoporosis, including:
• long-term use of high-dose oral corticosteroids
• other medical conditions – such as inflammatory conditions, hormone-related conditions, or
malabsorption problems
 • a family history of osteoporosis – particularly history of a hip fracture in a parent
• long-term use of certain medications which can affect bone strength or hormone levels
• having a low body mass index (BMI)
• heavy drinking and smoking

Treating osteoporosis
Treatment for osteoporosis is based on treating and preventing fractures, and using medication to
strengthen bones.
The decision about whether you need treatment depends on your risk of fracture. This will be based
on a number of factors such as your age, sex and the results of your DEXA scan.
If you need treatment, your doctor can suggest the safest and most effective treatment plan for you.

Preventing osteoporosis
If you're at risk of developing osteoporosis, you should take steps to help keep your bones healthy.
This may include:
• taking regular exercise
 • healthy eating – including foods rich in calcium and vitamin D
• taking a daily supplement containing 10 micrograms of vitamin D
• making lifestyle changes – such as giving up smoking and reducing
your alcohol consumption

Living with osteoporosis

If you're diagnosed with osteoporosis, there are steps you can take to reduce your chances of a fall,
such as removing hazards from your home and having regular sight tests and hearing tests.
To help you recover from a fracture, you can try using:
• hot and cold treatments such as warm baths and cold packs
• transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) – where a small battery-operated device
is used to stimulate the nerves and reduce pain
• relaxation techniques
Speak to your GP or nurse if you're worried about living with a long-term condition. They may be
able to answer any questions you have.
You may also find it helpful to talk to a trained counsellor or psychologist, or other people with the
condition.
At-risk groups
Osteoporosis often affects women, particularly after the menopause(when monthly periods stop).
However, it can also sometimes affect men, younger women and children.
Other groups who are at risk of developing osteoporosis include:
• people who have been taking steroid medication for more than 3 months
• women who have had their ovaries removed
• people with a family history of osteoporosis
• people with an eating disorder, such as anorexia or bulimia
• people who don't exercise regularly
• people who smoke or drink heavily

TUBERCULOSIS
Tuberculosis (TB) is an airborne bacterial infection caused by the organism Mycobacterium
tuberculosis that primarily affects the lungs, although other organs and tissues may be involved.
Key Points
• It is not easy to become infected with tuberculosis.
• Most infected people have latent TB, meaning they have the tuberculosis germs in their
bodies, but their immune system protects them from becoming sick and they are not
contagious.
• TB can almost always be treated and cured if you take medicine as directed.
• There are forms of TB that are drug resistant.

What Is TB?
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease that usually attacks the lungs, but can attack almost any
part of the body. Tuberculosis is spread from person to person through the air. When a person with
TB in their lungs or throat coughs, laughs, sneezes, sings, or even talks, the germs that cause TB may
spread through the air. If another person breathes in these germs there is a chance that they will
become infected with tuberculosis.
It is important to understand that there is a difference between being infected with TB (latent TB)
and having active TB disease. Someone who is infected with TB has the TB germs, or bacteria, in
their body. The body's immune system is protecting them from the germs and they are not sick. This
is referred to as latent TB.
Someone with TB disease is sick and can spread the disease to other people. A person with TB
disease needs to see a doctor as soon as possible. This is referred to as active TB.
There are also forms of TB that are drug-resistant, or even worse—multi-drug resistant. This means
that some of the drugs used to treat the infection are not effective against the resistant TB germs in
the body.
How Does Someone Become Infected with TB?
It is not easy to become infected with tuberculosis. Usually, a person has to be close to someone
with TB disease for a long period of time. TB is usually spread between family members, close
friends, and people who work or live together. TB is spread most easily in closed spaces over a long
period of time.

How TB Affects Your Body

People with weakened immune systems (those with HIV/AIDS, those receiving chemotherapy, or
children under 5 years old, for example) are at a greater risk for developing TB disease. When they
breathe in TB bacteria, the bacteria settle in their lungs and start growing because their immune
systems cannot fight the bacteria. In these people, TB disease may develop within days or weeks
after the infection.
In other people who are healthy at the time of they are infected with latent TB, active TB disease
may not develop until months or years later, at a time when the immune system becomes weak for
other reasons and they are no longer able to fight the germs (Mycobacteria).
When a person gets active TB disease, it means TB bacteria are multiplying and attacking the lung(s)
or other parts of the body, such as the lymph nodes, bones, kidney, brain, spine, and even the skin.
From the lungs, TB bacteria move through the blood or lymphatic system to different parts of the
body. Symptoms of active disease include cough, loss of weight and appetite, fever, chills and night
sweats as well as symptoms related to the function of a specific organ or system that is affected; for
example, coughing up blood or sputum in TB of the lungs, or bone pain if the bacteria have invaded
the bones.

How Serious Is TB?

In some people, TB can cause cough, chest pain and bloody mucus. If it is not treated properly, TB
can progress and even be fatal.
Despite popular misconceptions that tuberculosis (TB) is a disease of the past, it continues to pose a
significant threat to global public health.
About 1.4 billion people, or one-quarter of the world's population, are infected with tuberculosis.
Most infected people have latent TB, meaning they have the tuberculosis germs in their bodies, but
their immune systems protect them from becoming sick. However, about 10 million people have
active TB disease, worldwide. In the United States, TB is much less common, however, it continues
to cause disproportionate illness in certain populations.
What Are the Symptoms of TB?
A person with TB infection will have no symptoms. A person with active TB disease may have any
or all of the following symptoms:
• A persistent cough
• Constant fatigue
• Weight loss
• Loss of appetite
• Fever
• Coughing up blood
• Night sweats
These symptoms can also occur with other diseases so it is important to see a healthcare provider
and to let them find out if you have TB. A person with TB disease may feel perfectly healthy or may
only have a cough from time to time. If you think you have been exposed to TB, get a TB test.
Preventing Tuberculosis
If you have become infected with TB, but do not have active TB disease, you may get preventive
therapy. This treatment kills germs that are not doing any damage right now but could so do in the
future. The most common preventive therapy is a daily dose of the medicine isoniazid (INH) for 6
to 9 months.
If you take your medicine as instructed by your healthcare provider, it can keep you from developing
active TB disease.
There is a vaccine against TB called BCG, or bacillus Calmette-Guerin. It is used in many foreign
countries where TB is more common. However, it is not used very often in the United States
because the chances of being infected with TB in the U.S. is low. It can also make TB skin tests less
accurate. Recent evidence has shown that BCG is effective at reducing the incidence of TB in
children by about half in populations with a high prevalence of active TB but is much less effective
in adults.