EE2022 Electrical Energy Systems

Lecture 17: Per Unit Analysis – Single Phase

16-10-2012

Panida Jirutitijaroen
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

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 Detailed Syllabus
30/08/2012 Three-phase power systems: Introduction to three-phase circuit. Balanced three-phase systems.
04/09/2012 Three-phase power systems: Delta-Wye connection. Relationship between phase and line quantities.
06/09/2012 Three-phase power systems: Per-phase analysis. Three-phase power calculation. Examples.
11/09/2012 Generation: Simple generator concept.
13/09/2012 Generation: Equivalent circuit of synchronous generators. Operating consideration of synchronous
generators, i.e. excitation voltage control, real power control, and loading capability. Examples
18/09/2012 Generation: Principle of asynchronous generators.
20/09/2012 Transmission: Overhead VS Underground cable.
02/10/2012 Transmission: Four basic parameters of transmission line
04/10/2012 Transmission: Long transmission line model, Medium-length transmission line model, Short
transmission line model. Operating consideration of transmission lines i.e. voltage regulation, line
loadability, efficiency. Examples.
09/10/2012 Distribution: Principle of transformers. Ideal transformers.
11/10/2012 Distribution: Practical transformers. Transformer parameters. Examples
16/10/2012 Per Unit analysis: Single-phase per unit analysis.
18/10/2012 Per Unit analysis: Three-phase transformer. Three-phase per unit analysis. Examples.
29/10/2012 Invited Lecture on “Energy Market Operation” by Mr. Eugene Toh, EMA 5-6pm at LT 6
30/10/2012 2nd Midterm Test, LT6, 11AM-12PM
Generators, transmission lines, and transformers (Tutorials 4-6)

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 Electrical Energy Systems: a single line diagram

REVIEW

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 Electrical Energy Systems

Step-up Transformer Step-up Transformer

G1 G2
Transmission Line Transmission Line

Step-down Transformer

Load

A Single-line diagram
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 Learning outcomes
Outline
Reference

IN THIS LECTURE

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 Learning Outcomes
• Apply the concepts of per-phase analysis and
per-unit analysis to solve three-phase
balanced circuit problems in power
engineering.

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 Outline
• Single-phase per unit analysis

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 References
• Glover, Sarma, and Overbye, “Power System Analysis and
Design”.
– Chapter 3

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 Per Unit Quantity
Base Value
Change of Base
Steps of Calculation

SINGLE PHASE PER UNIT ANALYSIS

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 Motivations
• Transformer introduces various voltage levels.
• So far we can only reflect the load from one side of the
transformer to another. Still we need to use turns ratio to
find voltage and current at each side of the transformer.
• It is difficult to calculate voltage and current of the system
at various points.
• It is even more difficult for system operators to observe
the current situation of the system.
30 kV – good or bad?
30 kV – good or bad?

15kV:150kV 150kV:30kV 30kV:300 V 300V:150 V

Generation Transmission Distribution Load
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 Per Unit System
• Per unit system is when we normalize the voltage and
current at each location.
• The normalization typically follows transformer ratings.
• This usually makes the per unit value of both voltage
and current to be around 1.0 per unit.
• Per unit system allows system operators to overlook
abnormalities in the system easily.
30 kV = 0.2 per unit 30 kV = 1.0 per unit

15kV:150kV 150kV:30kV 30kV:300 V 300V:150 V

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 Per Unit Quantity
• The per unit quantity of voltage, current, power and
impedance is found from dividing the actual quantity
by a base value of that quantity.
actual quantity
per  unit quantity 
base value of quantity
• Per unit value is denoted by ‘p.u.’.
• All base values are real numbers, denoted by subscript
‘B’.
• The base value is used only to normalize the quantity.

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 Base Value for Voltage
• Transformers separate overall circuit to
different zones with different voltage levels.
• We typically set the base value quantity for
voltage following transformers’ voltage ratio.
• Note that the per unit values of the voltage at
both sides of a transformer are the same .
Why?

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 Example 1
• Consider the following electrical energy system.
– How many zones (with different voltage level) does
the system has?
– Find the base value of the voltage at each zone.

15kV:150kV 150kV:30kV 30kV:300 V 300V:150 V

Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 5
15kV 150kV 30kV 300V 150V

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 Example 2
• Consider a single phase 480/120 V transformer.
– Choose the base value of voltage on the primary side to be
480 and that of the secondary side to be 120.
– If the voltage at primary is measured to be 432 V, which is
0.9 per unit, the voltage at secondary side is 108 V.
– What is the per unit quantity on the secondary side?
480:120

108
per  unit quantity   0.9
120

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 Example 3
• Consider the following electrical energy
system.
– Find the base value of the voltage at each zone.

15kV:150kV 150kV:30kV 30kV:300 V 320V:150 V Zone 5

150
Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4   300
320
15kV 150kV 30kV 300V
 140.625 V

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 Base Value for Complex Power
• First, choose voltage base values following
transformer voltage ratings.
1
• Select only single base complex power SB in
the system.
• The base value of power is used to normalize the
quantity. Thus, the base values of real power,
reactive power, and complex power are all the
same real number.
1 1 1
P B Q B S B

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Base Value for Current and Impedance
• Current base values are calculated from the
base power and base voltage.
S B1
IB 
VB
• Impedance base values (same value for
impedance, resistance, or reactance) are
calculated from voltage and current.
VB VB 
2
ZB   1 RB  X B  Z B
IB SB
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 KVL, KCL, Complex Power Calculation
• We can still apply KVL, KCL, complex power
calculation to the per unit value.
• The actual quantity is simply found from
multiplying the per unit quantity (normalized
quantity) with the base value.
S B  VB I B Sp.u.  Vp.u. I p.u.
*

VB  Z B I B
Vp.u.  Z p.u. I p.u.
Think of Base value
as ‘Normalization’.
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 Example 4: Per Unit Value
• A single-phase 20kVA, 480/120 V, 60 Hz transformer has an
equivalent leakage impedance referred to 120-volt winding of
Zeq2  0.052578.13 Ω. Using the transformer rating as base
values, find per-unit leakage impedance.

S B  20 kVA
VB1  480 V Zeq2 VB 2  120 V

Z B1 
V B1
2

 11.52  Z B2 
V 
B2
2

 0.72 
1 1
SB
S B

Z eq2 0.052578.13
Z p.u.  
ZB2 0.72
 0.0729 78.13 p.u.

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 Example 4: Per Unit Circuit
S B  20 kVA
4:1
Zeq2 Z p.u.

VB1  480 V VB 2  120 V Per unit equivalent circuit

Z B1  11.52  ZB2  0.72  Z p.u.  0.072978.13 p.u.

There is no transformer in the per unit equivalent circuit.

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P.U. Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
• Ideal transformer model
i₁ (p.u.) i₂(p.u.)
a:1
+ +
V₁(p.u.) V₂(p.u.)
- -

• Practical transformer model

Zeq a:1
i₁ (p.u.) Zeq (p.u.) i₂(p.u.)
+ +

Y V₁(p.u.) Y (p.u.) V₂(p.u.)

- -

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 Change of Base Value
• Manufacturers usually specify equipment impedances in per
unit values together with voltage ratings (V) and apparent
power rating (VA).
• The impedance base values can be found from the ratings of
the equipment.
• Different equipment has different ratings.
• We may need to calculate per unit values on the new basis.
old old
Z p.u.ZB
Z actual  Z Z old
p.u.
old
B Z new
p.u. Z new
B Z new
p.u. 
Z Bnew
You need to practice this in tutorial problems.
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 Steps of Per Unit Analysis
1
1. Choose SB for the system.
2. Select VB for different zones (usually follows
transformer voltage ratings).
3. Calculate Z B for different zones.
4. Express all quantities in p.u.
5. Draw impedance diagram and solve for p.u.
quantities.
6. Convert back to actual quantities if needed.

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 Example 5: 1Ф, Per Unit Analysis
• Three zones of a single-phase circuit are shown
below. Use base value of 30 kVA and 240 V in zone 1,
draw per unit circuit and find per unit value of source
voltage and all impedances.

Vs  2200 V Zline  j 2  Zload  0.9  j0.2 

T1: 30 kVA T2: 20 kVA
240/480 V 460/115 V
Xeq = 0.1 p.u. Xeq = 0.1 p.u.

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 Example 5: Base Values of Each Zone
T1: 30 kVA
240/480 V
S B  30 kVA T2: 20 kVA
460/115 V
Xeq = 0.1 p.u. Xeq = 0.1 p.u.

 480   115 
VB1  240 V VB 2  240  480 V VB 3   480  120 V
 240   460 
Vs , p.u. 
2200
240 Z B2 
V 
B2
2

 7.68  Z B3 
V 
B3
2

 0.48 
 0.9167 0 V SB SB
j2 0.9  j 0.2
Z line , p.u.   j 0.26042 p.u. Z load , p.u. 
ZB2 ZB2
 1.875  j 0.4167 p.u.

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 Example 5: P.U. Transformer Reactance
S B  30 kVA

VB1  240 V VB 2  480 V VB3  120 V

T1: 30 kVA Z B 2  7.68  T2: 20 kVA Z B 3  0.48 
240/480 V 460/115 V
Xeq = 0.1 p.u. Xeq = 0.1 p.u.

For T1, S base and and V base  1152 

old 0.1 
X Bold
 
are the same as of the circuit. X p.u. 20000 
p.u.   0.1378 p.u.
new
X T2,
In this case, we don’t need to X Bnew 0.48
 460 2 
change the base. The per unit old 0.1 
X Bold
    0.1378 p.u.
X p.u. 20000
value of reactance is the same X new
T2, p.u. 
= 0.1 p.u. X Bnew 7.68

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 Example 5: Per Unit Circuit
ZT1, p.u.  j 0.1 p.u. p.u.  j 0.1378 p.u.
new
ZT2,
Vs, p.u.  0.91670 V Zline , p.u.  j0.26042 p.u.
Zload , p.u.  1.875  j0.4167 p.u.
~
VB1  240 V VB 2  480 V VB3  120 V
30000 30000 30000
I B1   125 A I B2   62.5 A I B2   250 A
240 480 120
0.91670
I p.u.   0.4395  26.01V
j 0.1  j0.26042  j 0.1378  1.875  j 0.4167
We can find current at any part of the circuit by simply multiplying the per
unit value with the base value.
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 Advantages of Per Unit Analysis
• Simplify calculation by
eliminating transformers.
• Helps to spot errors in the
data
– p.u. is more uniform
compare to actual
impedance value of
different sizes of
equipments.
• Helps to detect
abnormality in the system
– Operator at control center
can spot over/under
voltage/current rating
easily.
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 Inside nationalgrid, UK
Source:
http://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=vX0G9F42puY&feature=rel
ated
March 2012.

“The National Grid is a high-

voltage electric power
transmission network,
connecting power stations and
340+ substations ensuring
supply and demand is in the
balance. Nigel Williams speaks
to Robert Llewellyn about how
the National Grid works in
Great Britain, and what
challenges it faces with the
rapidly changing world.

Fully Charged is an online show

hosted by Robert Llewellyn
(Red Dwarf, Scrapheap
Challenge, Carpool), sponsored
by British Gas: Looking After
Your World.”

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 Summary
• Per unit system helps to eliminate transformers in the
circuit analysis.
• Per unit value is found by normalize the actual value by
base value.
• We can divide circuits into zones according to
transformer voltage ratings.
• Choose only single base power. Voltage, current, and
impedance base value is calculated for each zone.
• Actual value is found from multiplying the per unit
value to its corresponding base value in its zone.

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 Next Lecture
• Three-phase transformers
• Three-phase per unit analysis

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