ABSTRACT

This project address about the power quality issues present in the
conventional systems, which can be overcome by Solar Photovoltaic System
using with MPPT. This experimental setup can be used in areas where there is
no grid connection (Forest and mountain peaks). This type of green energy
safeguards environmental pollution which is left as an asset to the future
generation. Photovoltaic system increases the efficiency of the system, the
MPPT mitigates the harmonics present in the inverter circuit and the MPPT is
used to track the maximum solar power intensity to enhance the generation
MPPT is a mechanical tracking system that “physically moves” the modules to
make them point more directly at the sun. MPPT is a fully electronic system
that varies the electrical operating point of the modules so that the modules are
able to deliver maximum available power. During charging period, the MPPT
function is retained to achieve high charging efficiency. Overcharging of the
battery can be avoided using the pulse-charging scheme with adaptive rest
period. The main difference between the method used in the MPPT system and
other techniques used in the past is that the PV array output power is used to
directly control the DC to DC converter, thus reducing the complexity of the
system. Maximum Power Point Tracking features an indirect connection
between the PV array and the battery bank.

1
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

In the present world of increasing demand for energy resources, it is

crucial to come up with innovatory ideas to reduce and conserve usage of
energy. The word Photovoltaic is a combination of the Greek word for Light
and the name of the physicist Volta. It identifies the direct conversion of
sunlight into energy by means of solar cells .Though the utilization of solar
energy is little at present, it is going to double in upcoming days, even though it
today this type of energy is not widely used as other available resources like
thermal, wind, or hydroelectric. Solar power has many advantages over other
nonrenewable energy sources. It has even advantages over renewable energy
sources like wind and water. However the drawback here is that it produces
energy when there is sun shine. To overcome this problem, photovoltaic panels
are usually coupled with a battery to store energy.The use of alternative sources
such as solar energy is becoming more wide spread.

The use of photovoltaic solar cells (PVSCs) has emerged as an alternative

measure of renewable green power, energy conservation and demand-side
management. Owing to their high initial cost, PVSCs have not yet been fully an
attractive alternative for electricity users who are able to buy cheaper electrical
power from the utility grid. However, they can be used extensively for lighting,
water pumping and air conditioning in remote and isolated areas, where utility
power is not available or is too expensive to transport. In India there are about
300 clear sunny days in a year and solar energy is available in most parts of the
country, including the rural areas. With the growing demand for renewable
sources of energy, manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has
advanced dramatically in recent years.

2
1.2 RENEWABLE ENERGY

Solar energy is one of the most important renewable energy sources that
have been gaining increased attention in recent years. Solar energy is plentiful it
has the greatest availability compared to other energy sources. The amount of
energy supplied to the earth in one day by the sun is sufficient to power the total
energy needs of the earth for one year. Solar energy is clean and free of
emissions, since it does not produce pollutants or by-products harmful to nature.

The conversion of solar energy into electrical energy has many

application fields. Solar to electrical energy conversion can be done in two
ways: solar thermal and solar photovoltaic. Solar thermal is similar to
conventional AC electricity generation by steam turbine excepting that instead
of fossil fuel; heat extracted from concentrated solar ray is used to produce
steam and apart is stored in thermally insulated tanks for using during
intermittency of sunshine or night time. Solar photovoltaic use cells made of
silicon or certain types of semiconductor materials which convert the light
energy absorbed from incident sunshine into DC electricity. To make up for
intermittency and night time storage of the generated electricity into battery is
needed. Recently, research and development of low cost flat-panel solar panels,
thin-film devices, concentrator systems, and many innovative concepts have
increased. In the near future, the costs of small solar-power modular units and
solar-power plants will be economically feasible for large-scale production
and use of solar energy. In this paper we have presented the photovoltaic solar
panel’s operation.The foremost way to increase the efficiency of a solar
panel is to use a Maximum Power point Tracker (MPPT), a power
electronic device that significantly increases the system efficiency. By using it
the system operates at the Maximum Power Point (MPP) and produces its
maximum power output.

3
 1.3POWER QUALITY

Power quality is a term that means different things to different people.

Institute of Mechanical Engineers Standard defines power quality as “the
concept of powering and grounding sensitive electronic equipment in a manner
suitable for the equipment.” As appropriate as this description might seem the
limitation of power quality to “sensitive electronic equipment” might be subject
to disagreement. Electrical equipment susceptible to power quality or more
appropriately to lack of power quality would fall within a seemingly boundless
domain.
All electrical devices are prone to failure or malfunction when exposed to
one or more power quality problems. The electrical device might be an electric
motor, a transformer, a generator, a computer, a printer, communication
equipment, or a household appliance. All of these devices and others react
adversely to power quality issues, depending on the severity of problems. A
simpler and perhaps more concise definition might state “Power quality is a set
of electrical boundaries that allows a piece of equipment to function in its
intended manner without significant loss of performance or life expectancy”.
This definition embraces two things that we demand from an electrical device
performance and life expectancy. Any power-related problem that compromises
either attribute is a power quality concern. In light of this definition of power
quality, this chapter provides an introduction to the more common power
quality terms. Along with definitions of the terms, explanations are included in
parentheses where necessary.This chapter also attempts to explain how power
quality factors interact in an electrical system.

4
1.3.1 POWER QUALITY PROGRESSION
Why is power quality a concern, and when did the concern begin? Since
the discovery of electricity 400 years ago, the generation, distribution, and use
of electricity have steadily evolved. New and innovative means to generate and
use electricity fueled the industrial revolution, and since then scientists,
engineers, and hobbyists have contributed to its continuing evolution. In the
beginning, electrical machines and devices were crude at best but
nonetheless very utilitarian. They consumed large amounts of electricity and
performed quite well. The machines were conservatively designed with cost
concerns only secondary to performance considerations. They were probably
susceptible to whatever power quality anomalies existed at the time but the
effects were not readily discernible, due partly to the robustness of the1
machines and partly to the lack of effective ways to measure power quality.

However, in the last 50 years or so, the industrial age led to the need for
products to be economically competitive, which meant that electrical machines
were becoming smaller and more efficient and were designed without
performance margins. At the same time, other factors were coming into play.
Increased demands for electricity created extensive power generation and
distribution grids. Industries demanded larger and larger shares of the generated
power, which, along with the growing use of electricity in the residential sector,
stretched electricity generation to the limit. Today, electrical utilities are no
longer independently operated entities they are part of a large network of
utilities tied together in a complex grid. The combination of these factors has
created electrical systems requiring power quality.The difficulty in quantifying
power quality concerns is explained by the nature of the interaction between
power quality and susceptible equipment. What is “good” power for one piece
of equipment could be “bad” power for another one.

5
 Two identical devices or pieces of equipment might react differently to
the same power quality parameters due to differences in their manufacturing or
component tolerance.Electrical devices are becoming smaller and more
sensitive to power quality aberrations due to the proliferation of electronics. For
example, an electronic controller about the size of a shoebox can efficiently
control the performance of a 1000-hpmotor while the motor might be somewhat
immune to power quality problems, the controller is not. The net effect is that
we have a motor system that is very sensitive to power quality. Another factor
that makes power quality issues difficult to that in some instances electrical
equipment causes its own power quality problems.Such a problem might not be
apparent at the manufacturing plant; however, once the equipment is installed in
an unfriendly electrical environment the problem could sssurface and
performance suffers.

Given the nature of the electrical operating bound-arise and the need for
electrical equipment to perform satisfactorily in such an environment, it is
increasingly necessary for engineers, technicians, and facilityoperators to
become familiar with power quality issues. It is hoped that this book will help in
this direction.

1.4 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

Frequently referred to as MPPT, is an electronic system that operates the
Photovoltaic (PV) modules in a manner that allows the modules to produce all
the power they are capable of. MPPT is not a mechanical tracking system that
“physically moves”the modules to make them point more directly at the sun.
MPPT is a fully electronic system that varies the electrical operating point of
the modules so that the modules are able to deliver maximum available power.
Additional power harvested from the modules is then made available as
increased battery charge current.

6
 MPPT can be used in conjunction with a mechanical tracking system, but
the two systems are completely different. Maximum power point tracking is a
technique that solar inverters use to get the maximum possible power from the
PV array. Solar cells have a complex relationship between solar irradiation,
temperature and total resistance that produces a non-linear output efficiency
known as the I-V curve. It is the purpose of the MPPT system to sample the
output of the cells and apply a resistance (load) to obtain maximum power for
any given environmental conditions.
Essentially, this defines the current that the inverter should draw from the
PV in order to get the maximum possible power (since power equals voltage
times current).Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) is used in photovoltaic
systems to maximize the photovoltaic array output power, irrespective of the
temperature, irradiation conditions and electrical characteristics of the load.
A new MPPT system is developed, consisting of DC to DC converter,
which is controlled by a microcontroller based unit. There are two charging
stages for the proposed PV charger. At the beginning of the charging
process, a continuous MPPT-charging scheme is adopted. When the State
of Charge (SOC) of battery reaches a given condition, a pulse-current-
charging scheme with an adaptive rest period is applied to obtain an
average charging current with an exponential profile. During the charging
period, the MPPT function is retained to achieve high charging efficiency.
Overcharging of the battery can be avoided using the pulse-charging scheme
with adaptive rest period. The main difference between the method used in the
MPPT system and other techniques used in the past is that the PV array output
power is used to directly control the DC to DC converter, thus reducing the
complexity of the system.

7
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the present world there is a lot of increase in energy demand. It is time
for us to come up with innovative solutions as we are going short of our
available resources. Though the utilization of solar energy is very less compared
to other available resources at present, it is going to double in future. This paper
describes a technique for extracting maximum power from a photovoltaic panel
to charge the battery. We make use of MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking)
for achieving maximum power point. The power from the solar panels is fed to
charge controllers, which is output to a battery where energy is stored. An
inverter is present at the outlet of battery to access stored power. A DC-DC
converter is present inside the charge controller to match the PV module voltage
to battery voltage. It performs this work by taking input voltage and current
from solar panel.

2.2 AREAS OF RESEARCH

Our research area is both Mechanical. Our research set about how to
reduce the power quality and related base paper are given below. This base
paper are take diffracts type of charge controller.

2.2.1 PWM TECHNIQUE FOR THREE PHASE VOLTAGE SOURCE

INVERTER
Inverter is the most important device to utilize the renewable energy
sources efficiently. The Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM) technique
is one of the most popular PWM.

8
 techniques for harmonic reduction of inverters since there are used three
sine waves displaced in 1200.phase difference as reference signals for three
phase inverter. Nowadays the SPWM switching signal is generated with the
help of different FPGAs, microcontrollers and microprocessors. But for these
kind of devices it is necessary the programming or coding. This paper
represents the SPWM technique for harmonic reduction &shows how to
generate SPWM switching signal using different simple Operational-Amplifier
(Op-Amp) circuits/analog circuits for three phase pulse width modulated
(PWM) voltage source inverter (VSI).

2.2.2UNIFIED POWER QUALITY CONDITIONER FOR

ENHANCEMENT OF POWER QUALITY AND HYBRID POWER
GENERATION INJECTION TO GRID
Power quality problems have become more complex at all level of power
system. The power electronic based power conditioning devices can be the
effective solution to improve the quality of power supplied to the distributed
system.UPQC is custom power device, designed to compensate both source
current and load voltage imperfections. In this paper the design of combined
operation of unified power quality conditioner and a hybrid power generation is
proposed. The proposed system is composed of series and shunt inverters, PV
array and WECS connected to DC link which is able to compensate the voltage
sag, swell, harmonics and voltage interruption. The proposed system is able to
inject the active power to grid in addition to its ability in improvement of power
quality in distribution system.

9
2.2.3 POWER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT IN PV GRID CONNECTED
SYSTEM BY USING ACTIVE FILTER

This paper present review a power quality problems a raised by changes

in weather conditions like solar radiations and the variation in the load
connected with the system. These power quality problems like voltage
fluctuation, voltage distortion, and harmonics at the L.T. line are generated by
source and load also at the PCC. In this paper present review of Power quality
problems and mitigation technique on the by using active filters.

2.2.4 POWER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT FOR GRID CONNECTED

PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

This paper proposes a single-phase five-level photovoltaic (PV)

inverter topology for grid-connected PV systems with a novel pulse width-
modulated (PWM) control scheme. Two reference signals identical to each
other with an offset equivalent to the amplitude of the triangular carrier signal
were used to generate PWM signals for the switches. A digital proportional–
integral current control algorithm is implemented to keep the current
injected into the grid sinusoidal and to have high dynamic performance with
rapidly changing atmospheric conditions.

The inverter offers much less total harmonic distortion and

can operate at near-unity power factor. The proposed system is verified through
simulation and the results are compared with the conventional single-phase
three-level grid-connected PWM inverter.

10
 CHAPTER 3

TRADITIONAL METHOD

3.1 EXISTING SYSTEM

To improve the power quality by using PWM converter technique of

harmonics elimination. This paper gives a wide background of power
quality in terms of its issues, definitions, causes and effects. Power quality is
a term used to describe electric power that motivates electrical load and the
loads ability to function properly with that electrical power. The different
configuration PWM technique is used for harmonics reduction & improvement
of fundamental peak voltage. In addition an exhaustive comparison of all
configurations is made in term of FFT &dominating harmonics component. The
PWM technique can be simply extended to allow harmonics minimization&
harmonics Elimination.

3.2 DRAWBACKS

 PV arrays and battery banks must be sized more carefully and may
require more design experience.
 Cannot be used efficiently with 60-cell panels.
 Low charging efficiency.
 It is not work sufficiently in winter month.

3.3 PROPOSED WORK

3.3.1 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

Most multi-stage charge controllers are Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

types. I would recommend using one of at least these designs. The newer
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) controllers are even better. They
match the output of the solar panels to the battery voltage to insure maximum
charge (amps).

11
 For example: even though your solar panel is rated at 100 watts, you
won't get the full 100 watts unless the battery is at optimum voltage. The
Power/Watts is always equal to Volts times Amps or P=E*I. With a regular
charge controller, if your batteries are low at say 12.4 volts, then your 100 watt
solar panel rated at 6 amps at 16.5 volts (6 amps times 16.5 volts = 100 watts)
will only charge at 6 amps times 12.4 volts or just 75 watts. You just lost 25%
of your capacity! The MPPT controller compensates for the lower battery
voltage by delivering closer to 8 amps into the 12.4 volt battery maintaining the
full power of the 100 watt solar panel! 100 watts = 12.4 volts times 8 amps =
100 (P=E*I).

The Charge Controller is installed between the Solar Panel array and the
Batteries where it automatically maintains the charge on the batteries using the
3 stage charge cycle just described. The Power Inverter can also charge the
batteries if it is connected to the AC utility grid or in the case of a standalone
system, your own AC Generator.

3.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF GRID INTEGRATEDPV SYSTEM

Figure 3.1: Block Diagram of MPPT

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3.5CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure 3.2Circuit Diagram of MPPT

3.5.1 ADVANTAGES
 Higher efficiency
 Reduced size and weight
 Simpler structure and control.
 Provide a high voltage gain without extreme switch
 Lower switching stress on the semiconductor Converters,
 Ripple free continuous output and input current

13
 CHAPTER 4

PROPOSED PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

4.1 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

Solar cell is a device which converts photons in Solar rays to direct-
current (DC) and voltage. The associated technology is called Solar
Photovoltaic (SPV). Photovoltaic cells are made of special materials called
semiconductors such as silicon, which is currently used most commonly.
Some materials like silicon “doped” with impurities have the special
properties of generating electric current from light. This is based on physical
properties of the material. When this silicon is applied on a thin wafer like
material, and connected to wires, we see a small current flowing. This thin
wafer material with silicon is called a photo voltaic cell. .A typical silicon PV
cell is a thin wafer consisting of a very thin layer of phosphorous-doped (N-
type) silicon on top of a thicker layer of boron-doped (P-type) silicon. An
electrical field is created near the top surface of the cell where these two
materials are in contact (the P-N junction).

4.2 PV MODULE
The solar energy conversion into electricity takes place in a
semiconductor device that is called a solar cell. A solar cell is a unit that
delivers only a certain amount of electrical power. In order to use solar
electricity for practical devices, which require a particular voltage or current for
their operation, a number of solar cells have to be connected together to form a
solar panel, also called a PV module. For large-scale generation of solar
electricity the solar panels are connected together into a solar array. The solar
panels are only a part of a complete PV solar system. Solar modules are the
heart of the system and are usually called the power generators.

14
 The output of a PV module depends on sunlight intensity and cell
temperature; therefore components that condition the DC (direct current) output
and deliver it to batteries, grid, and/or load are required for a smooth operation
of the PV system. These components are referred to as charge regulators.
For applications requiring AC (alternating current) the DC/AC inverters
are implemented in PV systems. These additional components form that part of
a PV system that is called balance of system (BOS).
Finally, the household appliances, such as radio or TV set, lights and
equipment being powered by the PV solar system are called electrical load. The
elements of a PV system are schematically presented in figure.

4.3 PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT

The term "photovoltaic" comes from the Greek meaning "light", and
from "volt", the unit of electro-motive force. The term "photo-voltaic" has been
in use in English since 1849. A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical
device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by
the photovoltaic effect.
Sunlight is composed of photons, or "packets" of energy. These photons
contain various amounts of energy corresponding to the different wavelengths
of light. When photons strike a solar cell, they may be reflected or absorbed, or
they may pass right through. When a photon is absorbed, the energy of the
photon is transferred to an electron in an atom of the cell (which is actually
a semiconductor). With its newfound energy, the electron is able to escape from
its normal position associated with that atom to become part of the current in an
electrical circuit. By leaving this position, the electron causes a hole to form.
Special electrical properties of the solar cell built-in electric field provide the
voltage needed to drive.

15
 Figure 4.1: Photovoltaic effect

4.4 TYPES OF SOLAR LAYERS

Figure 4.2: Types of Solar Layers

The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes:

 The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs.
 The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.

4.4.1 SOLAR CELLS, PANELS AND ARRAY OF PANELS

Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in series and/or parallel
circuits to produce higher voltages, currents and power levels.

16
 Photovoltaic modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in an
environmentally protective laminate, and are the fundamental building blocks of
PV systems. Photovoltaic panels include one or more PV modules assembled as
a pre-wired, field-installable unit. A photovoltaic array is the complete power-
generating unit, consisting ofany number of PV modules and panels.

Figure 4.3 solar cell

4.4.2 CRYSTALLINE SILICON

The most prevalent material for solar cells is crystalline silicon (c-Si),
also known as "solar grade silicon". Silicon is separated into multiple categories
according to crystal and crystal size in the resulting ingot, ribbon or wafer.
These cells are entirely based around the concept of a p-n junction. Solar cells
made of c-Si are made from wafers between 160 to 240 micro meters thick.

4.4.3MONOCRYSTALLINE SILICON

Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si) solar cells are more efficient and more
expensive than most other types of cells. The corners of the cells look clipped,
like an octagon, because the wafer material is cut from cylindrical ingots. Solar
panels using mono-Si cells display a distinctive pattern of small white
diamonds.
17
4.4.4POLYCRYSTALLINE SILICON

Polycrystalline silicon, or multi crystalline silicon (multi-Si) cells are

made from cast square ingots. Large blocks of molten silicon carefully cooled
and solidified. They consist of small crystals giving the material its
typical metal flake effect. Polysilicon cells are the most common type used in
photovoltaic and are less expensive, yet less efficient than those made from
monocrystalline silicon.

4.4.5 RIBBON SILICON

Ribbon silicon is a type of polycrystalline silicon—it is formed by

drawing flat thin films from molten silicon and results in a polycrystalline
structure. These cells have lower efficiencies and costs than multi-Si due to a
great reduction in silicon waste, as this approach does not
require sawing from ingots.

4.4.6 MONO-LIKE-MULTI SILICON (MLM)

This form was developed in the 2000s and introduced commercially

around 2009. Also called cast-mono, this design uses polycrystalline casting
chambers with small "seeds" of mono material. The result is a bulk mono-like
material that is polycrystalline around the outsides. This production method
results in mono-like cells at poly-like prices.

4.4.7 THIN FILM SOLAR CELL

Thin-film technologies reduce the amount of active material in a cell.

Most designs sandwich active material between two panes of glass. Since
silicon solar panels only use one pane of glass, thin film panels are
approximately twice as heavy as crystalline silicon panels, although they have a
smaller ecological impact (determined from life cycle analysis).

18
 The majority of film panels have 2-3 percentage points lower conversion
efficiencies than crystalline silicon. Cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium
gallium selenoide (CIGS) and amorphous silicon (a-Si) are three thin-film
technologies often used for outdoor applications. CIGS technology laboratory
demonstrations reached 20.4% conversion efficiency as of December 2013. The
lab efficiency of GaAs thin film technology topped 28%.The quantum
efficiency of thin film solar cells is also lower due to reduced number of
collected charge carriers per incident photon. Most recently, CZTS solar cell
emerge as the less-toxic thin film solar cell technology, which achieved ~12%
efficiency.

4.4.8 CADMIUM TELLURIDE PHOTOVOLTAIC

Cadmium telluride is the only thin film material so far to rival crystalline
silicon in cost/watt. However cadmium is a highly toxic and tellurium (anion:
"telluride") supplies are limited. The cadmium present in the cells would be
toxic if released. However, release is impossible during normal operation of the
cells and is unlikely during fires in residential roofs. A square meter of CdTe
contains approximately the same amount of Cd as a single C cell nickel-
cadmium battery, in a more stable and less soluble form.

4.4.9 COPPER INDIUM GALLIUM SELENIDE SOLAR CELL

Copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) is a direct band gap material. It

has the highest efficiency (~20%) among all commercially significant thin film
materials (see CIGS solar cell). s

4.4.10 SILICON THIN FILM

Silicon thin-film cells are mainly deposited by chemical vapor
deposition (typically plasma-enhanced, PE-CVD) from silane gas
and hydrogen gas. Depending on the deposition parameters, this can yield.

19
  Amorphous silicon (a-Si or a-Si:H)
 Proto crystalline silicon or Nano crystalline silicon (nc-Si or nc-Si: H)
also called microcrystalline silicon.

Amorphous silicon is the most well-developed thin film technology to-

date. An amorphous silicon (a-Si) solar cell is made of non-crystalline or
microcrystalline silicon. Amorphous silicon has a higher band gap (1.7 eV) than
crystalline silicon (c-Si) (1.1 eV), which means it absorbs the visible part of the
solar spectrum more strongly than the higher energy infrared portion of the
spectrum. The production of a-Si thin film solar cells uses glass as a substrate
and deposits a very thin layer of silicon by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor
deposition (PECVD).

Proto crystalline silicon with a low volume fraction of Nano crystalline

silicon is optimal for high open circuit voltage. Nc-Si has about the same band
gap as c-Si and nc-Si and a-Si can advantageously be combined in thin layers,
creating a layered cell called a tandem cell. The top cell in a-Si absorbs the
visible light and leaves the infrared part of the spectrum for the bottom cell in
nc-Si.

4.4.11 GALLIUM ARSENIDE THIN FILM

The semiconductor material Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is also used for

single-crystalline thin film solar cells. Although GaAs cells are very expensive,
they hold the world's record in efficiency for a single-junction solar cell at
28.8%.[36] GaAs is more commonly used in multifunction photovoltaic
cells for concentrated photovoltaic (CPV, HCPV) and for solar panels on
spacecraft’s, as the industry favors efficiency.

20
4.5 MATERIALS USED IN PV CELLS

The materials used in PV cells are classified as follows:

4.5.1 SINGLE-CRYSTAL SILICON

Single-crystal silicon cells are the most common in the PV industry. The
main technique for producing single-crystal silicon is the Czochralski (CZ)
method. High-purity polycrystalline is melted in a quartz crucible. A single-
crystal silicon seed is dipped into this molten mass of polycrystalline. As the
seed is pulled slowly from the melt, a single-crystal ingot is formed. The ingots
are then sawed into thin wafers about 200-400 micrometers thick. The thin
wafers are then polished, doped, coated, interconnected and assembled into
modules and arrays.

4.5.2 POLYCRYSTALLINE SILICON

Consisting of small grains of single-crystal silicon, polycrystalline PV
cells are less energy efficient than single-crystalline silicon PV cells. The grain
boundaries in polycrystalline silicon hinder the flow of electrons and reduce the
power output of the cell. A common approach to produce polycrystalline silicon
PV cells is to slice thin wafers from blocks of cast polycrystalline silicon.
Another more advanced approach is the “ribbon growth” method in which
silicon is grown directly as thin ribbons or sheets with the approach thickness
for making PV cells.
4.5.3 GALLIUM ARSENIDE (GAAS)
A compound semiconductor made of two elements: Gallium (Ga) and
Arsenic (As). GaAs has a crystal structure similar to that of silicon. Has high
level of light absorptivity. To absorb the same amount of sunlight, GaAs
requires only a layer of few micrometers thick while crystalline silicon requires
a wafer of about 200-300 micrometers thick. Also, GaAs has much higher
energy conversion efficiency than crystal silicon, reaching about 25 to 30%.

21
4.5.4 CADMIUM TELLURIDE (CDTE)
It is a polycrystalline compound made of cadmium and telluride with a
high light absorbility capacity (i.e. a small thin layer of the compound can
absorb 90% of solar irradiation).The main disadvantage of this compound is that
the instability of PV cell or module performance. As it a toxic substance, the
manufacturing process should be done by extra precaution.
4.5.5 COPPER INDIUM DISELENIDE (CUINSE2)
It is a polycrystalline compound semiconductor made of copper, indium
and selenium. It delivers high energy conversion efficiency without suffering
from outdoor degradation problem. It is one of the most light-absorbent
semiconductors. As it is a complex material and toxic in nature so the
manufacturing process face some problem.
4.6 MEASUREMENT OF SOLAR CELL EFFICIENCY
The most fundamental of solar cell characterization techniques is the
measurement of cell efficiency. Standardized testing allows the comparison of
devices manufactured at different companies and laboratories. The standards for
cell testing are:
 Air mass 1.5 spectrum (AM1.5) for terrestrial cells and Air Mass 0
(AM0) for space cells.
 Intensity of 1000 W/m2
 Cell temperature of 25 °C

22
 Figure 4.4 Sun light simulation
4.7V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLAR CELL
Photovoltaic cells are electronic devices that use P-N junctions to directly
convert sunlight into electrical power. Like the electronics covered in the
section above, the P-N junction in the solar cell has a complex relationship
between voltage and current.
As both the voltage and current is a function of the light falling on the
cell, the relationship between insolation (sunlight) and output power is complex.

Figure4.5 V-I characteristics

23
4.7.1 V-I CURVE
• The voltage at the maximum power point of the cell is the maximum
voltage, VMP.
• The current at the maximum power point of the cell is the maximum
current, IMP
• From the maximum power point, PMAX, draw a line perpendicular to
and meet the voltage axis. The maximum power voltage, VMP is given
by the value on the voltage axis. The maximum power current, VMP is
given by the value on the current axis.

4.8 TYPES OF SOLAR PV SYSTEM AND COMPONENTS

Photovoltaic power systems are generally classified according to their
functional and operational requirements, their component configurations, and
how the equipment is connected to other power sources and electrical loads. The
two principal classifications are grid-connected or utility-interactive systems
and stand-alone systems.
Photovoltaic systems can be designed to provide DC and/or AC power
service, can operate interconnected with or independent of the utility grid, and
can be connected with other energy sources and energy storage systems.
 Off grid solar system.
 Hybrid solar system.
 Grid-tied solar system

4.8.1 OFF GRID SOLAR SYSTEM

A stand-along PV array is usually sized to provide a minimum amount of
energy in order to generate an entire home’s energy requirements. Most grid-
connected systems, on the other hand, normally provide only a portion of the
energy needed by the home.

24
 The Off-Grid or Stand-Alone PV System incorporates large amounts of
battery storage to provide power for a certain number of days (and nights) in a
row when sun is not available. The array of solar panels must be large enough to
power all energy needs at the site and recharge the batteries at the same time.
The components used in an off-grid PV system.
 Solar panels
 Inverter
 Charge controller
 Batteries
 AC breaker panel
 Kilowatt-hour meter
 inverter
 Electrical wiring in your home

Figure4.6 off Grid Solar System

4.8.2 GRID-TIED SOLAR SYSTEM
A grid-connected solar photovoltaic system goes by several other names,
including utility interactive, grid inter-tied, and grid-tie systems (GTS). The
basic set-up of a grid-connected solar PV system involves solar panels that are
linked to the local electric utility grid.
But of course, the connection between the solar array and the utility grid
is a bit more complex than that. In grid tied solar power system synchronization
effect and islanding modes are important characteristics.

25
  Solar panels.
 Inverter.
 DC disconnect.
 AC breaker panel.
 Kilowatt-hour meter.
 Utilitydisconnect.
 Electrical wiring in your home

Figure4.7 Grid-Tied Solar System

4.8.3HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM
A Hybrid Energy System is generally described an energy system with
power storage capabilities or multiple energy generation sources like solar
power or wind power. A hybrid solar PV system combines some of the best
characteristics of an off-grid and a grid-tied system. These systems are
connected to the local utility grid, but also have a battery back-up system. The
battery allows the homeowner to store energy for use during non-producing
hours (at night or during black-outs). These systems are ideal for homes where
the energy grid is unreliable because of inclement weather, an unstable utility
generation system, and so on. This is of particular importance for those who
rely on a constant source of energy for their home or business.

26
 Figure4.8 Hybrid Solar System

4.9 SERIES AND PARALLEL EFFECTS

Components of an electrical circuit or electronic circuit can be connected
in many different ways. The two simplest of these are called
series and parallel and occur very frequently. Components connected in series
are connected along a single path, so the same current flows through all of the
components. Components connected in parallel are connected so the
same voltage is applied to each component.
A circuit composed solely of components connected in series is known
as a series circuit; likewise, one connected completely in parallel is known as
a parallel circuit.In a series circuit, the current through each of the components
is the same, and the voltage across the circuit is the sum of the voltages across
each component.

27
 Figure 4.9: series and parallel effects

4.10 SERIES AND PARALLEL EFFECTS ON SOLAR PV SYSTEM

When wiring solar panels in parallel, the amperage (current) is additive,
but the voltage remains the same. e.g. If you had 4 solar panels in parallel and
each was rated at 12 volts and 5 amps, the entire array would be 12 volts and 20
amps.
When wiring solar panels in a series, the voltage is additive, but the
amperage remains the same. e.g. If you had 4 solar panels in a series and each
was rated at 12 volts and 5 amps, the entire array would be 48 volts and 5 amps.

28
 Figure4.10Series and parallel effects on SPV

4.11 EFFECT OF PARASITIC RESISTANCES

Resistive effects in solar cells reduce the efficiency of the solar cell by
dissipating power in the resistances. The most common parasitic resistances are
series resistance and shunt resistance.
Series resistance in a solar cell is due to
 The movement of current through the p-n materials of the solar cell;
 The contact resistance between the metal contact and the silicon;
 The resistance of the top and rear metal contacts.
The series resistance reduces the fill factor, but has no impact on the open
circuit voltage nor on the short-circuit current.

Figure 4.11 effect of parasitic resistances

29
4.12.1 EFFECT OF RESISTANCE
The effect of a shunt resistance is particularly severe
 At low light levels, since there will be less light-generated current.
 At lower voltages where the effective resistance of the solar cell is
high, the impact of a resistance in parallel is large.
4.12.2 MISMATCH EFFECTS
 Mismatch losses are caused by the interconnection of solar cells or
modules which do not have identical properties or which experience
different conditions from one another.
 Mismatch losses are a serious problem in PV modules and arrays
under some conditions because the output of the entire PV module
under worst case conditions is determined by the solar cell with the
lowest output.

4.12.3 HOT SPOT HEATING

 If the series string is short circuited, then the forward bias across all of
these cells reverse biases the shaded cell.
 Hot-spot heating occurs when a large number of series connected cells
cause a large reverse bias across the shaded cell, leading to large
dissipation of power in the poor cell.
 The enormous power dissipation occurring in a small area results in
local overheating, or "hot-spots", which in turn leads to destructive
effects, such as cell or glass cracking, melting of solder or degradation
of the solar cell.

30
 Figure 4.12 Hot spot heating on cell
4.13 DESIGN CALCULATION FOR SOLAR POWER SYSTEM
A standalone PV systems are designed to full fill all the electrical energy
requirement of a premises, wherein the load can run during day time or night
time. In such systems, a battery bank is used to store the electricity. A PV
system design requires the estimation of load (in terms of daily energy),
estimation of battery in a PV system and estimation of size of PV modules, etc.
 Load estimation
 Panel sizing
 System voltage selection
 Panel arrangements
 Charge controller sizing
 Battery sizing
 Battery arrangements
 Inverter sizing
 Cable sizing
4.14 EFFICIENCY FACTORS TO BE CONSIDER WHILE DESIGNING
THE SYSTEM

• The overall system efficiency from panel output to terminal load

point, which is estimated as 77% to 82%.

31
 • For solar module/panel take output as 90 to 95% of the STC
(Standard Testing Condition) rating
• Inverter consider 95 -98% for transformer- less inverters, and 80 –
85% for inverters with built-in transformers.
• Battery Efficiency due to internal battery losses: 80-85%(battery loss)
• De rating factor for the DOD (allowed Depth of Discharge): 60% -
75% (DOD)
• Charge controller15 - 25% increase in ampere ratings (overload
capacity)
• Cable - consider sizing 115% of the operating current (amperes) in
the circuit
• D.C & AC Circuit breakers- 125% of load current for over load
protection, and up to 250% of short circuit current in the system.
• Also, the circuit breakers to be designed & specified for the maximum
AIC (Ampere Interrupting Capacity) rating equal to the potential
fault current that may flow into the specific circuit section.
4.15 SYSTEM DESIGN OF SOLAR PV SYSTEMS

4.15.1 ACCURATE SIZING

Accurate sizing of the load involves analyzing the various components in
the load list in terms of energy requirements. It includes the current drawn by
each component, Operating voltage range of that component and its expected
duty cycle.

4.15.2 PEAK CURRENT LOADS

For equipment loads that are variable or pulsating, identify "peak" current
levels unless definite patterns or duty cycles are determinable.

32
4.15.3 WORST CASE SCENARIOS
Assessment of worst case scenario is extremely important because any
small increment in load apart from already assessed load can lead to system
unbalance or a cycling down of battery capacity. So, assessing worst case load
scenario is important. Worst case load scenario could be consequent to any load
variations due to seasonal conditions.
4.15.4 PLAN FOR THE FUTURE
The system must be designed focusing on the future needs. The system
must be scalable to cater to the needs of expansion.

4.15.5 COMPATIBILITY ISSUES

The system must be compatible with existing systems to meet the load
requirements. All the loads must be cross checked to ensure their compatibility
of operation throughout the upper and lower voltage ranges of the solar system.

4.15.6 DETERMINE DESIGN MARGINS

Additional design margins to be considered and kept at minimum level to
make the system more cost effective because of the early consideration of worst
case load scenario and possible system expansions.

4.16 SOLAR ARRAY DESIGN

Solar array is one of the major subsystems of any solar power generating
system. Solar array is formed by connecting solar “modules” in series and/or
parallel arrangement. This array produce direct current with respect to the
incident solar radiation.
4.16.1 COLLECTOR SIZE
The required solar collector area depends on the solar insolation level of a
particular region. A region with poor insolation level will need a larger collector
area than one with high insolation levels.

33
4.16.2 SELECTION OF MOST APPROPRIATE MODULE
Solar modules are often rated on the basis of peak watts, and their
electrical characteristics are described on a current-voltage curve popularly
known as I-V curve. However, the most important factor is the module's
behavior under expected operating conditions. One very important concern is
module's charging voltage generation under expected high temperature. It must
be adequate to charge the battery after providing for system losses.

4.16.3 DIRT AND OTHER CONTAMINATING EFFECTS

Dirt and other contaminants (e.g. bird-droppings) on the face of the solar
array can reduce the power output. Site conditions should be assessed to gauge
the problems associated with contaminants. The mitigating solutions like special
mounting considerations, more frequent cleaning could be recommend. If the
tilt angle of the array is less than 30°, build-up of dirt and other contaminants
can be expected.
4.16.4 ORIENTATION AND TILT ISSUES
The specific orientation and tilt of the solar array should be adopted to
optimize system power during the worst-case periods of the year and when the
average solar insolation is lowest and load requirements are highest. It may be
desirable in certain locations to increase the array tilt to aid the clearing of snow
and ice.

4.16.5 DESIGN OF BALANCE OF SYSTEMS (BOS)

Design of Balance of Systems is a very important factor in system design.
Balance of systems include the Charge controller, Battery, Cables etc. Balance
of systems must be designed in such a way that it is neither too small nor too
large.

34
4.16.6 BATTERY DESIGN
Battery selection and sizing is critical to overall system performance and
reliability. The battery serves as an energy buffer, storing excess energy
produced by the solar array during the day and releasing that energy as required
during night and periods of inclement weather, when the array is unable to
support the load. The following are some important factors that need to be
considered in designing a battery bank.Physical and Performance Requirements.
The battery should be capable of handling both the physical and electrical rigors
of the application, while providing the desired life expectancy and reliability.
Key areas to be considered include:
 Cycle life
 Capacity to withstand extended undercharged condition
 Capability to withstand extended overcharging when array output is
not regulated
 Charge efficiency and degree of self-discharge
 Need for equalization
 Performance and life effects of temperature extremes
 Tolerance of abuse
 Maintenance requirements
4.16.7 RESERVE CAPACITY
The capacity of the battery should be sized to override:
 Expected uncertainties in solar insolation.
 Any seasonal periods when the array power is unable to fully match
the load requirements.
Temperature and Ageing deration. Battery performance is not static but
will vary with age and environmental conditions. Battery performance should
be derated to compensate for loss of capacity due to ageing and the reduction in

35
available capacity due to low temperature. These factors will vary with type of
battery.

Figure4.13 Block diagram of PV system

4.17 SUMMARY
Large-scale generation of solar electricity the solar panels are
connected together into a solar array. The solar panels are only a part of a
complete PV solar system. Solar modules are the heart of the system and are
usually called the power generators. One must have also mounting structures to
which PV modules are fixed and directed towards the sun. For PV systems that
have to operate at night or during the period of bad weather the storage of
energy is required, the batteries for electricity storage are needed.

36
 CHAPTER 5

OPTIMIUM APPROACH USING MPPT

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In a (Power-Voltage or current-voltage) curve of a solar panel,
there is an optimum operating point such that the PV delivers the maximum
possible power to the load. This unique point is the maximum power point
(MPP) of solar panel. Because of the photovoltaic nature of solar panels,
their current-voltage, or IV, curves depend on temperature and irradiance
levels. Therefore, the operating current and voltage which maximize power
output will change with environmental conditions. As the optimum point
changes with the natural conditions so it is very important to track the
maximum power point (MPP) for a successful PV system. So in PV
systems a maximum power point tracker (MPPT) is very much needed. In
most PV systems a control algorithm, namely maximum power point tracking
algorithm is utilized to have the full advantage of the PV systems. In this
chapter, we attempt to design a charge controller’s MPPT by presenting
algorithms for different MPPT methods and comparing their advantages and
drawbacks.
5.2 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING
For any given set of operational conditions, cells have a single operating
point where the values of the current (I) and voltage (V) of the cell result in a
maximum power output. These values correspond to a particular load resistance,
R= V/I, as specified by Ohm’s Law. The power P is given by P = V*I. From
basic circuit theory, the power delivered from or to a device is optimized
where the derivative of the I-V curve is equal and opposite the I/V ratio.
This is known as the maximum power point (MPP) and
Corresponds to the "knee" of the curve.

37
 The load with resistance R=V/I, which is equal to the reciprocal of this
value and draws the maximum power from the device is sometimes called the
characteristic resistance of the cell. This is a dynamic quantity which changes
depending on the level of illumination, as well as other factors such as
temperature and the age of the cell. If the resistance is lower or higher than
this value, the power drawn will be less than the maximum available, and
thus the cell will not be used as efficiently as it could be. Maximum power point
trackers utilize different types of control circuit or logic to search for this
point and thus to allow the converter circuit to extract the maximum power
available from a cell.
5.3 METHODS OF MPPT ALGORITHMS
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) is used to obtain the
maximum power from these systems. In these applications, the load can
demand more power than the PV system can deliver. There are many
different approaches to maximizing the power from a PV system, this
range from using simple voltage relationships to more complexes multiple
sample based analysis. There are some conventional methods for MPPT.
Seven of them are listed here.
These methods include:
 Constant Voltage method
 Open Circuit Voltage method
 Short Circuit Current method
 Perturb and Observe method
 Incremental Conductance method
 Temperature method
 Temperature Parametric method
5.3.1 CONSTANT VOLTAGE METHOD
The constant voltage method is the simplest method. This method simply
uses singlevoltage to represent the Vamp.
38
 In some cases this value is programmed by an external resistor
connected to a current source pin of the control IC. In this case, this resistor can
be part of a network that includes a NTC thermistor so the value can be
temperature compensated. For the various different irradiance variations, the
method will collect about 80% of the available maximum power. The actual
performance will be determined by the average level of irradiance. In the cases
of low levels of irradiance the results can
Be better.
5.3.2 OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE METHOD
An improvement on this method uses Voc to calculate Vmp. Once the
system obtains the Voc value, Vmp is calculated by, the k value is typically
between to 0.7 to 0.8. It is necessary to update Voc occasionally to compensate
for any temperature change. Sampling the Voc value can also help correct for
temperature changes and to some degree changes in irradiance. Monitoring the
input current can indicate when the Voc should be re-measured. The k value is a
function of the logarithmic function of the irradiance, increasing in value as the
irradiance increases. An improvement to the Voc method is to also take this into
account.

5.3.2.1 Benefits
 Relatively lower cost.
 Very simple and easy to implement.
5.3.2.2 Drawbacks
 Not accurate and may not operate exactly at MPP.
 Slower response as Vmp is proportional to the Voc.

5.3.3 SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT METHOD

The short circuit current method uses a value of Isc to estimate Imp. This
method uses a short load pulse to generate a short circuit condition.
39
 During the short circuit pulse, the input voltage will go to zero, so the
power conversion circuit must be powered from some other source. One
advantage of this system is the tolerance for input capacitance compared to the
Voc method. The k values are typically close to 0.9 to 0.98.
5.3.3.1 BENEFITS
 It is simple and low cost to implement.
 This method does not require an input.
 In low insulation conditions, it is better than others.
5.3.3.2 DRAWBACKS
 Irradiation is never exactly at the MPP due to variations on the
array that are not considered (It is not always accurate).
 Data varies under different weather conditions and locations.
 It has low efficiency.

5.3.4 INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE METHOD

The incremental conductance method based on the fact that, the slope of
the PV array of the power curve is zero at the MPP, positive on the left of the
MPP. And negative on the right on the MPP. It starts with measuring the present
values of PV module voltage and current. Then, it calculates the incremental
changes, dI and Dv, using the present values and previous values of voltage and
current. The main check is carried out using the relationships in the equations. If
the condition satisfies the inequality equation it is assumed that the operating
point is at the left side of the MPP thus must be moved to the right by
increasing the module voltage. It is assumed that the operating point is at the
right side of the MPP, thus must be moved to the left by decreasing the module
voltage.

40
5.3.4.1 BENEFITS
 It can determine the maximum power point without oscillating
around this value.
5.3.4.2 DRAWBACKS
 The incremental conductance method can produce oscillations
and can perform.
 Erratically under rapidly changing atmospheric conditions.
 The computational time is increased due to slowing down
of the sampling
 Frequency resulting from the higher complexity of the
algorithm compared to the P&O method.

5.3.5 PERTURB AND OBSERVE METHOD

In this method the controller adjusts the voltage by a small amount from
the array and measures power, if the power increases, further adjustments in the
direction are tried until power no longer increases. This is called P&O method.
Due to ease of implementation it is the most commonly used MPPT method.
Continually increased until the output power starts decreasing. Once the output
powerstarts decreasing, the voltage to the cell decreased until maximum power
is reached. This process is continued until the MPPT is attained. This result is
an oscillation of the output power around the MPP. PV module’s output
power curve as a function of voltage (P-V curve), at the constant
irradiance and the constant module temperature, assuming the PV module is
operating at a point which is away from the MPP. In this algorithm the
operating voltage of the PV module is perturbed by a small increment, and
the resulting change of power, P is observed. If the P is positive, then it is
supposed that it has moved the operating point closer to the MPPT.

41
5.3.5.1 PERTURB AND OBSERVE TRACKING EFFICIENCY

Sky conditions Days of data MPPT

Clear 20 98.7
Partially cloudy 14 96.5
Cloudy 9 98.1
Overall 43 97.8
TOTAL 99.3

Table5.1Perturb & Observe Tracking Efficiency

5.3.5.2 BENEFITS
P&O is very popular and most commonly used in practice because of
 Its simplicity in algorithm.
 Ease of implementation.
 Low cost
 It is a comparatively an accurate method
5.3.5.3 DRAWBACKS
There are some limitations that reduce its MPPT efficiency. They are,
 It cannot determine when it has actually reached the MPP. Under
steady state
 Operation the output power oscillates around the MPP.
 For our project we choose the Perturb and observe algorithm as it has
more advantages over drawbacks.
 The oscillation problem can easily be minimized using minimization.

42
5.4 TECHNIQUES FOR MINIMIZATION
The advent of digital controller made implementation of algorithm easy...
The problem of oscillations around the MPP can be solved by the simplest way
of making a bypass loop which skips the perturbation when the power is very
small which occurs near the MPP. The tradeoffs are a steady state error and
a high risk of not detecting a small power change.

5.4.1 CONTROL TECHNIQUE

As explained in the previous section, the MPPT algorithm tells a MPPT
controller how to move the operating voltage. Then, it is a MPPT controller’s
task to bring the voltage to a desired level and maintain it. There are several
methods often used for MPPT.

5.4.1.1 PI CONTROL
MPPT takes measurement of PV voltage and current, and then
tracking algorithm calculates the reference voltage where the PV operating
voltage should move next.

5.4.1.2 DIRECT CONTROL

This control method is simpler and uses only one control loop, and
it performs the adjustment of duty cycle within the MPP tracking algorithm.
The way how to adjust the duty cycle is totally based on the theory of load
matching.

5.4.1.3 OUTPUT SENSING CONTROL

The system usually requires another set of sensors for the output to
detect the over voltage and over-current condition of load. This output
sensing method measures the power change of PV at the output side of
converter and uses the duty cycle as a control variable.

43
 This control method employs the P&O algorithm to locate the MPP. To
obtain a stable voltage from an input supply (PV cells) that is higher and lower
than the output, a high efficiency and minimum ripple DC-DC converter
required in the system for residential power production. Buck boost type
converters are most efficient for this purpose.

Figure 5.1 VI characteristics of MPPT

5.5 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MPPT UNIT

Figure 5.2 Block Diagram of MPPT

44
5.6PROTOTYPE

5.7 SUMMARY
Photovoltaic modules have a very low conversion efficiency of around
15%. Besides, due to the temperature, radiation and load variations, this
efficiency is highly reduced. In order to ensure that the photovoltaic modules
always supplying the maximum power as possible and dictated by ambient
operating conditions, a specific circuit known as Maximum Power Point
Tracker (MPPT) is required, which is an electronic control system used in
photovoltaic (PV) systems to maximize the photovoltaic array output power,
irrespective of the temperature and irradiation conditions and of the load
electrical characteristics.

45
 CHAPTER 6

PERFORMANCE OF THE PROPOSED SYSTEM

6.1 INVERTERS
The inverter’s main functions are transformation of DC electricity into
AC, wave shaping of the output AC electricity, and regulation of the effective
value of the output voltage. The most important features of an inverter for PV
applications are its reliability and its efficiency characteristics. They are
designed to operate a PV system continuously near its maximum power point.
The technology for high-switching-frequency inverters (typically 20 kHz or
higher) is made possible by switch-mode semiconductor power devices.

6.2 BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

To obtain a stable voltage from an input supply (PV cells) that is higher
and lower than the output, a high efficiency and minimum ripple DC-DC
converter required in the system for residential power production. Buck-boost
converters make it possible to efficiently convert a DC voltage to either a lower
or higher voltage. Buck-boost converters are especially useful for PV maximum
power tracking purposes, where the objective is to draw maximum possible
power from solar panels at all times, regardless of the load.

46
 Figure 6.1 Basic schematic of buck-boost converter
The buck boost converter can be obtained by the cascade connection of
two basic converters: step up (Boost) and step down (Buck) converter. In PV
applications, the buck type converter is usually used for charging batteries. The
boost topology is used for stepping up the voltage. The grid-tied systems use a
boost type converter to step up the output voltage to the utility level before the
inverter stage. The input output voltage conversion ratio is the product of the
conversion ratios of the two converters in cascade (assuming that the switches
sin the both converters have the same duty ratio). This the output voltage to be
higher or lower than the input voltage based on the duty ratio. The cascade
connection of the step up step down converters can be combined into
single buck boost converters, when the switch is closed the input provides
energy to the inductor and the diode is reversed biased. When the switch is
open the energy stored in the inductor is transferred to the output. No energy is
supplied to the output in this interval. The output capacitor is considered to be
very large which results in a constant output voltage .The basic principle of the
buck–boost converter is fairly simple.
 While in the On-state, the input voltage source is directly
connected to the inductor (L). This results in accumulating
energy in L. In this stage, the capacitor supplies energy to the
output load.
 While in the Off-state, the inductor is connected to the
output load and capacitor, so energy is transferred from L to
C and R.

47
6.2.1 CONTINUOUS CONDUCTION MODE
In the continuous mode the current can flow continuously through the
inductor. When the switch is turned-on, the input voltage source supplies
current to the inductor, and the capacitor supplies current to the resistor
(output load). When, the switch is opened, the inductor supplies current to the
load via the diode D.

Figure 6.2 Continuous mode operation

6.2.2 DISCONTINUOUS CONDUCTION MODE
In the discontinuous mode the current cannot flow continuously. The
amount of energy required by the load is small enough to be transferred in a
time smaller than the whole commutation period. In this case, the current
through the inductor falls to zero during part of the period.

Figure: 6.3 discontinuous mode operation

48
6.2.2.1 BENEFITS
 Buck-boost DC-DC switching converter is good for home appliances
for high efficiency.
 Minimum ripple voltage.
 Programmable without external components.
6.2.2.2DRAWBACKS
 The disadvantage of the buck boost converter is that input current is
discontinuous because of the Switch located at the input.
6.3 SOLAR INVERTERS TYPES
 Stand-alone inverter
 Grid tie inverters
 Battery backup inverters
6.3.1STAND-ALONE INVERTERS
Usedin isolated systems where the inverter draws its DC energy from
batteries charged by photovoltaic arrays. Many stand-alone inverters also
incorporate integral battery chargers to replenish the battery from an AC source,
when available. Normally these do not interface in any way with the utility grid,
and as such, are not required to have anti-islanding protection.

6.3.2 GRID TIE INVERTERS

Which match phase with a utility-supplied sine wave. Grid-tie inverters
are designed to shut down automatically upon loss of utility supply, for safety
reasons. They do not provide backup power during utility outages.

6.3.3 BATTERY BACKUP INVERTERS

Arespecial inverters which are designed to draw energy from a battery,
manage the battery charge via an onboard charger, and export excess energy to
the utility grid? These inverters are capable of supplying AC energy to selected
loads during a utility outage, and are required to have anti-islanding protection.
49
 Figure 6.4Simplified schematics of a grid-connected residential PV power
system

6.4 SPECIFICATIONS & DEMANDS

An inverter used in grid connected PV systems must satisfy some
specifications, which are given by national and international standards.
The specifications for the PV module to the inverter, and the inverter to
the grid Interfaces are presented in this chapter. To cover a wide range of the
potentialMarket, different international standards will be presented. A
specification for theTests that must be performed on the inverter is reviewed.

Figure 6.5 inverter with PV module, and connected with the grid
50
6.5 GIVEN ARE A SUMMARY OF THE SPECIFICATIONS

6.5.1 AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

The ambient temperature, together with additional temperature increase
inside the inverter, sets the rating for the selected components. As seen in
appendix A, the PV cell temperature can reach 78 °C on a sunny day
(irradiance: 1200 W/m2 and ambient temperature: 40 °C). Thus, if the inverter
is to be mounted on the rear side the support structure, the temperature will
reach 40 °C, and probably 30 °C if mounted indoor.

6.5.2 OPERATIONAL LIFETIME AND RELIABILITY

The inverter should be maintenance-free during the AC-Module’s
lifetime. This is desirable while the AC-Module is intended to be a ’plug and
play’ device, which can be operated by persons without specialized training.
The inverter lifetime is then directly specified according to the lifetime of the
included PV module. For example, BP SOLAR gives a 25-year warranty on
80% power-output.

6.5.3 GALVANIC ISOLATION

Australia, Italy, Japan, Switzerland, England, and the United States
of America require a transformer between the inverter and the grid if a DC
monitoring device not is included. Denmark demands an HPFI-relay (High-
sensitive, Pulsing direct current, earth Fault circuit breaker), if the transformer is
omitted. Germany, the Netherlands, and Portugal do not require a transformer at
all. Regarding personal safety, most PV modules belong to the class II
equipment safety-class they must not be grounded the system ground is
required in some countries if the open circuit PV module exceeds 50 V.
System ground is not required for the developed inverter, since the
inverter is designed to maximum 50 V open circuit voltage.

51
 Thus, galvanic isolation is not required between the PV module and the
grid, when personal safety is the issue.

6.6 PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE – INVERTER INTERFACE

A survey of 35 mono- and multi-crystalline silicon, 72-cells, PV
modules is conducted in appendix A. The survey is used to set up the
specifications for the PV module interface.

6.6.1 NOMINAL POWER

The maximum power generated by the investigated PV modules is

189 W at an irradiation of 1200 W/m2, and an ambient temperature of 25 °C.

This operating point is however very seldom reached. The nominal power for

the inverter is therefore selected to 189 W / 1.2 ≈ 160 W, with the capability of

operating at 120% power during short time.

6.6.2 STARTING POWER

The inverter should be able to invert even small amounts of DC
power into AC power. In other words, the inverter must be able to operate at
very low irradiation. The European efficiency, presented in chapter 1, is
the weighted average of efficiencies down to 5%. Thus, the inverter should be
able to operate at 5% or less of the nominal power, which is 8 W.

52
6.6.3 MAXIMUM OPEN-CIRCUIT VOLTAGE
The worst-case open-circuit voltage across the investigated PV modules
is estimated to 45 V at 1200 W/m2, and a cell temperature of 25 °C.
Thus, the inverter must withstand at least 45 V without being damaged,
and 50 V is selected.

6.6.4 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

The inverter must be capable of tracking the maximum power point
in order to capture as much energy as possible. The voltage across the
investigated PV modules, during normal operation, is located in the span from
23 V to 38 V. Thus this is selected as the range where the inverter must be able
to track the maximum power point.

6.6.5 INPUT RIPPLE

The ripple current and voltage at the input terminals of the inverter must
not cause the European utilization ratio to be lower than 0.985, c.f. Thus, the
low frequency voltage ripple, at the terminals, should not exceed 4.1 V
(amplitude) at full generation, which corresponds to a 2.2 mF capacitor in
parallel with the module. The High Frequency (HF) ripple, caused by the
switching inside the inverter, must not cause any EMI problems. The
amplitude of the HF voltage in the prototype must not exceed 0.50 V peak to
peak.
6.6.6 OVER VOLTAGE PROTECTION
The inverter must be capable to withstand over-voltages caused by nearby
lightning, etc. It is recommended to use a surge arrestor (Metal Oxide
Visitor) with an inception voltage of 1.2 times nominal voltage. The arrestor
should be connected from the positive to the negative input terminals.

53
6.6.7 MAXIMUM POWER
The Netherlands and Switzerland allows connection of small
inverters to normal feeders, if the total maximum power generation does not
exceed 500 W for a regular feeder (16 A fused - 2,5 mm2 copper wire) [3]. If
this approach is going to be a de-facto standard, the nominal power should be
within one of the following values: 500 W, 250 W, 167 W, 125 W or 100 W, in
order to allow 1 to 5 AC modules to be connected to the same feeder.

6.6.8 STANDBY LOSSES

The power consumption during standby should be as low as
possible, in order to raise the inverters overall efficiency. The passive filter
included at the output terminals is the main cause for standby losses, if the PV
module feeds the internal power supply.

6.6.9 DC-CURRENT
The amount of DC current injected into the grid is important when
speaking about saturation of the distribution transformers. The
Australian standard AS3300 specifies a daily maximum amount of 0.120 Ah,
which equals 5 mA continuously. Japan and Europe requires a maximum
DC current of 1% of the nominal current .

54
6.7 INVERTER TOPOLOGIES
The selection of a suitable power electronic topology for the inverter
depends on many different issues besides the electrical specifications, such as:
cables; electrolytic capacitors; mechanical / thermal / enclosure demands;

Figure 6.6Block-diagram for a typical inverter for PV applications

6.8 MANUFACTURINGINVERTER
This page shows how a sine wave inverter is manufactured from the
design stage through to sale. Once the technical specifications of the inverter
have been established by our technical department, the R&D department makes
an initial draft. This draft is progressively developed in order to obtain a device
with low consumption, high reliability and better support from the technical
service.

6.9 INVERTER PROTOTYPE

At the same time the program is written, once introduced into the
microprocessor, this program will convert the device into a sine wave inverter.

55
 The program will control the generation of the wave forms, check the
state of charge of the battery, show information to the user, and warn of faults.
When the printed circuit and the program are finished, the program is
introduced into the microcontroller, and the laboratory tests are performed.
During the tests all the necessary corrections are made to the program and
to the circuit to make the device fulfill all the design specifications.

Figure 6.7 Prototype of Inverter

While this is happening, the casing is designed and manufactured, and the
design of the serigraphy (or polycarbonate) is carried out. The first complete
units are then assembled in order to perform the field tests. If during these tests
a malfunction is detected, the program and the circuit are modified again until
all the tests provide satisfactory results. When all field test are finished with
positive results, the serial manufacturing of the inverters is started. The chassis
and casings are mounted and tested in different processes, and are then
assembled in pairs. Depending on the model that is being manufactured, the
output voltage, the frequency and the language to be shown on the display (one
out of six) are configured. The next step is to calibrate the unit and to store the
calibration data (with the serial number and date) in our data base.

56
6.10 SOLAR INVERTER STEP-UP TRANSFORMERS NEED A NEW
DESIGN

Large-scale wind farms are becoming a common sight in the 21st century
global economy. Solar conversion systems, while lagging behind the established
"green" technologies, are gaining acceptance in the emerging renewable energy
marketplace, most frequently used in large-scale installations are photovoltaic
(PV) systems. This brings a new challenge to designers, engineers and planners
who must find ways to move solar technology to the same plane as the maturing
wind power technology's contribution to the national power grid.

At first glance, it might seem as if the typical wind turbine step-up

transformer provides the same functionality as the step-up transformers
connected to solar inverter systems and therefore could be used for solar
systems. However, the severe duty that defines the typical wind turbine step-up
transformer's operating environment is not the same as the emerging
photovoltaic solar conversion process. The transformer needs to be very
different. It is important for designers to understand that renewable energy
sources cannot use a standard, off-the-shelf transformer, but neither can every
renewable energy source use the same transformer. Understanding how
differences between the two energy sources affects the transformer requirements
can have a huge effect on costs for an installation, as well as on reliability.
Designers should consider a variety of parameters, summarized in Table 6.1
(below), when designing a transformer for use in a wind power versus a solar
system.

57
 Table 6.1Comparison of Wind and Solar Transformer Transformers

Loading - Wind power transformers experience variable loading due to

wind gusts, so a wind power transformer is designed to handle this lack of
steady load where it may be expected to power up and down all the time. Wind
shadows in a wind farm will reduce the flow to some turbines, while others may
be spinning rapidly. Transformers, therefore, see a constantly variable load. By
contrast, solar power facilities experience a steady-state loading when inverters
are operating. When the sun comes out, there is a dampened reaction process
and loading on the transformer is more constant. Low voltage (LV) fault ride
through - Wind farms are difficult to stop and start quickly.

They are usually required by local regulations to stay online even during
difficult conditions when they may sustain faults. The amount of time they must
stay online is determined by those who run the grid and who want to avoid a
voltage sag. The transformer may see severe duty during the fault, including
severe mechanical and electrical forces and if it cannot sustain them, the
transformer may fail. To keep the transformer online, an LV fault ride through
is required.

58
 wide range of loads, because the wind may be blowing very hard or not at
all. In fact the average nominal loading is about 35 percent. This presents a
unique design problem, because the wind transformer has to be designed to
operate between widely divergent ranges. Solar power systems typically operate
close to their rated loads.

Special design issues - Solar power systems use inverters to convert DC

to alternating current (AC). Since the largest practical inverter size, to date, is
about 500 kilovolt-ampere (kVA), designers are building 1,000 kVA
transformers by placing two inverter connected windings in one box. In this
case, the transformers have to have two separate windings to accept completely
separate inputs, which is not something encountered in a wind farm. Design
issues also stem from running cables long distances to convert from DC to
AC.Size of installation - Wind farm sizes are increasing as generators increase
their output and wind farms mature. As opportunities to install wind farms in
optimum locations and positions is reduced, it will become more and more
important to get as much power out of each installation as possible. We will
likely see taller towers with bigger generators. Recently the average wind
installation is almost double the size of the original wind installations.

Inverter technology has been slow to advance, because it is an electronic

technology. It remains to be seen whether this comparative disadvantage will be
a fatal flaw in the advancement of solar technology. The duty cycle seen in wind
farms may be more severe than that of solar power systems, but solar power has
its share of special considerations that affect the transformer design. Pay heed to
these special needs to ensure that the solar installation is cost effective and
reliable. Mike Dickinson began his carrier in transformer industry in 1972 at
Pacific Crest Transformers. Currently Mike is in charge of Business
Development at PCT.

59
 CHAPTER 7
MOUNTING STRUCTURE OF SOLAR PANEL AND BATTERY

7.1 INTRODUCTION
The principle aim of the mounting structures is to hold the PV modules
securely in place, which usually means that they have to resist local wind
forces. When placed in a public area the structures should prevent stealing the
modules.The further common requirements are not to cause shading of the
modules and to be arranged so that there is an easy access to the modules for the
maintenance or repair. The cost of the structures should be low. For integration
in buildings, special mounting structures are being developed that together with
the modules serve as building elements. Typical examples are PV modules in
the facades of buildings, on the roofs of houses, on the roofs of telephone boxes,
outdoor lights and warning signs, and in the noise barriers on motorways. The
additional cost of placing PV modules on a sun-tracking system makes this
configuration not profitable in most PV applications.

7.1.1 FIXED SOLAR PANEL MOUNTS

If you use the most simple and least expensive type of solar panel
mounting system, it will be completely stationary. The solar panels should
always face the equator. (Due south in the northern hemisphere). Don't forget
that true south varies from magnetic south. This can make a huge difference.
The angle of inclination (tilt) in degrees should be set to about your latitude.
Slightly more than your latitude will favor the winter sun and slightly less will
favor the summer sun.

60
7.1.2 ADJUSTABLE SOLAR PANEL MOUNTS
The angle of inclination (tilt) of an adjustable solar panel mount can be
changed 2 or more times during the year to account for the lower angle of the
sun in winter as the earth orbits the sun causing seasonal change. A good rule of
thumb is latitude + 15 degrees in the winter and latitude - 15 degrees in the
summer. This will increase overall solar panel output by approximately 25. An
easy approach that works pretty well is to set the tilt for the winter position in
about mid-October and back to summer position in mid-March.

7.1.3 TRACKING SOLAR PANEL MOUNTS

Tracking solar panel mounts follow the path of the sun during the day to
maximize the solar radiation that the solar panels receive. A single axis tracker
tracks the sun east to west and a two-axis tracker tracks the daily east to west
movement of the sun and the seasonal declination movement of the sun.

Figure 7.1 Mounting Structure

61
7.2 SOLAR APPLICATION

7.2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SOLAR POWER SYSTEM FOR

APPLICATION

Solar PV power system could be classified following types mainly

according their application.
 Residential power system
 Commercial system
 Utility level power plant
 Agricultural system

7.3 BATTERY SYSTEM

They store the electrical power in the form of a chemical reaction.
Without storage you would only have power when the sun was shining or the
generator was running. Without batteries to store energy you would only have
power when the sun was shining or the generator was running. This describes
the 4 basic types of batteries & provides some good tips on the care & feeding
of your batteries to maximize their performance and life.

7.3.1 RV / MARINE / GOLF CART

RV or Marine type deep cycle batteries are basically for boats & campers
and are suitable for only very small systems. They can be used but do not really
have the capacity for continuous service with many charge/discharge cycles for
many years. Regular or Car type batteries should not be used at all because they
cannot be discharged very much without internal damage. A very popular
battery for small systems is the Golf Cart battery.
They are somewhat more expensive than deep cycle recreational batteries
but are probably the least expensive choice for a small system on a budget.

62
7.4 INDUSTRIAL STRENGTH: FLOODED, GEL, AND AGM SEALED
BATTERIES
The next 3 types are the heavier industrial type batteries. They are all also
considered Deep Cycle and are usually Lead Acid types with much thicker
internal plates that can withstand many deep discharge cycles. These next 3 are
all designed for alternative energy systems.
7.4.1 FLOODED TYPE
These are Lead acid batteries that have caps to add water. Many
manufacturers make these types for Solar Energy use. Trojan, Curette, and Deja
are probably the most well-known. They are reasonably priced and work well
for many years. All flooded batteries release gas when charged and should not
be used indoors. If installed in an enclosure, a venting system should be used to
vent out the gases which can be explosive.
7.4.2 GEL TYPE
Not to be confused with maintenance free batteries, sealed gel batteries
have no vents and will not release gas during the charging process like flooded
batteries do. Venting is therefore not required and they can be used indoors.
This is a big advantage because it allows the batteries to maintain a more
constant temperature and perform better.
7.4.3 AGM
Absorbed Glass Mat batteries are in my opinion the best available for
Solar Power use. A woven glass mat is used between the plates to hold the
electrolyte. They are leak/spill proof, do not out gas when charging, and have
superior performance. They have all the advantages of the sealed gel types and
are higher quality, maintain voltage better, self-discharge slower, and last
longer. The Sun Extender series by Concorde Battery is an excellent example of
AGM batteries. They are more expensive, but you usually get what you pay for.
You will find this type of battery used in airplanes, hospitals, and remote
telephone/cell tower installations.

63
 Figure 7.2 Battery system

7.5 MONITORING BATTERY VOLTAGE AND SYSTEM

PERFORMANCE
It is important to know the state of your system. Specifically, you need to
keep close watch on the SOC (state of charge) of your batteries. By not
allowing your batteries to discharge below a certain point you can greatly
improve their performance and extend their life. Monitoring the Voltage and
Current readings in your system will tell you how full your batteries are and
how fast they are charging or discharging. All this can be monitored with one or
more meters. I like to have one meter continuously display the Solar Panels
charging current and a multi-function display for Voltage, Amp Hours, and
other functions. Use the chart below to interpret your battery voltage readings.
This chart will allow you to get a pretty good idea of how charged the batteries
are. They must not be charging or discharging for these voltages to be correct.
Also, it should be at least 1 or 2 hours since they were. A good time to check is
early in the morning before charging starts or any appliances are turned on.

Table 7.3 Battery Voltage Chart

64
7.6 BATTERY DISCHARGING
7.6.1 RELAY
When a load is required to be operated by the battery, a relay (G5LE-1A-
DC 12V) is used for providing the voltage and current to the battery. One end of
the relay is connected to the battery. The other end is connected to the collector
of the Darlington pair BJT (TIP122). The emitter is connected to ground and
the base is controlled by a microcontroller port (the RB1 pin). When the battery
is charging, the voltage of the battery allows a low current to flow in the relay
coil. This low current, induces the load contact to be switched OFF. When the
battery is sufficient enough to run a load, the base of the BJT is turned on and
the current flows from the relay coil to the load. The relay is now ON.

Figure 7.3 Relay coil

7.7 DESIGN FUNCTIONS

When the program is run on the microcontroller, the ADC ports of the
microcontroller divides the analog inputs into 1024 quantized levels and display
the different voltages on a 16x2 LCD. In this way, voltage sensing of the panel
and battery is achieved. The current supplied by the PV module, a shunt resistor
is placed in series with an ADC input. The shunt resistor gives a voltage that is
proportional to the current, e.g. if 1A gives 5mV, 10A gives 50mV. This voltage
output is then connected to another ADC port, AN2 via an Op- Amp and run in

65
the algorithm as an input. If the battery is in need of charging, the PWM ports
are activated. The battery is only charged if the panel voltage is greater than
15V and less than or equal to 20V. The panel voltage and current flows to the
Cuk converter which is activated by a bipolar junction transistor (BJT- BC547)
connected to the PWM pin. During discharging, the panel voltage and current
flows to the Cuk converter which is activated by a bipolar junction transistor
(BJT- BC547) connected to the PWM pin.

7.8 ENERGY STORAGE

The simplest means of electricity storage is to use the electric
rechargeable batteries, especially when PV modules produce the DC current
required for charging the batteries. Most of batteries used in PV systems are
lead-acid batteries. In some applications, for example when used in locations
with extreme climate conditions or where high reliability is essential, nickel-
cadmium batteries are used. The major difficulty with this form of storage is the
relative high cost of the batteries and a large amount required for large-scale
application the following factors should be considered when choosing a battery
for a PV application:

 Operating temperature range (e.g.: -15°C to 50°C)

 Self-discharge rate (% per month)
 Cycle life to 80% depth of discharge (DOD)
 Charge efficiency from 20% discharged
 Capacity (Ah) at 10 hr.& 100 hr. rates (C10 & C100)
 Required frequency for topping up the electrolyte
 Robustness for transport to site
 Resistance to overcharging
 Cost

66
7.8.1 LEAD-ACID BATTERIES
The most commonly available lead-acid battery is the car battery, But
these are designed mainly to provide a high current for short periods to start
engines, and they are not well suited for deep discharge cycles experienced
by batteries in PV systems. Car batteries are sometimes used for small PV
systems because they are cheap, but their operational life in PV applications
is likely to be short. The most attractive lead-acid battery for use in most PV
systems is the flooded tubular plate design, with low antimony plates. Good
quality batteries of this type can normally be expected to have operational life
of 5 – 7 years if they are properly maintained and used in a PV system with a
suitable charge controller. Longer operational life may be achieved if the
maximum depth of discharge is limited, but shorter lifetimes must be
expected if the batteries are mistreated.
Flat plate lead-acid batteries with low antinomy are frequently used as
stationary batteries for stand-by applications. However, these batteries are not
designed for deep cycling and are therefore not the best choice for most PV
applications. A relatively recent development is the sealed lead-acid battery,
which is designed mainly to avoid problems of spillage and the need to top up
the electrolyte.
Some batteries of this type are sold specifically for use in PV systems,
and may be attractive for applications in remote regions where transport to
site is a problem. However, they are typically less resistant to extreme
temperatures than conventional flooded batteries, and are considerably more
expensive

7.8.2 Ni-Cad BATTERIES

“Sintered plate” NiCad batteries suffer from the well know memory
effect, in which the useful capacity of the battery appears to drop after it has
been discharged over many cycles or if it is discharged at level.

67
 CHAPTER 8
RESULTS AND DISSCUSSION

8.1 PWM CHARGE CONTROLLERS

Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) comes into play when the battery bank
is full. During charging, the controller allows as much current as the PV
panel/array can generate in order to reach the target voltage for the charge stage
the controller is in. Once the battery approaches this target voltage, the charge
controller quickly switches between connecting the battery bank to the panel
array and disconnecting the battery bank, which regulates the battery voltage
holding it constant. This quick switching is called PWM and it ensures your
battery bank is efficiently charged while protecting it from being overcharged
by the PV panel/array. PWM controllers will operate close to the maximum
power point but often slightly “above” it. An example operating range is shown
below.

Figure 8.1 V-I Characteristics of PWM Controller

68
8.1.1 RESULT

PV array Available PWM RESULT

total capacity
100W 75.6 75.6 NORMAL
100W 37.5 37.5 38.1% loss

Table 8.1 Output of PWM

8.2 MPPT: MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

PWM and MPPT are the two different types of charging methods solar
charge controllers can use to charge batteries from a solar array/panel. Both
technologies are widely used in the off-grid solar industry and are both great
options for efficiently charging your battery. The decision to use PWM orMPPT
regulation is not purely based on which power charging method is “better” than
the other. Moreover, it involves determining which type of controller will work
best in your system’s design. To understand the difference between PWM and
MPPT charging, let’s first look at a typical power curve of a PV panel. The
power curve is important because it states the expected power generation of the
panel based on the combination voltage (“V”) and current (“I”) generated by the
panel. The optimal ratio of current to voltage to produce the most power is
known as the “Maximum Power Point” (MPPT). The MPPT will change
dynamically throughout the day depending on irradiation conditions.

69
 Figure 8.2 V-I Characteristics of Maximum Power Point

RESULT
PV array total Available MPPT RESULT
capacity

100W 75.6 82.8 7.2% gain

100W 37.5 41.04 3.5% gain

Output of MPPT

8.3 MPPT CHARGE CONTROLLERS

Maximum Power Point Tracking features an indirect connection between

the PV array and the battery bank. The indirect connection includes a DC/DC
voltage converter that can take excess PV voltage and convert it into extra
current at a lower voltage without losing power. MPPT controllers do this via
an adaptive algorithm that follows the maximum power point of the PV array
and then adjusts the incoming voltage to maintain the most efficient amount of
power for the system.

70
 Figure 8.3 V-I Characteristics of MPPT Charge Controller

8.4 COMPARISON

71
 Moreover, for these techniques the choice of sampling period is very critical;
if the period is too short, energy production will be very low because of the
increased number of electronic switching.

If the period is too long, on the other hand, the MPP cannot be closely
followed when rapid irradiance variation occurs.The purposes of the next tests
are to investigate the dynamic characteristics of a PV system and to calculate
the amount of power, voltage and current using the described MPPT controller.
It should be noted that the generated power of has the same shape as the solar
insulation input, the only difference is a small transient from the rapid insulation
variation by using P&O and IC techniques. Comparing the output array voltage,
it can be observed that the CV method is more stable with solar insulation
variation. In particular due to lack of space, In the first test, the MPPT controller
is tested under a sunny day, and then cloudy and partially cloudy days to
calculate the amount of the oscillation in PV operating points. The dynamic
response of the PV array indicated that the CV technique delivers the more
stable voltage, current and power waveforms with negligible oscillation
amplitudes. Summarizes the oscillations in voltage, current and power using IC
and P&O techniques.

72
 CHAPTER 9

CONCULSION AND SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORKS

9.1 CONCLUSION
This paper proposes a new configuration of PV-MPPT that consists of the
DC/DC converter and the photovoltaic arrays for compensating the voltage
interruption. The proposed PV-MPPT can compensate the voltage sag and the
voltage interruption. The control strategy for the proposed PV-MPPT was
derived based on the instantaneous power method. The operation of proposed
system was verified through simulation. The proposed PV-MPPT has the
ultimate capability of improving the power quality at the installation point in the
distribution system.The proposed system can replace the UPS, which is
effective for the long duration of voltage interruption, because the long duration
of voltage interruption is very rare in the present power system.

9.2 FUTURE SCOPE

9.2.1 CUK CONVERTER
The CuK converter is obtained by using the Quality principle on the
circuit of a buck-boost converter. Similar to the buck-boost converter, the
Cuk converter provides a negative-polarity regulated output voltage with
respect to the common terminal of the input voltage. The output voltage
magnitude can be same, larger or smaller than the input, depending on the duty
cycle. The inductor on the input acts as a filter for the dc supply, to prevent
large harmonic content. Here, the capacitor C1 acts as the primary means
storing and transferring energy from the input to the output.
The analysis begins with these assumptions:
 Both inductors are very large and the currents in them are constant.
 Both capacitors are very large and the voltages across them are constant.
 The switch and the diode are ideal.
73
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