superalloys.

qxp 5/17/2005 12:46 PM Page 1

AGE-HARDENABLE
SUPERALLOYS
To select the most suitable wrought dates back to about 1929, when various developers
added titanium and aluminum to the standard
age-hardenable superalloy for a 80% nickel/20% chromium resistance-wire alloy.
specific application, engineers must This was a precursor to the 80A nickel-base super-
know the basic mechanical properties alloy, developed during 1940 to 1944 but still in
use today.
as well as other characteristics such as Little was done to advance the original age-hard-
resistance to fatigue, crack growth, enable alloys until the time period of 1935 to 1944,
and corrosion. when World War II spurred demand for improved
alloys suitable for the early aircraft gas turbine en-
gines. Alloy development activity exploded in the
Richard B. Frank* 1950s and 1960s to keep pace with the demands of
Carpenter Technology Corporation the gas turbine engine industry. Progress in super-
Reading, Pennsylvania alloy development not only made the jet engine
possible, but also allowed for constantly increasing

S
uperalloys are high-performance materials
designed to provide high mechanical
strength and resistance to surface degrada-
tion at high temperatures of 1200°F (650°C)
or above. They combine high tensile, creep-rupture,
and fatigue strength; good ductility and toughness;
and excellent resistance to oxidation and hot corro-
sion. Furthermore, superalloys are designed to re-
tain these properties during long-term exposures
at elevated temperatures.
This article focuses on the wrought age-harden-
able alloys, which are the most common super-
alloys. Wrought materials can be formed by hot-
working and cold-working operations. Not dis-
cussed here are the cast, powder metallurgy, and
oxide dispersion-strengthened superalloys that
can also offer enhanced properties.
Superalloy applications
The first age-hardenable, high-temperature alloy
*Member of ASM International
thrust-to-weight ratios over the last 60 years.
The primary application for superalloys is still
in hot sections of aircraft gas turbine engines, ac-
counting for over 50% of the weight of advanced
engines. However, the excellent performance of
these materials at elevated temperatures has ex-
panded their application far beyond this industry.
In addition to aerospace components, these al-
loys are specified for turbine engines for marine,
industrial, and land-based power generation, as
well as vehicular applications. Specific engine parts
include turbine disks, blades, compressor wheels,
shafts, combustor cans, afterburner parts, and en-
gine bolts.
Beyond the gas turbine engine industries, su-
peralloys are chosen for applications in rocket en-
gines, space, petrochemical/energy production,
internal combustion engines, metal forming (hot-
working tools and dies), heat-treating equipment,
nuclear power reactors, and coal conversion.
Although these alloys are primarily for service

Table 1 — Nominal compositions of wrought age-hardenable superalloys*

Alloy Cr Ni Co Mo Ti Al Nb Zr Fe Other
Pyromet A-286 14.5 25 — 1.25 2 0.2 — 0.05 max Bal 0.3 V
NCF 3015 (Ni-30) 14.5 31 — 0.7 2.7 1.9 0.7 — Bal —
Pyromet 706 16 42 — — 1.7 0.2 3 — Bal —
Pyromet 901 13.5 43 — 6 3 0.2 — — Bal —
Pyromet 718 18.5 53 — 3 1 0.5 5.3 — 19 max —
Pyromet 41 19 54 11 10 3.2 1.7 — 0.04 2 max —
Pyromet 720 16 57 15 3 5 2.5 — 0.04 0.5 max 1.25 W
Pyromet 31V 23 57 — 2 2.3 1.3 0.9 0.05 14 —
Waspaloy 19 58 13 4.25 3 1.4 — 0.05 2 max —
Pyromet 751 15.5 71 — — 2.4 1.3 1 0.05 9 max —
Pyromet X-750 15 72 — — 2.6 0.75 0.9 0.05 9 max —
Pyromet 80A 20 75 — — 2.4 1.4 — 0.05 2 max —
Low-expansion superalloys (low chromium)
Pyromet CTX-909 0.5 max 37 14 — 1.6 0.15 max 5 — Bal —
Thermo-Span® 5.5 25 29 — 0.9 0.5 5 — Bal —
*These alloys also contain small amounts of C, Mn, S, P, S, B, and Zr.

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superalloys.qxp 5/17/2005 12:46 PM Page 2
at elevated temperatures above 1000°F (540°C),
the characteristics of high strength and excellent
Superalloys environmental resistance have made some super-
are classified alloys an ideal choice for lower-temperature ap-
plications. Examples are prosthetic devices and
into three components for deep sour-gas wells in oil/gas
main exploration.
groups,
Chemical composition
according Table 1 shows the nominal compositions of the
to whether most common wrought age-hardenable super-
alloys. These alloys contain various combinations
they are of nickel, iron, cobalt, and chromium, with lesser
based on amounts of other elements such as molybdenum,
nickel, niobium, titanium, and aluminum. With minor
amounts of beneficial elements such as boron and
iron, or zirconium, these alloys may contain up to 12 in-
cobalt. tentional additions that help to impart and main-
tain critical properties at elevated temperatures.
Many other elements such as silicon, phos-
phorus, sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen, and a larger
number of tramp elements (such as lead, bismuth,
selenium) must be tightly controlled in super-
alloys to avoid detrimental effects on high-tem-
perature properties. These minor and tramp ele-
ments are controlled during raw material selec-
tion prior to melting, as well as during the
melting/remelting processes.
Superalloys are classified into three main groups,
according to whether they are based on nickel, iron,
or cobalt.
• Nickel-base superalloys (>50% Ni) are the
most common group. About half of the alloys in
Table 1 are considered nickel-base alloys, and the
others contain large additions of nickel. The nickel
base has a high tolerance for alloy additions that
might otherwise cause phase instability leading
to loss of strength, ductility, and/or environmental
resistance.
• Iron-base superalloys are less costly, but are
also less tolerant of alloying additions and typi-
cally have lower mechanical properties and lower
maximum temperatures. Examples are Pyromet
alloy A-286 and NCF 3015(Ni-30) alloy. These con-
tain an austenitic stainless steel base with addi-
tions of nickel, titanium, and aluminum to pro-
mote age hardening. Pyromet alloys 706 and 901
have similar amounts of nickel and iron, and can
be considered nickel-iron base superalloys. The
higher nickel levels of 901 and 706 alloys allow for
larger additions of strengthening elements without
deleterious effects.
• Cobalt-base superalloys are fewer in number
than nickel- and iron-base superalloys. They are
significantly higher in cost and typically cannot
be age-hardened to high strength levels. However,
cobalt is an important alloying addition to nickel-
base alloys because it extends the maximum
service temperature by reducing the solubility of
the age-hardening phase. Waspaloy and Pyromet
alloys 41 and 720 are nickel-base alloys with 10
to 15% cobalt. These alloys have the highest tem-
perature capability of the common wrought age-
hardenable superalloys.
• Chromium, usually in the range of 14 to 23
38
wt%, is a critical alloying addition to nearly all su-
peralloys. As in stainless steels, chromium forms
a tightly adherent, protective oxide film (Cr2O3)
on the surface to resist oxidation and corrosion
at high temperatures, as well as corrosion at lower
temperatures. This surface layer protects the alloy
from the harmful effects of the elements oxygen,
nitrogen, and sulfur.
Although most superalloys contain at least 14%
chromium, in some applications it is critical to min-
imize thermal expansion. Pyromet CTX-909 and
Thermo-Span alloys are considered low-expan-
sion superalloys that have low chromium contents
to minimize expansion of the nickel-cobalt-iron
base. However, these lower amounts of chromium
mean that resistance to oxidation and hot corro-
sion is reduced; therefore, high-temperature coat-
ings are often applied prior to service. Of the two
alloys, 909 alloy provides the lowest expansion co-
efficient, while Thermo-Span alloy (5.5%
chromium) provides improved environmental re-
sistance.
Other elemental additions
Refractory elements such as molybdenum, tung-
sten, and niobium, with their large atomic diam-
eters, raise high-temperature strength and stiff-
ness by straining the nickel-iron base matrix. Alloys
901 and 41 contain larger additions of molyb-
denum to increase this solid solution strengthening
effect. Other alloying additions such as chromium
and aluminum also contribute to solid solution
strengthening, but to a lesser extent.
The elements titanium, aluminum, and niobium
are added to the nickel or nickel-iron matrix to
form an intermetallic phase Ni3(Al, Ti, Nb) during
age-hardening heat treatments. The resultant
gamma prime or gamma double-prime phases are
the primary strengthening agents in superalloys.
This will be discussed in more detail in the next
section on age-hardening.
Although elements such as boron, zirconium,
and magnesium may be added at levels less than
0.1 wt%, the beneficial effects can be very potent.
These elements segregate to and stabilize grain
boundaries, which significantly improves hot
workability, high-temperature strength, and duc-
tility. Small additions of carbon also may be added
to form carbides that restrict grain growth and
grain boundary sliding during high-temperature
operation.
Age hardening
The major strengthening mechanism in super-
alloys is age hardening. Yield strength of nickel al-
loys is typically increased by a factor of two or three
by precipitation of the gamma prime and/or
gamma double-prime, Ni3(Al, Ti, Nb) hardening
phase. Although the phase is based on the nickel
aluminide (Ni3Al) intermetallic, up to 60% of the
aluminum can be replaced by titanium or niobium,
which actually increases strength of the alloy.
The gamma prime phase is rather unique in that
its strength actually increases with temperature
up to 1200°F (650°C), and it is relatively ductile
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Table 2 — Heat treatment and yield strength at various temperatures for selected alloys
Approximate
temperature 75°F 1200°F 1300°F 1400°F 1500°F 1600°F
Alloy limit, °F (°C) (24°C) (650°C) (705°C) (760°C) (815°C) (870°C) Heat treatment
0.2% offset yield strength, ksi (MPa)
Pyromet X-750 B 1400 93 82 77 65 45 — B-2100/2h/AC+1550
(760 ) (640) (565) (530) (450) (310) /24h/AC+1300 /20h/AC
Pyromet X-750 A 1100 126 110 103 — — — A-1625 /2h/AC+1300
(595 ) (870) (760) (710) /20h/AC
Pyromet 80A 1500 99 88 85 79 63 41 1975/8h/AC+1300
(815 ) (680) (605) (585) (545) (435) (285) /16h/AC
Pyromet A-286 1300 100 88 82 62 33 — 1800/1h/OQ+1325
(705 ) (690) (605) (565) (425) (230) /16h/AC
NCF 3015 (Ni-30) 1400 100 98 94 82 59 — 1922/0.5h/AC+1382
(760 ) (690) (675) (650) (465) (405) /4h/AC
Pyromet 31V 1500 109 103 100 97 88 2 2050/1h/AC+1575
(815 ) (750) (710) (690) (670) (605) /4h/AC+1350/4h/AC
Pyromet 751 1500 115 110 105 100 88 — 2050/1h/AC+1575
(815) (795) (760) (725) (685) (605) /4h/AC+1350/4h/AC
Waspaloy B 1600 115 102 100 96 87 75 B-1975/4h/OQ+1550
(870 ) (795) (705) (690) (660) (600) (515) /4h/AC+1400 /16h/AC
Waspaloy A 1600 132 115 114 109 96 76 A-1850 /4h/OQ+1550
(870 ) (910) (795) (785) (750) (660) (525) /4h/AC+1400 /16h/AC
Pyromet 901 1400 130 115 111 98 75 — 2000/2h/WQ+1450
(760 ) (895) (795) (765) (675) (515) /2h/AC+1325 /24h/AC
Pyromet 706 1300 146 125 116 96 — — 1800/1h/AC+1550
(705 ) (1005) (860) (800) (660) /3h/AC+1325 /8h/FC to
1150 /8h/AC
Pyromet 41 1600 150 140 136 132 118 78 1950/4h/AC+1400
(870 ) (1035) (965) (940) (910) (815) (540) /16h/AC
Pyromet 718 1300 168 144 133 111 — — 1800/1h/AC+1325/8h/FC
(705 ) (1160) (995) (915) (765) to 1150 /8h/AC
Pyromet 720 1600 173 164 161 152 135 109 2035/2h/AC+1975/4h/
(870 ) (1195) (1130) (1110) (1050) (930) (750) OQ+1200 /24h/AC+1400
/8h/AC
Low-expansion superalloys (low chromium)
Pyromet CTX-909 1200 148 126 — — — — 1800 /1h/AC+1325
(650) (1020) (970) /8h/FC to 1150 /8h/AC
Thermo-Span 1250 130 120 98 — — — 2000 /1h/AC+132
(675 ) (895) (825) (675) 5 /8h/FC to 1150 /8h/AC

and resistant to oxidation. Gamma prime precip-
itates as very fine spheroidal or cuboidal particles
in the nickel-iron matrix during aging.
Although most of the superalloys are age-hard-
ened by the titanium-rich gamma prime phase, a
niobium-rich variant called gamma double-prime
is the primary strengthening phase in some super-
alloys such as Pyromet alloys 706 and 718. The nio-
bium-rich phase provides higher strength up to
1200°F (650°C), but is unstable above 1200°F
(650°C). Thus, 706 and 718 alloys have a lower tem-
perature limit than the alloys strengthened with
the titanium-rich gamma prime phase. Because
the gamma double-prime reaction is more slug-
gish, these alloys also tend to have better hot work-
ability and weldability.
Heat treatment
Proper heat treatment is critical to achieving the
necessary level of properties in age-hardenable su-
peralloys. Typical heat treatments for these alloys
are listed in the mechanical property Tables 2
and 3. The initial solution heat treatment typically
dissolves all precipitated phases except for some
primary carbide and nitride phases. The typical
range for the wrought age-hardenable superalloys
is 1650 to 2100°F (900 to 1150°C) for one to four
hours, followed by a rapid air cool or a quench
in water, polymer, or oil.
The selection of solution treatment time and tem-
perature varies with the alloy and its phase solvus
temperatures, and also depends on the specific
properties that are most important for the intended
application. Alloys with higher hardener contents
(Ti, Al, Nb) require higher temperatures to solu-
tion any hardener phase that may have precipi-
tated during hot working or cooling.
Best tensile and fatigue properties are typically
developed with lower solution temperatures that
result in a finer grain size. In contrast, better long-
term stress-rupture and creep properties are gen-
erally achieved with higher-temperature solution
treatments that result in coarser grain size and
lower tensile yield strength. For these reasons, it

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Table 3 — Stress-rupture properties of wrought age-hardenable superalloys

Approximate
temperature 1200°F 1300°F 1400°F 1500°F 1600°F
Alloy limit, °F (°C) (650°C) (705°C) (760°C) (815°C) (870°C) Heat treatment
Stress for 1000-hour life, ksi (MPa)
Pyromet A-286 1300 46 29 15 — — 1800°F/1h/OQ+1325°F/16h/AC
(705) (315) (200) (105)
Pyromet 80A 1500 65 42 27 13 — 1975°F/8h/AC+1300°F/16h/AC
(815) (450) (290) (185) (85)
Pyromet 31V 1500 68 45 30 18 — 2050°F/1h/AC+1575°F/4h/
(815) (470) (310) (205) (125) AC+1350/4h/AC
Pyromet 751 1500 68 45 30 18 — 2050°F/1h/AC+1575°F/4h/
(815) (470) (310) (205) (125) AC+1350/4h/AC
Pyromet X-750 1400 67 43 27 15 — 2100°F/2h/AC+1550°F/24h/
(760) (460) (295) (185) (105) AC+1300°F/20h/AC
Pyromet 901 1400 74 52 30 14 — 2000°F/2h/WQ+1450°F/2h/
(760) (510) (360) (205) (95) AC+1325°F/24h/AC
Pyromet 706 1300 84 53 25 — — 1800°F/1h/AC+1550°F/3h/
(705) (580) (365) (170) AC+1325°F/8h/FC
to 1150°F/8h/AC
Pyromet 718 1300 89 56 28 — — 1800°F/1h/AC+1325°F/8h/FC to
(705) (615) (385) (195) 1150°F/8h/AC
Waspaloy 1600 89 64 42 26 16 1975°F/4h/OQ+1550°F/4h/
(870) (615) (440) (290) (180) (110) AC+1400°F/16h/AC
Pyromet 41 1600 101 77 49 29 17 1950°F/4h/AC+1400°F/16h/AC
(870) (695) (530) (340) (200) (115)
Pyromet 720 1600 110 93 67 45 31 2035°F/2h/AC+1975°F/
(870) (760) (640) (460) (310) (210) 4h/OQ+1200°F/24h/
AC+1400°F/8h/AC
NCF 3015 (Ni-30) 1400 64 42 25 — — 1922°F/0.5h/AC+1382°F/4h/AC
(760) (440) (290) (170)
Low-expansion superalloys (low chromium)
Pyromet CTX-909 1200 48 — — — — 1800°F/1h/AC+1325°F/8h/FC to
(650) (330) 1150°F/8h/AC
Thermo-Span 1250 63 — — — — 2000°F/1h/AC+1325°F/8h/FC to
(675) (435) 1150°F/8h/AC

is common to specify two or more preferred heat
treatments for superalloys.
In some cases, another objective of the solution
treatment is to form a more beneficial distribution
of a second phase such as carbide in Pyromet 41
alloy and delta phase (Ni3Nb) in Pyromet 718 alloy.
After solution treatment, one or more aging
treatments are applied to precipitate the hardening
phase and possibly other phases in the suitable
amount and distribution. As with solution treat-
ment, the selection of aging temperatures depends
on the alloy and the combination of properties
needed.
The aging range for age-hardenable superalloys
is 1150 to 1600°F (620 to 870°C). Aging times range
from four hours to 24 hours. Double-aging treat-
ments are quite common to maximize strength and
to develop the best combination of short-term ten-
sile and long-term creep-rupture properties. The
primary aging treatment precipitates a coarser dis-
tribution of the hardener phase, and may also im-
prove the type and distribution of carbides on grain
boundaries.
The secondary age is typically about 200°F
(110°C) below the primary aging temperature, pre-
40
cipitating a finer dispersion of the gamma-prime
phase. For some higher-strength applications, the
alloy is direct-aged after hot, warm, or cold
working, without an intermediate solution treat-
ment. The strain from working serves to further
enhance tensile and fatigue properties, although
with some sacrifice in creep-rupture properties.
Mechanical properties
For the design engineer or materials specifier, a
review of terms defining applicable mechanical
properties may be helpful:
• Tensile properties: The design of load-bearing
structures is often based on yield strength, or in some
cases, the ultimate tensile strength of the material.
Yield strength is a measure of the maximum stress a
material can withstand before it permanently de-
forms. Tensile strength is a measure of the maximum
stress a material can withstand before it fractures. El-
evated-temperature tensile properties are most ap-
plicable to short-term exposures at higher temper-
atures. Creep and stress-rupture properties are more
applicable for longer-term exposures.
• Creep and rupture properties: Creep and rup-
ture strengths become important when the ma-
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terial must withstand the combined effects of high

temperature and stress for long periods of time.
720 720
At elevated temperatures, metals stretch or “creep” 718
at stresses well below the yield strength. Super- 720
41 718
alloys are more resistant to creep than low-alloy 909 41 720
or stainless steels, but creep still develops at tem-

Tensile yield strength

706 41
718
peratures above about 1000°F (540°C). Creep prop- Waspaloy/901/ 909/706
41 720
Thermo-span Thermo-
erties are a measure of the alloy’s resistance to X-750 Span
stretching under a constant load. 751 Waspaloy/ 706
Waspaloy 41 720
Stress-rupture or creep-rupture properties are 31V 901 Waspaloy
751/X-750 901
a measure of resistance to fracture under a con-
Ni-30/ 31V 751
stant load (creep test taken to fracture). Both prop- 80A/A-286 Ni-30 31V 751 Waspaloy
X-750 Ni-30 901/31V
erties are expressed as stress or strength values
that will cause a given amount of creep (0.1% to 80A/A-286 80A Ni-30 41
A-286 31V/751
X-750 Waspaloy
1%) or rupture in a given amount of time (100 to X-750 80A
100,000 hours). 75 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
Tables 2 and 3 list typical tensile (yield) and (24) (650) (705) (760) (815) (870)
Temperature, °F (°C)
stress-rupture strength properties of the age-hard-
enable superalloys at temperatures of 1200 to Fig. 1 — Age-hardenable superalloy Selectaloy diagram showing yield strength.
1600°F (650 to 870°C). Yield strengths at room tem-
perature are also listed in Table 2. It should be 720
noted that the data represents approximate nom- 41

inal strength values for specific heat treatments. Waspaloy/

718 720
Actual values can vary by up to 35% due to differ- 706
ences in composition, hot/cold working practices, 901
and heat treatment. 31V/751 41
X-750/80A
For example, superalloys such as Pyromet 718
Ni-30 Waspaloy
and Waspaloy may contain several different aim Thermo- 718 720
Stress-rupture strength

compositions within the broader industry ranges Span 706/901

to optimize properties for specific applications. 909 31V/751
80A/X-
41
720
A-286 Waspaloy
Higher levels of the age-hardening elements tita- 750/Ni-30
nium, aluminum, and niobium result in higher 31V/751 41
A-286 901
strength. Hot or cold working an alloy to provide 80A/Ni-30
Waspaloy 720
a finer grain size typically increases tensile yield
31V/751 41
strength, but decreases stress-rupture strength. 80A Waspaloy
As discussed previously, properties of all age-
1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
hardenable superalloys depend on heat treatment. (650) (705) (760) (815) (870)
Alloys such as Pyromet X-750 and Waspaloy have Temperature, °F (°C)
two or more preferred heat treatments (see Table Fig. 2 — Age-hardenable superalloy Selectaloy diagram showing stress-
2) depending on whether the application requires rupture strength.
better short-term tensile and fatigue properties or temperature increases from left to right. The alloys
long-term creep and stress-rupture properties. Ex- are shown multiple times on the diagrams because
amples of alternative heat treatments have been the alloys are useful over a range of temperatures.
shown for Waspaloy and X-750 alloys, but the The diagram can be used to estimate not only how
reader should refer to manufacturer datasheets for the strength of an alloy decreases with tempera-
a more complete listing of alternative heat treat- ture, but also how the strengths of different alloys
ments for the other superalloys. compare at different temperatures.
• Other properties: Although tensile and creep- It should be noted that the alloys were posi-
rupture are the most basic mechanical properties tioned on the Selectaloy diagrams based on average
considered for high-temperature applications, de- strength values that are representative of com-
sign criteria may also include resistance to fatigue positions and heat treatments typical for each alloy.
(low- and high-cycle), crack growth, and wear/ero- An alloy’s relative position could move up or
sion. Hardness and hot-hardness tests are some- down, left or right, with relatively minor modifi-
times used as a rough measure of yield strength cations of composition, processing, and heat treat-
and resistance to wear/erosion. ment. Temperature limits should be considered
approximate. Therefore, while the Selectaloy dia-
Alloy selection grams are useful tools to screen candidate alloys,
A simplified method known as the Carpenter they are not a substitute for a more detailed eval-
Selectaloy system can help designers and engi- uation of the critical properties required for an in-
neers select the most suitable superalloy based on tended application.
strength and maximum temperature requirements. Pyromet A-286 alloy is the most basic age-hard-
Figures 1 and 2 contain Selectaloy diagrams for enable superalloy in terms of properties and cost.
the 14 superalloys discussed in this article. Yield A-286 provides the lowest strength levels, but
strength (Fig. 1) or stress-rupture strength (Fig. 2) still higher by a factor of two than other non-age-
increases vertically on the Selectaloy diagram, and hardenable stainless alloys. When increased
ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES/JUNE 2005 41
superalloys.qxp 5/17/2005 12:46 PM Page 6
Thermo-Span
720
Waspaloy
41
909
80A
X-750
751
718
31V
901
706
Ni-30
A-286
0 1
Relative raw material cost, ten-year average
Fig. 3 — Relative raw material cost of age-hardenable superalloys.
strength or temperature resistance is required, higher
nickel alloys are typically preferred. Alloys with the
Alloy highest levels of strength and temperature resist-
ance typically contain the highest alloy contents and
selection significant levels of cobalt. Relative cost of these
must be alloys will be discussed in the next section.
based on The Selectaloy diagrams presented in this article
provide a method to compare basic strength prop-
expected erties and temperature limitations of common
cost wrought age-hardenable superalloys. However,
effectiveness. alloy selection will undoubtedly depend on many
other considerations, including other physical and
mechanical properties, as well as environmental
resistance and cost. For example, Thermo-Span
and Pyromet CTX-909 alloys provide a benefit of
much lower expansion during heating, but at the
expense of oxidation and corrosion resistance in
the uncoated condition.
Pyromet 31V and 751 alloys provide similar
strength and temperature resistance, but the higher
chromium content of 31V alloy results in much im-
proved resistance to sulfidation and other forms
of hot corrosion.
Alloy cost
From the user’s standpoint, alloy selection must
be based on expected cost effectiveness. In today’s
competitive global environment, overdesign is less
common than in the past. The trend is to select the
lowest-cost material to meet design requirements
for the application. However, a higher-cost alloy
may be justified to minimize overall lifecycle cost,
or for longer service of certain components in a
system that is critical or too expensive to be shut
down for maintenance. Surely, knowledge of alloy
capabilities is critical in making the best decision.
As temperature and strength requirements in-
crease, so does the necessary alloy content.
42
2 3 4 5
Figure 3 compares the relative alloying costs
of the 14 alloys, with Pyromet A-286 alloy as a base
(cost factor of 1.0). The cost factors are based on
ten-year averages of the intrinsic alloying element
costs at market prices. Higher-temperature
strength and resistance typically require higher
nickel and cobalt contents. Nickel and cobalt prices
have historically been volatile, with high and low
prices varying by a factor of four to five. More re-
cently, the price of molybdenum, a potent solid so-
lution strengthener, has increased in price by a
factor of nearly ten over the last two years.
As discussed above, the cost factors in Fig. 3 are
based only on raw material elemental costs (ten-
year averages) that fluctuate significantly with
time. Differences in melting, working, and other
processing costs, which can be substantial, are not
included in these factors. Processing yields and
specific end user requirements (grain size, ultra-
sonic testing, etc.) significantly impact product
cost. However, the cost comparisons are useful be-
cause alloying costs typically represent a large por-
tion of superalloy product cost. Since superalloys
are designed for high-temperature strength and
resistance to deformation, processing difficulty
and cost also increase with hot strength and max-
imum temperature capability. It is apparent that
the alloys that provide higher levels of strength,
temperature resistance, and/or specialized prop-
erties also cost more, which reinforces the impor-
tance of the alloy selection process.
For more information: Richard B. Frank is Staff Spe-
cialist, High Temperature R&D, Carpenter Technology
Corporation, P.O. Box 14662, Reading, PA 19612-4662;
tel: 610/208-2696; fax: 610/736-7148; e-mail: rfrank@
cartech.com; Web site: www.cartech.com.
ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES/JUNE 2005