SCIECNE

•ããèÌã£ãããäÀ¾ããò ‡ãŠã ÌãØããê‡ãŠÀ¥ã (Biology : An Introduction)

peerJeOeeefjÙeeW keâe JeieeakeâjCe
 meYeer peerJeOeeefjÙeeW keâes Gvekeâer Meejerefjkeâ mebjÛevee Deewj keâeÙe& kesâ DeeOeej hej henÛeevee peelee nw leLee Gvekeâe
JeieeakeâjCe efkeâÙee peelee nw~ Mejerj keâer yeveeJeš kesâ oewjeve pees ue#eCe henues efoKeeF& oslee nw, GvnW cetue ue#eCe kesâ ®he
ceW peevee peelee nw~ Ùen ue#eCe pewJe efJekeâeme hej DeeOeeefjle nw~ pewJe efJekeâeme keâer Fme DeJeOeejCee keâes meJe&ØeLece Ûeeume&
[eefJe&ve (Charles Darwin) ves 1859 ceW Deheveer hegmlekeâ ’’efo Deesefjpeerve Dee@Heâ mheerMeerpe’’ (The origin of spe-
cies) ceW efoÙee Lee~
 pewJe efJekeâeme keâer Fme DeJeOeejCee keâes JeieeakeâjCe mes peesÌ[keâj osKeves hej nce heeles nQ efkeâ kegâÚ peerJe mecetn keâer
Meejerefjkeâ mebjÛevee ceW ØeeÛeerve keâeue mes ueskeâj Deepe lekeâ keâesF& Keeme heefjJele&ve veneR ngDee nw~ uesefkeâve kegâÚ peerJe
mecetn ceW heÙee&hle heefjJele&ve efoKeeF& heÌ[les nQ~
 henues Øekeâej kesâ peerJe keâes Deeefoce DeLeJee efvecve peerJe keânles nQ, peyeefkeâ otmejs Øekeâej kesâ peerJe keâes Gvvele DeLeJee GÛÛe
peerJe keânles nQ~ Ûetbefkeâ efJekeâeme kesâ oewjeve peerJeeW ceW peefšuelee keâer mebYeeJevee yeveer jnleer nw, FmeefueS hegjeves peerJeeW keâes
meeOeejCe SJeb veÙes peerJeeW keâes Dehes#eeke=âle peefšue Yeer keâne pee mekeâlee nw~
 mJeeref[Me Øeeke=âeflekeâ Jew%eeefvekeâ kewâjesueme efueefveÙeme (Carlos Linneaus) kesâ keâeÙe& mes Skeâ JeieeakeâjCe JÙeJemLee lewÙeej
keâer ieÙeer efpemekeâe JeCe&ve GvneWves Deheveer efkeâleeye efmemšscee vewÛegjs (Systema Naturae) ceW efkeâÙee Deewj meeLe ner ceW
GvneWves 1758 F&. ceW efÉheo veeceheæefle (Binomial Nomenclature) keâer mebkeâuhevee meeceves jKeer~

efÉheo veece heæefle (Binomial Nomenclature)

 henuee heo JebMe (Generic name/name of genus) neslee nw~
 otmeje heo efJeefMe<š Meyo (Specific name/name of species) pees ØeeefCeÙeeW keâes DevÙe peeefleÙeeW mes Deueie keâjleer
nw~ efkeâmeer ØeeCeer keâe Skeâ ner efkeâmce keâe JebMe Je peeefle keâe veece veneR nes mekeâlee nw~
 veece heæefle efueKeves nsleg efveÙece
- JebMe keâe veece henues efueKee peelee nw, Fmekeâe henuee De#ej kewâefhešue uesšj ceW efueKee peelee nw~
 peeefle keâe veece Fšeefuekeäme (Italics) ceW efueKee peelee nw, Fmekeâe henuee De#ej Small letters ceW efueKee peelee nw~
Fmekesâ DeueeJee mheerMeerpe keâe veece keâes Underline efkeâÙee peelee nw~
kegâÚ Deece heeohe SJeb peerJeeW kesâ efÉhe#eerÙe veece
meeceevÙe veece JebMe (Genus) peeefle (Species)

1 ÛeeFvee jespe (China rose) efnefyemekeâme (Hibiscus) jespee meeFvesveefmeme (Rosa Sinensis)
2. ceveg<Ùe (Humans) nescee (Homo) mesefheÙebme (Sapiens)
3. yejieo (Banyan) efHeâkeâme (Ficus) yesieeuesveefmeme (begalensis)
4. efyeuueer (Cat) Heâesefueme (Felis) [escesmšerkeâme (domesticus)
5. ceW{keâ (Frog) jeCee (Rana) efšieefjCee (tigrina)

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JeieeakeâjCe
 Devme&š nskesâue, 1894 (A.Hekel), jeyeš& efynšskeâj, 1959 (R.Whitekar), keâeue& Jeesme, 1977 (Karl Voss)
veece peerJe Jew%eeefvekeâeW ves meejs mepeerJeeW keâes peiele (Kingdoms) veecekeâ yeÌ[s JeieeX ceW efJeYeeefpele keâjves keâe ØeÙeeme
efkeâÙee nw~
 Jeesme : ves Deheves JeieeakeâjCe ceW ceesvesje peiele keâes DeekeâeayewkeäšerefjÙee Deewj ÙetyewkeäšerefjÙee ceW yeebš efoÙee nw, pees ØeÙeesie
ceW ueeÙee ieÙee nw~
 hegve: efJeefYevve mlejeW hej peerJeeW keâes Ghe mecetneW ceW Jeieeake=âle efkeâÙee ieÙee nw~
1. peiele (Kingdom) : meYeer peerJeOeeefjÙeeW keâes Skeâ Je=nod mecetn ceW jKee ieÙee nw~ Ùen peerJeOeeefjÙeeW keâe meyemes
yeÌ[e ef[Jeerpeve nw~ kegâue heebÛe peiele nw~
GoenjCe : heeohe peiele, ØeeCeer peiele, keâJekeâ peiele, Øeesefšmše peiele, ceesvesje peiele~
2. HeâeFuece DeLeJee ef[Jeerpeve (Phylum/Division) : ØelÙeskeâ peiele kesâ Debleie&le efJeefYevve JeieeX kesâ ceOÙe kegâue
meceeveleeSb heeF& peeleer nQ~ Ùes meceeveleeSb HeâeFuece (ØeeCeer ceW) Ùee ef[Jeerpeve (heeoheeW ceW) keâe efvecee&Ce keâjleer nw~
GoenjCe : meYeer ØeeCeer efpemekesâ YeütCeeW ceW veesšeskeâe[& (notochord) heeF& peeleer nw, GvnW keâe@[xše (Chordata)
keânles nQ~
3. Jeie& (Class) : HeâeFuece DeLeJee ef[Jeerpeve kesâ meomÙe Deeheme ceW meeceevÙe efJeMes<eleeDeeW mes pegÌ[s nesleer nQ, Fmemes
Jeie& keâe efvecee&Ce neslee nw~
GoenjCe : keâe@[xše pewmes keâer kegâòee, efyeuueer, [e@efuHeâve keâes mleveOeeefjÙeeW kesâ Jeie& ceW jKee ieÙee nw~ Fve meYeer
peerJeeW kesâ efueS Mejerj hej yeeue, mleve, yeeÿe keâeve nesles nQ~
4. ieCe (Order) : Jeie& kesâ meomÙe efpeveceW meceeveleeSb heeF& peeleer nw, Jes ’ieCe’ keâe efvecee&Ce keâjles nQ~
GoenjCe : yeeIe leLee YesefÌ[Ùee keâes Skeâ ’ieCe’ ceW jKee ieÙee nw, keäÙeeWefkeâ Gvekesâ cepeyetle peyeÌ[s nesles nQ, efpevemes
Jes efMekeâej keâj mekeâles nQ~ FmeerefueÙes, Fve peerJeeW keâes ceebmeenejer (Carnivora) mecetn ceW jKee ieÙee nw~
5. kegâue (Faimly) : ieCe kesâ meomÙeeW kesâ ceOÙe kegâÚ Deece jÛeveelcekeâ meceeveleeSb heeF& peeleer nQ, Fme DeeOeej hej
meomÙeeW keâes ’kegâue’ ceW yeebše peelee nw~
GoenjCe : efyeuueer leLee Mesj keâes (Cat Felidae) kewâš Hewâefue[sF& kegâue ceW jKee ieÙee nw keäÙeeWefkeâ Fvekesâ heeme heerÚs
peeves Jeeues hebpes (Retractive Claws) nesles nQ~
6. JebMe (Genus) : Skeâ kegâue kesâ meomÙeeW kesâ ceOÙe Gvekesâ peveve DebieeW ceW meceeveleeSB heeF& peeleer nQ~ Fmekesâ DeeOeej
hej meomÙeeW keâes ‘JebMeeW’ ceW yeebše ieÙee nw~
GoenjCe : yejieo SJeb Debpeerj
heewOeeW kesâ DeueQefiekeâ iegCe ceW meceeveleeSb veneR nQ hejvleg Fvekesâ Hetâue, Heâue leLee yeerpe ceW meceeveleeSb heeF& peeleer nQ~
FmeefueÙes oesveeW hesÌ[ Ficus (efHeâkeâme) ’JebMe’ ceW jKes ieÙes nQ~
7. peeefle (Species) : JeieeakeâjCe keâjves kesâ DeeOeejYetle FkeâeF& peeleer nw~ Fmekeâe nj meomÙe Deheves ner meceeve meomÙe
hewoe keâjves keâer #ecelee jKelee nw~ Skeâ ner peeefle kesâ meomÙeeW kesâ yeerÛe jÛeveelcekeâ leLee ef›eâÙeelcekeâ meceeveleeSb heeF&
peeleer nQ~
GoenjCe : yeeIe kesâ efšieejsme (Tigris) peeefle ceW jKee ieÙee nw~
veesš : Ùeefo oes efJeefYevve peeefleÙeeW kesâ yeerÛe mebkeâjCe (Interbreeding) neslee nw, lees Gmemes pevce uesves Jeeues peerJe vehegbmekeâ
(Sterile) nesles nQ~

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GoenjCe : Ùeefo IeesÌ[e SJeb iebiee kesâ ceOÙe mebkeâjCe neslee nw pees efkeâ oes Deueie peeefleÙeeW mes Deeles nQ, Gvemes Glheeflele
nesves Jeeueer mebleeve KeÛÛej (mule) vehegbmekeâ nesleer nw~
efJnšskeâj Éeje Øemlegle peiele JeieeakeâjCe keâer heebÛe efJeMes<eleeSb efvecveJele nQ -
ceesvesje (monera) :
 Ùen peiele efJnšskeâj Éeje 1969 ceW ÛeewLes peiele kesâ ®he ceW
Øeefleheeefole efkeâÙee ieÙee Lee~
 Fve peerJeeW ceW ve lees mebieef"le kesâvõkeâ (nucleus) Deewj keâesefMekeâebie
nesles nQ, ve ner Gvekesâ Mejerj yengkeâesefMekeâ nesles nQ~ FveceW heeF& peeves
Jeeueer efJeefJeOelee DevÙe ue#eCeeW hej efveYe&j keâjleer nw~ kegâÚ ceW
keâesefMekeâe efYeefòe heeF& peeleer nw leLee kegâÚ ceW veneR~ Ùes peerJe
meeOeejCe ØeeskewâefjÙeesš nesles nQ~
 hees<eCe kesâ mlej hej Ùes mJehees<eer (autotrophs) DeLeJee efJe<ecehees<eer
(hetrotrophs) nesles nQ~ Ùes Dehevee hees<eCe ØekeâeMe mebMues<eCe Je
jemeeÙeefvekeâ mebMues<eCe kesâ Éeje keâjles nQ~
 peveve cegKÙele: DeueQefiekeâ (Asexual) neslee nw, pees mejue keâesefMekeâe efJeYeepeve (Fission) Ùee cegkegâueve (Buding)
kesâ Éeje neslee nw~
GoenjCe : peerJeeCeg, veerue-nefjle MewJeeue DeLeJee meeÙeveesyewkeäšerefjÙee, ceeFkeâeshueepecee~
Øeesefšmše (protista) : Ùen peiele pece&ve peerJeefJe%eeveer F&.SÛe.nskeâue (E.H.Haekel) Éeje 1866 ceW Øeefleheeefole efkeâÙee
ieÙee Lee~
 Fme peiele ceW SkeâkeâesefMekeâ, ÙetkewâefjÙeesšer peerJe Deeles nQ~
 Fme Jeie& ceW kegâÚ peerJe ieceve kesâ efueS meerefueÙee (Cilia) Heäuewiesuee
(Flagella) keâe GheÙeesie keâjleer nw~
 Ùes mJehees<eer (Autotrophs) SJeb efJe<ecehees<eer (Hetrotrophs) oesveeW
lejn kesâ nesles nQ~
GoenjCeeLe& : SkeâkeâeseMf ekeâ MewJeeue, [eFSšce (Diatom), ØeesšespeesDee
(protozoa)~
keâJekeâ (Fungi) :
 heebÛeje peiele efJnšskeâj Éeje Øeefleheeefole efkeâÙee ieÙee Lee~
 Ùes efJe<ecehees<eer ÙetkewâefjÙeesšer peerJe nw~ Ùes hees<eCe kesâ efueS meÌ[s ieues
keâeye&efvekeâ heoeLeeX hej efveYe&j keâjles nQ FmeefueÙes FvnW ce=lepeerJeer
(Saprophytes) keâne peelee nw~
 FveceW mes keâF& peerJeve keâer efJeMes<e DeJemLee ceW yengkeâesefMekeâ #ecelee
Øeehle keâj uesles nQ~
 Fve peerJeeW ceW keâeFefšve (Kytin) veecekeâ peefšue Meke&âje mes yeveer
keâesefMekeâe efYeefòe heeF& peeleer nw~
GoenjCeeLe& : Ùeermš (Yeast), ceMe®ce (Mushroom)
 keâJekeâeW keâer kegâÚ ØepeeefleÙeeb veerue nefjle MewJeeue (Cynobacteria)

kesâ meeLe mLeeÙeer DeblemeËyebOe yeveeleer nw, efpemes menpeerefJelee

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(Symbiosis) keânles nQ~ Ssmes menpeerJeer peerJeeW kesâ ueeFkesâve (lichen) keâne peelee nw~ Ùes ueeFkesâve Dekeämej hesÌ[eW hej
jbieerve OeyyeeW kesâ ®he ceW efoKeeF& osles nQ~
 peveve-DeueQefiekeâ Deewj ueQefiekeâ oesveeW lejn mes neslee nw~

GheÙeesefielee :
 KeeÅe GÅeesie - ceMe®ce (Øeesšerve, efJešeefceve keâer yenguelee),

Ùeermš (efJešeefceve B keâer yenguelee)

 efÛeefkeâlmee GÅeesie - SbšeryeeÙeesefškeäme (antibiotics), Jemee Je
Øeesšerve kesâ mebMkeâjCe ceW, efJešeefceve Je Fbpeece kesâ efvecee&Ce ceW~
 GÅeesie - Mejeye GÅeesie, yeÇs[ yeveeves ceW, jmeeÙeve GÅeesie
 ke=âef<e - GJe&jkeâ kesâ ®he ceW~

neefve :
 yeerceejer - Fmemes Heâmeue, ceveg<Ùe leLee peeveJejeW kesâ yeerÛe yeerceejer Hewâueleer nw~
 KeeÅe heoeLeeX keâer yeyee&oer - Heâue, meypeer, ceebme, ogiOe Glheeo ceesu[ keâJekeâeW mes yeyee&o nes peeles nQ~
hueebšer :
 Ùen ØeLece yeej keâeue& efueefveÙeme Éeje 1758 ceW Øeefleheeefole efkeâÙee ieÙee Lee~

 Fme Jeie& ceW keâesefMekeâe efYeefòe Jeeues yengkeâesefMekeâ ÙetkewâefjÙeešer peerJe Deeles nQ~ Ùes mJehees<eer nesles nQ Deewj ØekeâeMe-mebMues<eCe

kesâ efueS keäueesjesefHeâue (chlorophyll) keâe ØeÙeesie keâjles nQ~

 Fme Jeie& ceW meYeer heewOeeW keâes jKee ieÙee nw Ûetbefkeâ heewOes Deewj pebleg meJee&efOekeâ Âef<šieesÛej nesles nQ~
SefvecesefueÙee :
 Fme peiele keâe meJe&ØeLece Øeefleheeove 1758 ceW keâeue& efueefveÙeme (Carl Linneaus) Éeje efkeâÙee ieÙee Lee~
 Fme Jeie& ceW Ssmes meYeer yengkeâesefMekeâÙetkewâefjÙeesleer peerJe Deeles nQ, efpeveceW keâesefMekeâe efYeefòe (Cellwall) veneR heeF& peeleer

nw~ Fme Jeie& kesâ peerJe efJe<ecehees<eer (hetrotrophs) nesles nQ~

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hueebšer peiele
heewOeeW ceW ØeLece mlej keâe JeieeakeâjCe Fve leLÙeeW hej DeeOeeefjle nw efkeâ heeohe Mejerj kesâ ØecegKe Ieškeâ hetCe&®hesCe efJekeâefmele
SJeb efJeYesefole nQ, DeLeJee veneR~ JeieeakeâjCe keâe Deieuee mlej heeohe Mejerj ceW peue Deewj DevÙe heoeLeeX keâes mebJenve keâjves Jeeues
efJeefMe<š TlekeâeW (Specific tissue) kesâ GheefmLeefle kesâ DeeOeej hej neslee nw~ lelHeMÛeele JeieeakeâjCe Øeef›eâÙee kesâ Debleie&le Ùen osKee
peelee nw efkeâ heewOeeW ceW yeerpeOeejCe keâer #ecelee nw DeLeJee veneR~ Ùeefo yeerpeOeejCe keâer #ecelee nw lees yeerpe Heâue kesâ Deboj efJekeâefmele
nw DeLeJee veneR~

 heeohe ceW JeieeakeâjCe

(i) efJekeâeme Je efJeYesove
(ii) mebJenve keâjves Jeeues Tlekeâ
(iii) yeerpeOeejCee
(iv) yeerpe keâe Deebleefjkeâ DeLeJee yeeÿe efJekeâeme
 DeeFMeuej (1883) kesâ megPeeJeevegmeej Jevemheefle peiele keâes oes GhepeieleeW - ef›eâhšsiesceer Je Hewâvesjesiesceer ceW ØeefJeYeeefpele
efkeâÙee ieÙee nw~
 ef›eâhšesiesceer (Cryphogamae) Ghepeiele: ’ef›eâhšes’ keâe DeLe& nw - efÚhee ngDee Deewj ’iewceme’ keâe DeLe& nw - efJeJeen~
Fvekesâ efvejvlej heewOes Ùee Hetâuejefnle Je yeerpejefnle heewOes Yeer keânles nQ~
- FveceW yeenjer Hetâue Ùee yeerpe veneR nesles nQ, FmeefueÙes ceevee peelee nw efkeâ FveceW ieghle (efÚhes ngS) peveveebie nesles nQ~
- Fme peiele keâes leerve mecetn ceW yeebše ieÙee nw -

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ef›eâhšesiesceer
(Cryptogamae)

  

LewueesHeâeFše yeÇeÙeesHeâeFše šsefj[esHeâeFše

(Thallaphyta) (Bryophyta) (Ptreidophyta)

a) Meejerefjkeâ mebjÛevee ceW Fme Jeie& kesâ heewOeeW keâes heeohe Jeie& keâe (a) heeohe osn heefòeÙeeW Je peÌ[eW mes yeveer
(a)
efJeYesoerkeâjCe veneR heeÙee peelee GYeÙeÛej keâne peelee nw~ Ùen heeohe, levee nw~
nw Deefheleg Skeâ mece®he Lewueme kesâ leLee heòeeW pewmeer mebjÛevee ceW efJeYeeefpele
®he ceW neslee nw~ nesles nQ~
(b) Fme Jeie& kesâ heewOeeW keâes (b) mebJenve nsleg efJeefMe<š Tlekeâ (b) FmeceW mebJenve Tlekeâ ceewpeto nQ~
meeceevÙeleÙee MewJeeue (Algal-keâesF)& DevegheefmLele jnles nQ~
keâne peelee nw~
(c) Fme ef[Jeerpeve ceW heewOes kesâ leerve (c) peveveebie yengkeâesefMekeâ nQ, efve<esÛeve kesâ (c) peveveebie yengkeâesefMekeâ nQ efve<esÛeve
mecetn nw - MewJeeue, keâJekeâ,heMÛeele Skeâ YeütCe yevelee nw~ kesâ heMÛeele YeütCe yevelee nw~
ueeFkesâve peveveebie Skeâ keâesefMekeâ nQ
leLee YeütCe veneR yeveelee nw~
(d) Ùes cegKÙeleÙee peue ceW heeÙes (d) Ùes meyemes meeOeejCe peceerveer heewOes nQ~
peeles nQ~
GoenjCe : ÙetueesefLeÇkeäme GoenjCe : cee@me (HeäÙetvesefjÙee) ceekexâefMeÙee GoenjCe: ceemeeaefueÙee Heâve&, ne@me&-
meheeFjesieeFje, keâeje FlÙeeefo~ šsue FlÙeeefo~

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veesš : LewueesHeâeFše, yeÇeÙeesHeâeFDee leLee šsefj[esHeâeFše ceW veive YeütCe heeÙes peeles nQ~ efpevnW peerJeeCeg (Spore) keânles nQ~
 Hewâvejesiewce (Phanerogamae) Ghepeiele : Jes heewOes efpeveceW peveve Tlekeâ hetCe& ®he mes efJekeâefmele SJeb efJeYesefole nesles
nQ~ FmeceW peve Øeeff›eâÙee kesâ heMÛeele yeerpe Glhevve neslee nw~ Fmemes peveve Øeef›eâÙee kesâ heMÛeele yeerpe Glhevve neslee nw~
yeerpe kesâ Deboj YeütCe kesâ meeLe mebefÛele KeeÅe heoeLe& neslee nw, efpemekeâe GheÙeesie YeütCe kesâ ØeejbefYekeâ efJekeâeme SJeb DebkegâjCe
kesâ meceÙe neslee nw~
- FmeceW mebJenve leb$e (Xylem and phloem) DeÛÚer lejn efJekeâefmele nw~
- peveveebie yengkeâesefMekeâ nw, efve<esÛeve kesâ heMÛeele YeütCe yevelee nw~
- FmeceW kesâJeue Skeâ ef[Jeerpeve mhecexšesHeâeFše nw efpemekesâ ue#eCe Thej efoÙes ieÙes Ghepeiele kesâ meceeve ner nQ~ Fmekesâ
Heâue nesves Ùee ve nesves kesâ DeeOeej hej oes meJeef[efJepeve nQ -

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Hewâvejesiewce
(Phanerogamae)

mheceXšesHeâeFše
(Spermophyta)
(yeerpe keâer DeJemLee kesâ DeeOeej hej)
|
 
efpec>eesmheceea (Gymnospermae) SbefpeÙeesmhece& (Angiospermae)

(a) efpecvees keâe DeLe& nw ’veive’ leLee mhecee& keâe DeLe&
nw ’yeerpe’ DeLee&le FvnW veivepeerJeer heewOes Yeer keâne peelee nw~
(b) Ùes heewOes yengJe<eea meoeyenej leLee keâe‰erÙe nesles nQ~
(c) GoenjCe -heeFveme, meeFkeâme
(a) SbefpeÙeeW keâe DeLe& nw ’{keâe’ ngDee leLee mhecee& keâe DeLe&
yeerpe HeâueeW kesâ Deboj heeÙes peeles nQ~
(b) Fvekesâ yeerpeeW keâe efJekeâeme Deb[eMeÙe kesâ Deboj neslee nw
pees yeeo ceW Heâue yeve peelee nw~
(c) FveceW Yeespeve keâe mebÛeÙe Ùee lees yeerpehe$eeW ceW neslee nw
Ùee efHeâj YeütCehees<e ceW~
 yeerpehe$eeW kesâ DeeOeej hej SbefpeÙeesmhece& keâes oes YeeieeW ceW
yeebše ieÙee nw -
(a) Skeâyeerpehe$eer (monocotyledons) (iesntb ÛeeJeue
FlÙeeefo),
(b) efÉyeerpehe$eer (dicotyledons) (Ûevee, cešj FlÙeeefo)

SveercesefueÙee (Animalia)
 yengkeâesefMekeâerÙe ÙetkewâefjDeesefškeâ peerJe efpevekeâer keâesefMekeâeDeeW
ceW ÂÌ{ keâesefMekeâeDeeW efYeefòe Deewj ØekeâeMe mebMeues<eer leb$e veneR
neslee~
 Ùen oes cegKÙe Ghe-peieleeW ceW efJeYeeefpele nw ØeesšespeesDee
(Protozoa) Deewj cesšepeesDee (Metazoa)~ ØeesšespeesDee
SkeâkeâesefMekeâerÙe nesles nQ, peyeefkeâ cesšepeesDee yengkeâesefMekeâerÙe
nesles nQ~
 cesšepeesDee Deeies oes MeeKeeDeeW ceW Ghe-efJeYeeefpele nesles nQ T
hewjespeesDee (Parazoa) Deewj ÙetcesšepeesDee (Umetazoa)
-hewjepeesDee ceW ØeeCeer osn TlekeâeW Deewj DebieeW mes mebieef"le
veneR nesleer, yeefukeâ Jen Demebieef"le keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ mecetn
mes yeveleer nw (pewmes mhebpe)~
 Fmekesâ efJehejerle ÙetcesšepeesDee ceW keâesefMekeâeSb mebef"le neskeâj Tlekeâ Deewj Debie yeveeleer nQ~ ÙetcesšepeesDee YeütCe ceW peveve
hejleeW keâer mebKÙee kesâ DeeOeej hej oes YeeieeW ceW efJeYeeefpele efkeâS ieS nQ~ efpeve ØeeefCeÙeeW ceW oes peveve hejleW nesleer nQ (yeendÙe
lJeÛee Deewj Deble: lJeÛee Sv[es[ce& leLee oesveeW kesâ yeerÛe ceW pewueer pewmeer ceOÙeMues<emlej cesmeesefiueÙee,) GvnW efÉkeâesjkeâer
(Diploblastic) Deewj efpeveceW leerve (yeendÙe lJeÛee Deble: lJeÛee Deewj ceOÙepevemlej cesmees[ce&) hejleW nesleer nQ, GvnW
ef$ekeâesjkeâer (Triploblastic) keânles nQ~
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 Fve oesveeW JeieeX kesâ ØeeefCeÙeeW keâes Deeies efvecve ßesefCeÙeeW ceW Jeefie&le
efkeâÙee peelee nw Smeerueescesše, mÙet[esmeerueescesše Deewj Ùetmeerueescesše~
(a) Deiegefnkeâ ØeeefCeÙeeW (meerueescesše) ceW osniegne (Body Cavity)
veneR nesleer, keäÙeeWefkeâ osn efYeòeer Deewj heeÛeve veefuekeâe kesâ yeerÛe
keâe mLeeve ce=otlekeâ (hewjvekeâeFcee) keâesefMekeâeDeeW mes Yeje jnlee
nw~
(b) ketâšiegefnkeâeW mÙet[esmeerueescesšdme ceW neueebefkeâ osniegne nesleer nw,
uesefkeâve SheerLeerefueÙeue keâesefMekeâeDeeW mes jsefKele veneR jnleer~
(c) Ùetmeerueescesšdme ceW osniegne Ghekeâuee (SefheLeereuf eÙeceer) keâesefMekeâeDeeW
mes Deemleefjle (lined) jnleer nw efpemes Demeueer Øeiegne (meerueesce)
keânles nQ, Ùen DevÙe Úesšs mecetneW ceW Ghe efJeYeeefpele nesles nQ efpevnW mebIe (HeâeFuece) keânles nQ pees ØeeefCeDeeW kesâ cegKÙe
ue#eCeeW keâer meceevelee kesâ DeeOeej hej Deewj jerÌ{ DeLeJee keâMes®keâob[ (vertebral column) kesâ nesves Ùee vee nesves hej
efveYe&j keâjlee nw~
 ØeesšespeesDee/ØeejbefYekeâ peerJe (Protozoa) : Ùes Skeâ keâesefMekeâ
DeefOekeâlej peueÛej (DeueJeCe Ùee ueJeCe peue), cegkeälepeerJeer Ùee
hejpeerJeer peerJe nw~
 Ûeueve (Locomotion) ketâšheeo (pseudopodia), keâMeeYe
(Fagella) Ùee meerefueÙee (Cilia) mes neslee nw~
 hees<eCe: DeefOekeâlej efJe<eceheesef<ele nQ~
 peveve: yengKeb[ve Deewj mebÙegiceve (Conjugation) kesâ Éeje
neslee nw~
GoenjCe: Deceeryee, Ùegiueervee, hewjeefceefMeÙece, hueepeecesef[Ùece~
 heesefjHesâje HeâeFuece (efÚõYej Ùee mhebpe) (Porifera) : heesefjHesâje
keâe DeLe& nw efÚõÙegkeäle peerJeOeejer nw~ Ùes DeÛeue peerJe nQ pees efkeâmeer
DeeOeej mes efÛehekesâ jnles nQ~ osn ceW meYeer peien efÚõ (Ostia) Deewj
efMeKej hej Skeâ yeÌ[e cegKe (Osculum) neslee nw~
 Ùes efÚõ Mejerj ceW GheefmLele veeue ØeCeeueer mes pegÌ[s nesles nQ,
efpemekesâ ceeOÙece mes Mejerj peue, Dee@keämeerpeve Je YeespÙe heoeLeeX
keâe mebÛejCe neslee nw~
 Fvekeâe Mejerj keâ"esj DeeJejCe DeLeJee yeeÿe kebâkeâeue mes {keâe neslee nw~ Fvekeâer Meejerefjkeâ mebjÛevee DelÙeble mejue nesleer
nw, efpeveceW TlekeâeW keâe efJeYesove veneR neslee nw~ FvnW meeceevÙe: mhebpe kesâ veece mes peevee peelee nw~ Ùes yengOee mecegõer
DeeJeeme ceW heeÙes peeles nQ~
 GoenjCele: meeFkeâe@ve, Ùethueskeäšsuee, mheeefpeuee FlÙeeefo~
 peveve: oesveeW, DeueQefiekeâ, cegkegâueve (Budding) Ùee cegkegâuekeâ Éeje leLee ueQefiekeâ efve<esÛeve Éeje neslee nw~
 meerueWšjsše HeâeFuece (veeF[sefjÙee Heâeuece) (Coelenterata) : Ùes peueerÙe pebleg nQ~ Fvekeâe Meejerefjkeâ mebie"ve TlekeâerÙe
mlej keâe neslee nw~ FveceW Skeâ osniegne (Gastrovascular) heeF& peeleer nw~ Fvekeâe Mejerj keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâer oes hejleeW
(Deebleefjkeâ SJeb yeeÿe hejle) keâe yevee neslee nw~

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 šWšskeâue (tentacle) Deewj osn hej efJeMes<e keâesefMekeâeSb

(Chidoblast) nesleer nQ, pees [bkeâ ceejves Jeeueer keâesefMekeâe mes
yeveer nesleer nw~
 Fme mecetn ceW peerJe oes Øekeâej kesâ JÙeef<šDeeW Ùee peerefJekeâe
hee@efuehe (Polyps) Jes ces[gmee (Medusa) ceW neslee nw~ hee@efuehe
(Polyps) Skeâue Ùee mebIepeerJeer Deewj ncesMee mLeeveyeæ nw
peyeefkeâ ces[gmee (Medusa) cegkeäle hueeJeer lewjekeâer nw~
 peveve ØeeÙe: hee@efuehe ceW DeueQefiekeâ Deewj ces[gmee ceW ueQefiekeâ
neslee nw~
 veeF[sefjÙee: yengle meer efkeâmceW Ûetves keâe Skeâ meKle Jeefn: keâeue yeveeles nQ GoenjCe - keâesjue
 GoenjCe : neF[^e, mecegõer Sveerceesve, pesueerefHeâMe FlÙeeefo~
 huewšernsefucevLeerpe HeâeFuece Ùee Ûehešs ke=âefce (Platyheimi-
nthes) : Ùes DeefOekeâej hejpeerJeer nw Deewj cespeyeeve ceW Ûet<ekeâ keâer
meneÙelee mes pegÌ[s nesles nQ~ kegâÚ cegkeälepeerJeer nQ~
 Fvekeâe Mejerj efÉheeMJe&meceefcele (bilateral) nesleer nw DeLee&le
oeSb Je yeeSb Yeeie keâer mebjÛevee meceeve nesleer nw~
 Fvekeâe Mejerj ef$ekeâesjkeâ (Triploblastic) neslee nw, DeLee&le
Fvekeâe Tlekeâ efJeYesove leerve keâesefMekeâerÙe mlejeW ceW ngDee nw~
uesefkeâve FveceW osniegne (Gostrovascular Cavity) keâe
DeYeeJe neslee nw~
 Fvekeâe Mejerj he=‰OeejerÙe (dorsoventrally) SJeb Ûehešer Ùee heòes Ùee efjye@vevegcee (ribbonlike) neslee nw~ FmeefueÙes FvnW
Ûehešs ke=âefce keâne peelee nw~
 Deece leewj hej Ùes GYeÙeeEueieer (hermophrodite) DeLee&le vej SJeb ceeoe peveveebie Skeâ ner peerJe ceW ceewpeto neslee nw~
 GoenjCe : huesvesefjÙee : mJeÚbo pevleg
ueerJejHeäuetkeâ : YesÌ[ SJeb ceJesMeer ceW hejpeerJeer (Parasite) kesâ ®he ceW heeÙes peeles nQ~
šsheJece& (Tapeworm) : ceveg<Ùe kesâ Deeble (intensite) hejpeerJeer
kesâ ®he ceW heeÙee peelee nw~
 SsmkesâueefcevLeerpe (Aschelminthes) HeâeFuece, ieesue ke=âefce efvecesšes[e
 Ùes Yeer ef$ekeâesjkeâ (triploblostic) pebleg nQ leLee FveceW Yeer efÉ-heeMJe& meceefceefle
(bilateral) heeF& peeleer nw uesefkeâve Fvekeâe Mejerj Ûeheše vee neskeâj yesueveekeâej
(Cylindrical) neslee nw~
 Fvekesâ osniegne kesâ ketâšmeerueesce (Pseudocoel) keânles nQ~ FmeceW Tlekeâ heeÙes peeles
nQ hejbleg Debieleb$e hetCe& efJekeâefmele veneR nesles nQ~
 Ùes DeefOekeâebMele: hejpeerJeer (Parasitic) nesles nQ~ hejpeerJeer kesâ leewj hej Ùes otmejs
peerJe ceW yeerceejer Hewâueeles nQ~
 vej Je ceeoe eEueie he=Lekeâ nesles nQ~

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 GoenjCe: Ssmkeâeefjme (ceeveJe ceW hejpeerJeer), SWšsjesefyeÙeme, JegÛesjsefjÙee (ceveg<Ùe ceW HeâeFuesefjÙee jesie neslee nw)~
 Ssvesefue[e HeâeFuece Ùee meKeb[ ke=âefce (Annelida)
 yengle mes ke=âefce keâer Mejerj meKebef[le nesleer nw~ Fvekeâer meceefcele
efÉheeMJe& (bilateral) nesleer nw~
 Demeueer osn iegne Jeeues ØeLece ØeeCeer nQ~ Fmemes JeemleefJekeâ
Debie Meejerefjkeâ mebjÛevee ceW efveefnle jnles nQ~ Dele: DebieeW ceW
efmej mes hetÚ lekeâ Skeâ kesâ yeeo Skeâ Kebef[le ®he ceW GheefmLele
nesleer nw~
 peueerÙe Sveerefue[ DeueJeCe SJeb ueJeCeerÙe peue oesveeW ceW heeÙes
peeles nQ~
 FveceW mebJenve, heeÛeve, Glmepe&ve Deewj lebef$ekeâe leb$e heeÙes
peeles nQ~
 Ùes peueerÙe Deewj mLeueerÙe oesveeW nesles nQ~
 peveve ueQefiekeâ meeOeveeW mes nw~ vej Je ceeoe peveve Debie
Deueie Ùee Fkeâšd"s (GYeÙeeEueieer) nes mekeâles nQ~ uesefkeâve DeefOekeâebMe Je Ssveerefue[ GYeÙeeEueieer (hermaphrodite) nesles nQ~
 GoenjCe: keWâÛegDee (Earthworm), vesefjme (Earthworm), vesefjme (Sandworm), peeWkeâ~
 DeeLeÇexhees[e (Arthropoda) : Ùen pebleg peiele keâe meyemes yeÌ[e (80%) mebIe nw~ FveceW efÉheeMJe& meceefceefle heeF& peeleer nw Deewj
Mejerj Keb[Ùegkeäle neslee nw~ Ùen oes YeeieeW ceW efJeYeeefpele neslee nw - (a) efMejesJe#e (Cephalothorax) efmej leLee Je#e mecetefnle
nesles nQ, (b) Goj (abdomen) Ùee leerveeW Yeeie - efmej, Je=#e SJeb Goj ceW mecetefnle nw~
 osn keâe De«e Yeeie ceefmle<keâ Je mebJesoer Debie kesâ efueS Skeâ he=Lekeâ efmej yeveelee nw~
 yeeÿe kebâkeâeue keâeF&efšveer (Chitinous) nw~
 osniegne keâce nes ieF& nw leLee jkeäle mes Yejer ngF& nw (Haemocoel) ~
 MJemeve (Respiration) efieue, MJeemeveueer, Ùegkeäle HegâHeäHegâme mes neslee nw~
 peveve Debie Deueie-Deueie nesles nQ~
 GoenjCe: mkeâesueeshes[e^ (keâveKepetje), hewueerceesve (PeeRiee), hesjerhuesvesše
(efleueÛešdše), cemkeâe (cekeäKeer), SsefveefHeâueerpe (ceÛÚj), Ssefheme
(ceOegcekeäKeer), hewuesefcveÙeme (efyeÛÚt), SsjsefveÙee (cekeâÌ[er)~
 DeeLeÇexhees[e keâes Ûeej JeieeX ceW yeebše ieÙee nw -
(i) ›eâmšsefMeDeve (Crustacean) - Ssmes mebefJeOeheeo ØeeCeer efpevekeâe
Mejerj Deveskeâ mece®he Keb[eW ceW yebše neslee nw~ DeefOekeâebMe Keb[eW
ceW Skeâ Ùee oes peesÌ[er heeo nesles nQ~ DeefOekeâebMe Keb[eW ceW Skeâ Ùee
oes peesÌ[er heeo nesles nQ~
GoenjCe : hewueercee@ve PeeRiee (Prawn), yeÇwefvkeâheme (Yeerieer-
shrimp)
(ii) Fvmeskeâlee (Insecta) : Ssmes mebefOeheeo efpeveceW hewjeW kesâ leerve
peesÌ[s nesles nQ Deewj Mejerj leerve YeeieeW ceW neslee nw~
GoenjCe : hewjerhuesveše (keâe@keâjesÛe), hewehf eefueÙees (efleleueer), cemkeâer
(cekeäKeer), keäÙetueskeäme (ceÛÚj)~
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(iii) SjsefJeve[e (Arachnida) : Ssmes mebefOeheeo efpeveceW šebiees kesâ

Ûeej peesÌ[s nesles nQ Deewj Mejerj oes YeeieeW ceW efJeYeeefpele neslee nw~
GoenjCe : yetLeme (efyeÛÚt), ueeFkeâesmee (JeguHeâ cekeâÌ[er), efuecetueme (jepe kesâkeâÌ[e), efškeâ (Tick)~
(iv) ceeFefjÙeehees[e (Myriapoda) : Ssmes mebefOeheeo efpevekeâe Mejerj keâF& mece®he Keb[eW ceW yebše neslee nw~ DeefOekeâebMe Keb[
ceW šebiees kesâ Skeâ Ùee oes peesÌ[e neslee nw~
GoenjCe : mkeâesueeshesv[^e (keâveKepetje-mesvšerheer[), petueme (efceueerheer[)~
 FkeâeFvees[cexše HeâeFuece (Echinodermata) : «eerkeâ ceW ’FkeâeFvee@me’ keâe
DeLe& nw, peenkeâ (nspene@ie) leLee ’[cee&’ keâe DeLe& nw lJeÛee~ Dele: Fve pevlegDeeW
keâer lJeÛee keâebšeW mes DeeÛÚeefole nesleer nw~
 Ùes cegkeälepeerJeer mecegõer pevleg nQ~ Ùes osniegneÙegkeäle ef$ekeâesefškeâ (Triploblas-
tic) pevleg nQ~ osniegne peuemebJenveer leb$e ceW heefjJeefle&le nw, efpemekesâ yeenj
efvekeâues ngS veue-heeo (tube feet) Ûeueve kesâ efueS GheÙeesie neslee nw~
 FveceW kewâefumeÙece keâeyeexvesš (CaCl2) keâe kebâkeâeue Je keâebšs heeÙes peeles nQ~
 GoenjCe: Ssmšerej f Ssme (mšejefHeâMe), FkeâeFveme (mecegõer DeefÛe&ve) nesueesLÙetejf Ùee
(mecegõer keâke&âšer), Ss[eršesve (efheÛÚ leeje)
 ceesuemkeâe HeâeFuece DeLeJee vejce osn Jeeues keâJeÛeer peerkeâ (Mollusc Phylum)
 FveceW peueÛej peerJe Deeles nQ~ Deekeâej met#ce mes ueskeâj YeercekeâeÙe peerJeeW (pewmes Deekeäšesheme 50 Hegâš) lekeâ nw~
 Ùes vejce, DeKeb[ Je Gheebiejefnle nw~
 Mejerj leerve Yeeie ceW efJeYeeefpele nQ - efmej, heg<š Devlejbie hegbpe (dorsal Visceral Mass) Deewj DeeOeej heo (Ventral foot)
 yeenjer lJeÛee Skeâ meKle, Ûetvesoej keâJeÛe mes {keâer nw~
 MJemeve efieue (keäueesce) Ùee kebâkeâlkeäueesce (Ctenidia) Éeje nw~
 vej Je ceeoe ØeeÙe: Deueie-Deueie nQ~
 GoenjCe: keâeFšve heeFuee (IeeWIee), ÙetefveDees (DeueJeCekeâ peueerÙe Mebyeg), Dee@keäšesheme~
 nsceerkeâe@[xše/Øeesšeskeâe@[xš (Hemi-chordata/Proto-chordotor) : FmeceW ke=âefcevegcee DeKebpe peerJe Deeles nQ~ Ùes hetCe& ®he
mes mecegõer nQ~ FveceW DekeâMes®keâer Je keâMes®keâer oesveeW iegCe meefcceefuele nQ~
 osn, Megb[ (proboseis) keâe@uej Je OeÌ[ ceW efJeYeeefpele nw~
 meceefcele efÉheeefMe&keâ nw~
 Meejerefjkeâ mebjÛeveeDeeW ceW kegâÚ veÙes ue#eCe oMee&les nQ - pewmes efkeâ veesšeskeâe@[&~ Ùes ue#eCe peerJeve keâer kegâÚ DeJemLeeDeeW ceW
DeJeMÙe GheefmLele jnleer nw~ veesšeskeâe@[& ÚÌ[ keâer lejn keâer Skeâ uebyeer mebjÛevee nw pees pevlegDeeW kesâ he=‰ Yeeie ceW heeF& peeleer
nw~ Ùen lebef$ekeâe keâes Deenej veeue mes Deuekeâ keâjleer nw~ Ùen hesefMeÙeeW kesâ pegÌ[ves keâe mLeeve Yeer Øeoeve keâjleer nw efpememes
Ûeueve ceW Deemeeveer nes~
 Øeesšeskeâe@[xše pevlegDeeW ceW peerJeve keâer meYeer DeJemLeeDeeW ces veesšeskeâe@[& veneR GheefmLele jn mekeâlee nw~
 GoenjCe: yesuewveeiueesmeme, n[&ceesefveÙee, SefcHeâÙeeskeämeme FlÙeeefo~

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’ke=âefce’ (Worms) keâe legueveelcekeâ DeOÙeÙeve

huewšernsefucevLeerpe vesceešes[ Ssvesefue[e
1. Ûehešer, efjye@vevegcee DeKebef[le Mejerj 1. cegueeÙece, ieesue uebyee yesueveekeâej 1. cegueeÙece Mejerj ceW eEjie meceeve Keb[ve
Mejerj
2. efÉheeefMJe&keâ meceefcele 2. efÉheeefMJe&keâ meceefceefle 2. efÉheeefMJe&keâ meceefceefle
(bilaterally symmetrical) (Bilaterally symmetrical)
3. ef$ekeâesjkeâer (Triploblostic) 3. ef$ekeâesefjkeâer 3. ef$ekeâesjkeâer
4. osniegne keâe DeYeeJe 4. DeebefMekeâ osniegne ceewpeto 4. hetCe& osniegne ceewpeto
5. Deenej veueer ceW Skeâue Éej 5. Deenej veueer ceW cegKe SJeb 5. Deenej veueer oesveeW lejHeâ mes Kegueer ngF&
efpememes keâer cegKe leLee Deueie-Deueie Éej
6. GoenjCe - ueerJej Heäuetkeâ 6. ngkeâJece& (hookworm) 6. mew[Jece& (Sand worm)
 keâe@[xše (Chordata) HeâeFuece : ØeeCeer peiele keâe meyemes DeefOekeâ efJekeâefmele mecetn nw~ Fme mecetn kesâ ØecegKe efJeMes<e ue#eCe
 veesšeskeâe@[& (Notochord) peerJeve keâer efkeâmeer DeJemLee ceW~
 KeesKeueer lebef$ekeâe jppet (nerve chord)~
 keäueesce efÚõ (gill slits) peerJeve keâer efkeâmeer DeJemLee ceW~
 iegoe Éeje (anal) kesâ yeeo heg@Ú (kegâÚ ceW ueghle nesvee)~
keâe@[xše (Chordata)
|
  

Ùetjeskeâe@[xše mesHewâueeskeâe@[xše Jeefš&yeÇsše/keâMes®keâer

(Urochordata) (Cephalochordata) (Vertebrat)
veesš : Ùetjeskeâe@[xše, mesHewâueeskeâe@[xše Fme Heâeuece keâe meyemes DeejbefYekeâ pebleg nw efpemes Øeesšeskeâe@[&sše ceevee peelee nw~
 Ùetjeskeâe@[xše : (i) FmeceW kesâJeue mecegõer peerJe Deeles nQ~
(ii) Ùes DeKeb[ ’ef[š’ nesles nQ Deewj Fvekesâ JeÙemkeâeW ceW ØeeÙe: hetbÚ veneR nesleer nw~
(iii) Mejerj Skeâ kebâÛegkeâ mes {keâe neslee nw~
(iv) veesšeskeâe@[&, hetbÚ kesâJeue ueeJee& kesâ ®he ceW nesleer nw~
(v) KeesKeueer lebef$ekeâe jppet Yeer kesâJeue ueeJee& DeJemLee ceW nesleer nw~
(vi) HesâeEjkeäme ceW keâF& keäueesce efÚõ nw~
(vii) GoenjCe : n[&ceesefveÙee, [esefueDeesuece, heeFjesmeesce~
 mesHeâeueeskeâe@[xše : (i) : Ùes efyevee efmej keâer ceÚueer keâer lejn nw~
(ii) FmeceW keâe@[&sše kesâ meYeer iegCe efJeÅeceeve nQ DeLee&le hetjer uebyeeF& ceW Hewâueer ngF& vee@šeskeâe@[&, Skeâ lebef$ekeâe jppet (Nerve Chord) efyevee
ceefmle<keâ kesâ, Skeâ heefjkeâes‰ ceW Kegueles ngS keäueesce efÚõ Deewj hetjs peerJeve Yej jnves Jeeueer iegoeÉej kesâ yeeo hetbÚ~
(iii) GoenjCe : yeÇwefkeâDeesmšescee (SsefcHeâDeeskeämeme)
 Jeefš&yeÇsše/keâMes®keâer (Vertebrata) : DeefOekeâlej keâe@[&sš Fme ßesCeer Deeles nQ~
(i) efmej hetjer lejn mes efJekeâefmele neslee nw~
(ii) lebef$ekeâe leb$e (Nerve chord) Deewj ceefmle<keâ DeefOekeâ efJekeâefmele neslee nw~

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(iii) Deble: kebâkeâeue (endoskeleton) hetCe& efJekeâefmele neslee nw~

(iv) veesšeskeâe@[& kesâ mLeeve hej Skeâ ces®ob[ (Vertebral column) neslee nw~
(v) peueÛej ceW MJemeve efieue (Gill) Éeje neslee nw, peyeefkeâ mLeueÛej ceW Ùen HesâHeâÌ[e (Lung) Éeje neslee nw~
(vi) vej Je ceeoe he=Lekeâ-he=Lekeâ nesles nQ~
(vii) Fmes meele Jeie& ceW efJeYeeefpele efkeâÙee ieÙee nw~
 meeFkeäueesmšescesše (Cyclostomata) :
- Ùes meyemes ØeeÛeerve Jeefš&yeÇsše nw~
- FveceW peyeÌ[s vener nesles nQ~
- cegKe Ûet<ekeâ nQ Deewj Ùes yeeÿe hejpeerJeer kesâ ®he ceW efkeâmeer otmejer ceÚueer hej cegKe Éeje efÛehekesâ nesles nQ~
- kesâJeue Skeâ vemeeÉej (Nassal Cavity) neslee nw~
- vee@šeskeâe@[& yesueveoej ob[ keâer lejn neslee nw~
- MJemeve keâes<š ceW DeJeefmLele keâueesce (Coelom) Éeje neslee nw~
- peveve «ebefLe Skeâ nesleer nw Deewj efve<esÛeve yeeÿe nw~
- GoenjCele: hesš^esceeFpee@ve (uewchejs)~
 keâeefv[^keäLeerpe Jeie& (Chondrichthyes) :
- Ùes DeefOekeâlej mecegõer Deewj Deekeâej ceW yeÌ[er 10-20 ceeršj uebyeer nesleer nw~
- osn Ùee heeMJeleeaÙe mebheerefÌ[le (oyeer ngF&) Deewj leke&âvegcee nw Ùee he=‰OeejerÙe Ûehešer nw Deewj ef[mkeâvegcee nw~
- lJeÛee hešddšeYe (Plocoid) Meukeâ (Scale) mes {keâer nesleer nw~
- cegKe DeeOeejerÙe neslee nw~
- kebâkeâeue hetCe&leÙee GheeefmLeceÙe nw~
- ùoÙe oes-keâ#eerÙe nw leLee MJemeve keäueesce Éeje neslee nw~
- GoenjCele: mkeâesefueDees[e@ve (FefC[Ùeve Meeke&â), še@jheer[es (Torpeto) š^eFieesve
 DeefmšJeLeerpe Jeie&/DeefmLeue ceerve/celmÙe (Osteichthyes) :
- Ùes ceÚefueÙeeb nQ pees mecegõ Deewj ceer"s peue oesveeW peieneW hej heeF& peeleer nw~ Fvekeâer lJeÛee Meukeâ (Scale) DeLeJee huesšeW
mes {keâer nesleer nw~
- Ùes Deheveer ceebmeue hetbÚ keâe ØeÙeesie lewjves kesâ efueS keâjleer nw~
- Fvekeâe Mejerj OeejejsKeerÙe (Streamline) neslee nw~
- FveceW MJemeve ef›eâÙee kesâ efueS keäueesce (Gills) nesles nQ, pees peue ceW efJeueerve Dee@keämeerpeve keâe GheÙeesie keâjles nQ~
- Ùes Demeceleeheer (Cold blooded) nesles nQ leLee ùoÙe efÉhe#eerÙe (two chambered) neslee nw~
GheeefmLe kebâkeâeue Jeeues ceÚueer DeefmLe kebâkeâeue Jeeues ceÚueer
(Cartilaginous Fish) (Bony Fish)

1. kebâkeâeue Gheeefmle keâe yevee neslee nw~ 1. kebâkeâeue DeefmLe keâe yevee neslee nw~
2. cegKe GoejerÙe (Ventral) Yeeie ceW DeJeefmLele neslee nw~ 2. cegKe efveÛeues Yeeie (Terminal) ceW DeJeefmLele neslee nw~
3. FveceW keäueesce efÚõ (Gill Sills) {keâe ngDee veneR neslee nw~ 3. keäueesce efÚõ {keâe neslee nw~
4. efmJece yuee[j keâe DeYeeJe~ 4. efmJece yuee[j ceewpeto~
5. efve<esÛeve Deebleefjkeâ neslee nw~ 5. efve<esÛeve yeenj neslee nw~
veesš : Jnsue meeke&â (Whale Shark) ceÚefueÙeeW ceW meyemes yeÌ[er ceÚueer nw~ Fmekeâer uebyeeF& 18 ceeršj leLee Jepeve 15 šve keâe

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neslee nw~ Ùen Yeespeve kesâ efueS hueQkeâšesve (Plankton) efveYe&j jnlee nw~
 peue-mLeueÛej (Amphibians) :
- Ùes celmÙeeW mes efYevve nesles nQ keäÙeeWefkeâ FveceW Meukeâ (Scale) veneR heeÙes peeles nQ~
- Fvekeâer lJeÛee hej Mues<eCe «ebefLeÙeeb heeF& peeleer nQ leLee ùoÙe ef$ekeâ#eerÙe neslee nw~
- FveceW yeeÿe kebâkeâeue (exskeleton) DevegheefmLele neslee nw~
- FveceW Je=keäkeâ heeÙee peelee nw~
- MJemeve keäueesce (Gill) DeLeJee HesâHeâÌ[e Éeje neslee nw~
- FveceW DeefOekeâlej oes hebÛeeiegueer heeo nesles nQ~
- Ùes peue leLee mLeue oesveeW hej jn mekeâles nQ~
- GoenjCe: ces{keâ (jevee efšef«evee), mewueeceW[j, šes[ FlÙeeefo~
 mejerme=he/jshšerefueÙee Jeie& (Reptilia) :
- Demeceleeheer pebleg nw~
- Fvekeâe Mejerj MeukeâeW Éeje {keâe ngDee neslee nw~
- ùoÙe meeceevÙele: ef$ekeâ#eerÙe neslee nw~ uesefkeâve ceiejceÛÚ keâe ùoÙe Ûeej keâ#eerÙe neslee nw~
- FveceW Je=keäkeâ heeÙee peelee nw~
- Ùes meYeer Deb[s osves Jeeues ØeeCeer nQ, Fvekesâ Deb[s keâ"esj keâJeÛe mes {kesâ nesles nQ~
- GoenjCe: keâÚgDee, mee@he, efÚhekeâueer, ceiejceÛÚ FlÙeeefo~
veesš : meebheeW ceW JeeFhej (Viper) leLee yeesDee (Boa) meerOes Deheves yeÛÛeeW keâes pevce osles nQ ve efkeâ mejerme=he kesâ meceeve Deb[s osles nQ~
 SJeerpe/he#eer Jeie& (AVES) :
- Ùes meceleeheer (Warm blooded) peeefle nw~
- Fvekeâe ùoÙe Ûeej keâ#eerÙe neslee nw~
- Fvekesâ oes peesÌ[er hewj nesles nQ, FveceW Deeies Jeeues oes hewj GÌ[ves kesâ efueS hebKeeW ceW heefjJele&ve nes peeles nQ~ Mejerj hewjeW
(feather) mes {keâe ngDee neslee nw~
- MJemeve HesâHeâÌ[eW Éeje neslee nw~
- Fme Jeie& ceW meYeer heef#eÙeeW keâes jKee ieÙee nw~
- GoenjCe: keâesuecyee (keâyetlej), hewJees (ceesj) hewmej (efÛeefÌ[Ùee) mšgefLeÙees (Meglegjcegie&)
 mleveheeÙeer/cewcesefueÙee (Mammalia) :
- Ùes meceleeheer pebleg nw, efJeefYevve Øekeâej kesâ Jeeme (Habit at) ceW efveJeeme keâjlee nw~
- ùoÙe Ûeej keâ#eerÙe neslee nw~
- Fme Jeie& kesâ meYeer pevlegDeeW ves veJepeele kesâ hees<eCe nsleg ogiOe «ebefLeÙeeb (mam-
mary gland) heeF& peeleer nQ~
- Fvekeâer lJeÛee hej yeeue, mJeso (Sweat) Deewj lesue (Oily) «ebeLf eÙeeb heeF& peeleer nw~
- Fme Jeie& kesâ pevleg efMeMegDeeW keâes pevce (Vivaparous) osves Jeeues nesles nQ~
neueebefkeâ kegâÚ pevleg Deb[s osles nQ (Oviparous)~
GoenjCe - Fefkeâ[dvee, huesefšheme (Platypus)~
- GoenjCe: cewkeâesheme (kebâiee®), jwšdme (Ûetne), yewueerveeshšsje (nJesue) hewvLeje (Mesj, yeeIe) neLeer, nescees (ceeveJe) ÛeceieeoÌ[~
veesš : kebâiee® pewmes kegâÚ mleveheeÙeer ceW DeefJekeâefmele yeÛÛes ceeme&tefheÙece veecekeâ Lewueer ceW leye lekeâ ueškesâ jnles nQ peye lekeâ
Gvekeâe hetCe& efJekeâeme veneR nes peelee nw~ FmeefueÙes FvnW ceemet&efheÙeue (Marsupial) Jeie& Yeer keâne peelee nw~
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Jeefš&yeÇsše (Verterbrate) keâe legueveelcekeâ DeOÙeÙeve

ue#eCe celmÙe peue-mLeueÛej mejerme=he he#eer mleveheeÙee
r

1. efveJeeme peue peue, mLeue mLeue JeeÙeg peue, mLeue JeeÙeg

2. osnerÙe leehe (Body temperature) Demeceleheeleer Demeceleeheer Demeceleeheer meceleeheer meceleeheer
3. yeeÿe kebâkeâeue (Exoskeleton) nukeâe Meukeâ cegueeÙece, nukeâer, Meg<keâ leLee hebKe ceewpeto yeeue ceewpeto
DeMeukeâerÙe MeukeâerÙe jnleer nw jnleer nw
4. MJemeve keäueesve keäueesve, lJeÛee, HesâHeâÌ[e HesâHeâÌ[e HesâHeâÌ[e
HesâHeâÌ[e
5. ØeÛeueve megHeâvee (efheo) hewj hewj hebKe hewj
6. ùoÙe oes keâ#eerÙe ef$e-keâ#eerÙe ef$ekeâ#eerÙe Ûeej keâ#eerÙe Ûeej keâ#eerÙe
7. Øepeveve Deb[s Deb[s Deb[s Deb[s meerOes pevce osles nQ
8. efJekeâeme yeeÿe yeeÿe yeeÿe yeeÿe Ùetšsjme ceW (ieYee&MeÙe)

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 mcejCeerÙe leLÙe
- JeieeakeâjCe peerJeeW keâer efJeefJeOelee keâes mhe<š keâjves ceW meneÙekeâ neslee nw~
- peerJeeW keâes heebÛe peiele ceW Jeieeake=âle keâjves kesâ efueS efvecve efJeMes<eleeDeeW keâes OÙeeve ceW jKee peelee nw -
(a) keâesefMekeâerÙe mebjÛevee - ØeeskewâefjÙeesšer DeLeJee ÙetkewâefjÙeesšer
(b) peerJe keâe Mejerj SkeâkeâesefMekeâ DeLeJee yengkeâesefMekeâ nw~ yengkeâesefMekeâ peerJeeW keâer mebjÛevee peefšue nesleer nw~
(c) keâesefMekeâe efYeefòe keâer GheefmLeefle leLee mJehees<eCe keâer #ecelee~
- Ghejeskeäle DeeOeej hej meYeer peerJeeW keâes heebÛe peiele ceW yeebše ieÙee nw - ceesvesje, Øeesefšmše, keâJekeâ (øebâpeeF&), hueebšer Deewj
SveercesefueÙee~
- peerJeeW keâe JeieeakeâjCe Gvekesâ efJekeâeme mes mebyebefOele nw~
- hueebšer Deewj SefvecesefueÙee keâes Gvekeâer ›eâefcekeâ Meejerefjkeâ peefšuelee kesâ DeeOeej hej Jeieeake=âle efkeâÙee ieÙee nw~
- heewOeeW keâes heebÛe JeieeX ceW yeebše ieÙee nw -MewJeeue, yeÇeÙeesHeâeFše, šsefj[esHeâeFše, efpec>eesmhece& Deewj SbefpeÙeesmhece&~
- peblegDeeW keâes ome HeâeFuece ceW yeebše ieÙee nw - heesjerHesâje, meerueWšjsše, huesšernsefucevLeerpe, efvecesšes[e, Sveerefue[e, DeeLeÇexhees[e,
ceesuemkeâe, FkeâeFvees[cexše, Øeesšeskeâe@[xše Deewj keâe@[xše~
- efÉheo-veeceheæefle peerJeeW keâer mener henÛeeve ceW meneÙelee keâjleer nw~
- efÉheo-veeceheæefle ceW henuee veece peerveme Deewj otmeje mheerMeerpe keâe neslee nw~



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‡ãŠãñãäÍã‡ãŠã ãäÌã—ãã¶ã (Cytology)

peerJeeW keâe Mejerj Skeâ Ùee Deveskeâ met#ce FkeâeFÙeeW (Units) mes efceuekeâj yevee neslee nw efpevnW keâesefMekeâe keânles nQ (Cells)~
ØelÙeskeâ keâesefMekeâe peerJeve keâer Skeâ mJeeÙeòe FkeâeF& (Autonomous Unit) nesleer nw~ keâesefMekeâe meYeer peerJeeW keâer mebjÛeveelcekeâ Je
keâeÙee&lcekeâ FkeâeF& nw~ je@yeš& ngkeâ (Robert Hook) ves keâe@ke&â keâes mJeefveefce&le met#ceoMeea mes osKee Lee~ ngkeâ ves Fve Øekeâes‰keâeW keâes
keâesefMekeâe (Cell) keâne~ Cell uewefšve Meyo nw efpemekeâe DeLe& nw ’Úesše keâceje’~ Fme Øekeâej ngkeâ ves meJe&ØeLece osKee efkeâ mepeerJeeW
ceW Deueie-Deueie Skeâkeâ neslee nw~
 pesve mJeecej[ece (Jan Swammerdam) ves 1658 ceWÌ{keâ kesâ ®efOej kesâ DeeOeej hej meJe&ØeLece keâesefMekeâe kesâ yeejs ceW
efJeJejCe efoÙee~
 meJe&ØeLece S.uÙetJesvene@keâ (A.Leewuenhoek) ves 1674 F&. ceW leeueeye kesâ heeveer ceW mJeleb$e peerefJele keâesefMekeâeSW osKeeR~
 Deveskeâ keâesefMekeâeSW Skeâ keâesefMekeâerÙe peerJeeW kesâ ®he ceW mJeleb$e peerJeve JÙeleerle keâjleer nQ, peyeefkeâ yengkeâesefMekeâerÙe peerJe ceW
keâesefMekeâeSW Mejerj keâer mebjÛeveelcekeâ Je ØekeâeÙee&lcekeâ FkeâeF& nesleer nw~ yengkeâesefMekeâerÙe peerJeeW keâe efvecee&Ce ueeKeeW keâesefMekeâeDeeW
Éeje neslee nw~ keâesefMekeâeSW megJÙeJeefmLele neskeâj Glekeâ leb$e keâe efvecee&Ce keâjleer nQ~ Tlekeâ leb$e efceuekeâj DebieeW keâe efvecee&Ce
keâjleer nQ Je efJeefYevve DebieeW kesâ mebÙeespeve mes Mejerj keâe efvecee&Ce neslee nw~
keâesefMekeâeSW - Tlekeâ - Debie leb$e - Mejerj
Cells - Tissues - Organ system - Body

keâesefMekeâe efmeæeble (Cell Theory) :

 keâesefMekeâe efmeæeble (Cell Theory) ceeefLLeÙeme efMue[sve (Matthias Theory) leLee efLeÙees[esj MJeeve (Theodore
sehwann) ves keâesefMekeâe efmeæeble (Cell theory) 1838 ceW Øeefleheeefole efkeâÙee Lee, Fme efmeæeble kesâ Devegmeej -
(i) meYeer pevleg Je JevemheefleÙeeB keâesefMekeâeDeeW mes efceuekeâj mebieef"le nQ~
(ii) keâesefMekeâe peerJeve keâer DeeOeejYetle mebjÛeveelcekeâ (Structural) Je ØekeâeÙee&lcekeâ (Functional) FkeâeF& nQ~ mebjÛeveelcekeâ
FkeâeF& FmeefueS efkeâ Mejerj keâe efvecee&Ce keâesefMekeâeDeeW mes efceuekeâj ngDee nw Je ØekeâeÙee&lcekeâ FkeâeF& FmeefueS efkeâ meYeer
pewJe jemeeÙeefvekeâ DeefYeef›eâÙeeSW keâesefMekeâe ceW ner mechevve nesleer nQ~
- keâesefMekeâe efmeæebkeâ keâes JeÛee&T (R.Virchow) ves Deeies yeÌ{eÙee Je FmeceW leermeje efmeæeble peesÌ[e~
(iii) ØelÙeskeâ veF& keâesefMekeâe Deheves mes hetJe&Jeleea keâesefMekeâe mes Glhevve nesleer nw~
- meYeer keâesefMekeâe efJeefYevve Øekeâej keâer peerJeve Øeef›eâÙeeSb mebÛeeefuele keâjves keâer #ecelee jKelee nw pees peerJeOeeefjÙeeW keâes
DeefmlelJe ceW jnves kesâ efueS DelÙeeJeMÙekeâ nw~
keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâes Gvekeâer mebjÛevee kesâ DeeOeej hej oes YeeieeW ceW yeebše ieÙee nw - (i) ØeewkewâefjÙeesefškeâ Je ÙetkewâefjÙeesefškeâ
keâesefMekeâeSW~ Gve peerJeeW ceW efpeveceW kesâvõkeâefPeuueer (Nuclear Membrane) veneR heeF& peeleer nw GvnW ØeeskewâefjÙeesefškeâ (Pro
means primitive or primary and Karyon means nucleus) keâesefMekeâe keânles nQ, Ssmes pevleg efpeveceW keâesefMekeâe ceW kesâvõkeâ
efPeuueer mebieef"le nesleer nw ÙetkewâefjÙeesefškeâ (Eu means True and Karyon means nucleus) keânles nQ~
ØeeskewâefjÙeesefškeâ keâesefMekeâe ceW yengle mes keâesefMekeâebie (Cell Organelles) DevegheefmLele nesles nQ peyeefkeâ ÙetkewâefjÙeesefškeâ
keâesefMekeâe ceW DeefOekeâebMe keâesefMekeâebie GheefmLele jnles nQ~ keâesefMekeâebiees keâer DevegheefmLeefle ceW Fvekeâe keâeÙe& ØeeskewâjÙeesš ceW keâesefMekeâe
efPeuueer (Plasma Membrane) Éeje neslee nw~

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ØeeskewâefjÙeesefškeâ leLee ÙetkewâefjÙeesefškeâ keâesefMekeâe ceW Devlej

efJeMes<elee/Debiekeâ ØeeskewâefjÙeesefškeâ ÙetkewâefjÙeesefškeâ
keâesefMekeâe efYeefòe Øeešerve leLee keâeyeexneF[^sš keâer yeveer nesleer nw~ mesuegueespe keâer yeveer nesleer nw~
ceeFšeskeâe@efC[^Ùee DevegheefmLele neslee nw~ GheefmLele~
FC[eshueeefpcekeâ jsšerkegâuece DevegheefmLele neslee nw~ GheefmLele~
jeFyeesmeesce 70 S Øekeâej kesâ nesles nQ~ 80 S Øekeâej kesâ nesles nQ~
iee@upeerkeâeÙe DevegheefmLele nesles nQ~ GheefmLeefle~
kesâvõkeâ efPeuueer DevegheefmLele nesleer nQ~ GheefmLele~
[er.Sve.S. Skeâue met$e kesâ ®he ceW~ hetCe& efJekeâefmele SJeb oesnjs met$e kesâ ®he ceW
keâMeeefYekeâe kesâJeue Skeâ levleg neslee nw~ kegâue 11 levleg nesles nQ~
kesâefvõkeâe DevegheefmLele nesleer nw~ GheefmLele~
mesefCš^Ùeesue DevegheefmLele neslee nw~ GheefmLele~
MJemeve hueepcee efPeuueer Éeje neslee nw~ ceeFšeskeâe@efC[^Ùee Éeje neslee nw~
eEueie Øepeveve veneR heeÙee peelee nw~ heeÙee peelee nw~
ØekeâeMe-mebMues<eCe LeeÙeueskeâe@F[ ceW neslee nw~ keäueesjeshueemš ceW neslee nw~
keâesefMekeâe efJeYeepeve Demet$eer Øekeâej keâe neslee nw~ DeOe&met$eer Ùee mecemet$eer Øekeâej keâe neslee nw~

keâesefMekeâe mebjÛevee (Structure of Cell)

 keâesefMekeâe keâe mebjÛeveelcekeâ mebie"ve (Structural Composition of Cell) keâesefMekeâe ceW efJeefMe<š Ieškeâ nesles nQ, efpevnW
keâesefMekeâebie (Cell Organelles) keâne peelee nw~ Ùeefo nce keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâe DeOÙeÙeve met#ceoMeea mes keâjWies, lees ueieYeie
ØelÙeskeâ keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW leerve iegCe efoKeeF& oWies - (A) hueepecee efPeuueer (Plasma membrane) (B) kesâvõkeâ (Nucleus)
(C) keâesefMekeâeõJÙe (Cytoplasm)
(A) huewpecee efPeuueer keâesefMekeâe efPeuueer (Plasma Membrane/Cell Membrane) :

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keâesefMekeâe kesâ Skeâ Yeeie keâe jsKeebefkeâle efÛe$eCe

- Ùen keâesefMekeâe keâer meyemes yeenjer hejle nw pees keâesefMekeâe kesâ IeškeâeW keâes yeenjer heÙee&JejCe mes Deueie keâjleer nw~
- huewpecee efPeuueer kegâÚ heoeLeeX keâes Deboj SJeb yeenj Deeves peeves oslee nw~ Ùen DevÙe heoeLeeX keâer ieefle keâes Yeer jeskeâlee nw~
keâesefMekeâe efPeuueer keâe ueÛeerueeheve Skeâ keâesefMekeâ peerJeeW ceW keâesefMekeâe kesâ yeeÿe heÙee&JejCe mes Dehevee Yeespeve leLee DevÙe heoeLeeX
keâes «enCe keâjves ceW meneÙelee Øeoeve keâjlee nw~ Ssmeer Øeef›eâÙee keâes Sv[esmeeFšesefmeme (Endocytosis) keânles nQ~ Deceeryee
Dehevee Yeespeve Fmeer Øeef›eâÙee mes «enCe keâjlee nw~
 keâesefMekeâe efYeefòe (Cell Wall) : heeohe keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW huewpecee efPeuueer kesâ Deefleefjkeäle keâesefMekeâe efYeefòe Yeer heeF& peeleer nw~
heeohe keâesefMekeâe efYeefòe cegKÙele: mesuÙetueespe (Cellulose) keâer yeveer nesleer nw~ mesuÙetueespe (Cellulose) Skeâ peefšue heoeLe&
nw, Ùen heewOeeW ceW mebjÛeveelcekeâ (structural) ÂÌ{lee Øeoeve keâjlee nw~
- peye efkeâmeer heeohe keâesefMekeâe ceW hejemejCe Éeje heeveer keâer neefve nesleer nw, lees keâesefMekeâe efPeuueer meefnle Deebleefjkeâ
heoeLe& mebkegâefÛele nes peeleer nw~ Fme Iešvee keâes peerJeõJÙe mebkegâÛeve (Cytoplasm Contraction) keânles nQ~

ØeeCeer keâesefMekeâe (Animal Cell) heeohe keâesefMekeâe (Plant Cell)

1. ØeeÙe: Deekeâej ceW Úesšer nesleer nw~ 1. Dehes#eeke=âle Deekeâej ceW yeÌ[er nesleer nw~
2. kesâJeue hueepecee efPeuueer (Plasma membrane) 2. hueepecee efPeuueer kesâ DeueeJee keâesefMekeâe efYeefòe (Cell Wall)
mes efIejer nesleer nw~ mes Yeer efIejer nesleer nw~
3. keäueesjeshueemš (Plastid) veneR nesles nQ~ 3. huewefmš[ (Plastid) meeceevÙe ®he mes ceewpeto jnles nQ~
4. keâesefMekeâeõJÙe (Cytoplasm) ceW DeefOekeâlej OeeefveÙeeb 4. kesâvõerÙe mLeeve Je=nleOeeveer mes Yeje ngDee neslee nw, keâesefMekeâe
Úesšer nesleer nQ~ õJÙe heefjefOe kesâ meeLe neslee nw~
5. ØecegKe Je yengle peefšue iee@upeerkeâeÙe (Glogi Bodies) 5. iee@upeer GhekeâjCe (Gologi bodies) keâF& Úesšer FkeâeFÙeeW
kesâvõkeâ kesâ nesleer nw~ ceW nesleer nw efpevnW heeme ef[efkeäšÙeesmeesce (Dictiosome)
keânles nQ~
6. mesš^esmeesce (Certrosome) Je leejkeâ kesâvõ 6. Fvekesâ mLeeve hej oes meeHeâ Úesšs #es$e nesles nQ~ GvnW OeÇgJeerÙe
(Centroinere) nesles nQ~ šesheer keânles nQ~

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(B) kesâvõkeâ (Nucleus) : Ùen Skeâ ØecegKe ieesueekeâej Ùee Deb[ekeâej mebjÛevee nw pees ØeeÙe: keâesefMekeâe kesâvõ kesâ efvekeâš efmLele
neslee nw~
- Ùen meYeer keâesefMekeâerÙe ieefleefJeefOeÙeeW keâe efveÙeb$eCe kesâvõ nw~
- Ùen Skeâ efÉhejleer efPeuueer, kesâvõkeâerÙe efPeuueer mes efIeje neslee nw~ Fmes keâesefMekeâe õJÙe (Cytoplasm) mes Deueie
keâjleer nw~
- kesâvõkeâ kesâ cegKÙe DeJeÙeJe nQ -
(i) ›eâescewefšve (Chromatin) - heoeLe& pees Skeâ Oeeieevegcee mebjÛevee kesâ ®he ceW nw~
(ii) kesâvõkeâ (Nucleolus) cegKÙele: [erSveS (DNA) keâe yevee neslee nw, efpemeceW DeefOekeâlej Deej.Sve.S.
(jeFyeesvÙetkeâueerkeâ Sefme[) neslee nw~
- Deej.Sve.S. (RNA) keâesefMekeâe õJÙe ceW Øeesšerve (Protein) yeveeves ceW meneÙelee keâjlee nw~
- ›eâescewefšve ceW heeÙes peeves Jeeues [erSveS DevegJeebeMf ekeâ iegCe kesâ efueS efpeccesoej nQ~ pees ceelee-efhelee mes DNA (ef[Dee@keämeerjeFyees
vÙetkeâueerkeâ Decue) DeCeg kesâ ®he ceW Deieueer mebleefle ceW peeles nQ~
- pees keâesefMekeâe efJeYeeefpele veneR nes jner nesleer nw~ GmeceW Ùen DNA ›eâescewefšve heoeLe& kesâ ®he ceW ceewpeto jnlee nw~ peye
keâYeer Yeer keâesefMekeâe efJeYeeefpele nesves Jeeueer nesleer nw leye Jen ›eâesceesmeesce (Chromosome) keâes ®he ceW mebieef"le nes
peeleer nw~
(C) keâesefMekeâeõJÙe (Cytoplasm) : Ùen Skeâ ØecegKe ieesueekeâej Ùee Deb[ekeâej mebjÛevee nw pees ØeeÙe: keâesefMekeâe kesâvõ kesâ efvekeâš
efmLele neslee nw~
- keâesefMekeâe õJÙe leLee kesâvõkeâ oesveeW keâes efceuekeâj peerJeõJÙe (Protoplasm) keâe efvecee&Ce neslee nw~
veesš : peerJeõJÙe keâe meyemes yeÌ[e Ieškeâ peue neslee nw, peyeefkeâ Fmekesâ "esme Ieškeâ Keefvepe ueJeCe (mineral salts) leLee
Dee@keämeerpeve (O2), keâe@ye&ve (C), neF[^espeve (H2), veeFš^espeve (N2) Øeesšerve kesâ ®he ceW ceewpeto jnlee nw~
kesâvõkeâ ceW heeÙee peeves Jeeues peerJeõJÙe keâes vÙetkeâefueÙeeshueepece (Nucleoplasm) keâne peelee nw~
keâesefMekeâe keâe mepeerJe (living) Yeeie
1. keâesefMekeâe efPeuueer (Cell membrane)

2. keâesefMekeâe õJÙe (Cytoplasm)

(a) Deble-ØeõJÙeer peeefuekeâe (Endoplasmic Recticulum-ER)
(b) met$ekeâefCekeâe (Mitochondria)

(c) ieeupeer yee@[er (Golgi Body)

(d) jeFyeesmeesce (Ribosome)

(e) ueeFmeesmeesce (Lysomome)

(f) mesvš^esmeesce (Centrosome) (efmeHe&â ØeeefCeÙeeW ceW)

(g) huewefmš[ (Plostids) (efmeHe&â heeoheeW ceW)
3. kesâvõkeâ (Nucleus)

(a) kesâvõkeâ efPeuueer (Nuclear Membrane)

(b) kesâvõeYe (Nucleolus)

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(c) vÙetefkeäueÙeeshueepece (Nucleoplasm)

(d) ›eâecewefšve HeâeFyej (Chromatin Fibre)
keâesefMekeâe keâe efvepeeaJe Yeeie
(a) keâesefMekeâe efYeefòe (efmeHe&â heeohe ceW)
(b) Oeeveer (Vacuoles)
(c) Jemee [^eheuesš
(d) keâefCekeâe (Granuds)

keâesefMekeâebie (Cell Organelles)

Skeâ keâesefMekeâe keâes yengle mes keâeÙe& mebhevve keâjves nesles nQ, pewmes efkeâ mebMues<eCe keâjvee, heÛeevee (DeheIešve), Tpee& hewoe
keâjvee Deeefo~ Ùes keâesefMekeâebie efPeuueeroej {ebÛes mes efIejs nesles nQ~
I. Debleõ&JÙeer peefuekeâe (Endoplasmic Recticulum) : efmemšveea, hegefškeâe (Vesicles) SJeb veefuekeâeDeeW mes yeveer efPeuueerÙegkeäle
mebjÛevee nw~ keâesefMekeâe efPeuueer kesâ meceeve mebjÛevee nw~ Fmekeâe Skeâ efmeje kesâvõkeâ keâuee (Nuclear Membrane) leLee
otmeje efmeje keâesefMekeâe keâuee (Cell Membrane) mes pegÌ[e neslee nw~ Deble: ØeoJÙeer peeefuekeâe oes Øekeâej keâer nesleer nw~
- henueer Kegjogjer Øekeâej (Rough ER) keâer Devle: ØeoJÙeer peeefuekeâe nesleer nw keäÙeeWefkeâ Fmekeâer melen hej jeFyeesmeesce
efÛehekesâ jnles nQ~ jeFyeesmeesce hej ner Øeesšerve mebMues<eCe neslee nw~ mebMuesef<ele Øeesšerve Deble: ØeõJÙeer peeefuekeâe Éeje
JeebefÚle mLeeveeW keâes Yespe efoÙee peelee nw~
- otmejs Øekeâej keâer Deble: ØeõJÙeer peeefuekeâe efÛekeâveer (Smooth ER) nesleer nw keäÙeeWefkeâ Fmekesâ melen hej jeFyeesmeesce
DevegheefmLele nesles nQ~ Ùes JemeekeâefCekeâe (Fat Globules) Ùee efueefhe[ yeveeves kesâ keâeÙe& ceW meneÙekeâ nw~ Ùes Jemee Ùee
efueefhe[ keâefCekeâe keâesefMekeâe efPeuueer efvecee&Ce ceW meneÙelee keâjleer nQ~
II. ieeupeer yee@[er (Golgi Body) : Ùen efÛekeâves, Ûehešs,
veefuekeâekeâej Ghe›eâce mecetn mes yevee nw~ Ùes ØeeÙe:
meceeveeblej hebefkeäleÙeeW ceW mepeer jnleer nw, efpevnW kegbâef[keâe
(Cisternae) keânles nQ~
- iee@upeer GhekeâjCe keâesefMekeâe keâe m$eeJeer Debiekeâ
(Sectretery Organ) nw~

keâeÙe& :
- Ùen keâesefMekeâe ceW mebMuesef<ele heoeLeeX kesâ hewkesâpe
yeveekeâj keâesefMekeâe kesâ Deboj (huewpecee efPeuueer Je
ueeFmeesmeesce) Je yeenj kesâ ue#ÙeeW keâes Yespelee nw~
- iee@upeer meefcce#e ueeFmeesmeesce Deewj hejeefkeämemeesce
(Peroxisome) yeveeves ceW Yeer Meeefceue nQ~
veesš : iee@upeer GhekeâjCe heewOeeW ceW peye Úesšer
FkeâeF&ÙeeW ceW nesles nQ lees peeueerkeâeÙe (Dictyo-
somes) keânueeles nQ~

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III. met$e keâefCekeâe (Mitochondria) : Fme keâesefMekeâebie keâer Keespe meJe&ØeLece S.Jeer.keâesefuekeâj (A.V.Kolliker) ves keâeršeW keâer
heseMf eÙeeW (insects muscle) ceW efkeâÙee Lee peyeefkeâ Fmekeâe Jew%eeefvekeâ veece keâeue& yev[e (Carl Benda) Éeje efoÙee ieÙee Lee~
- met$e keâefCekeâe oesnjer efPeuueer mes yeveer mebjÛevee nw - yeeÿe efPeuueer Deewj Deebleefjkeâ efPeuueer pees cegÌ[er ngF& nesleer nw~
- Fmekesâ keâeseMf ekeâe keâe Tpee& ie=n (Powerhouse) Yeer keâne peelee nw~ efJeefYevve jemeeÙeefvekeâ DeefYeef›eâÙeeDeeW kesâ efueS JeebeÚ
f le
Tpee& Fmekesâ Éeje Sšerheer (ATP) kesâ ®he ceW Øeoeve keâer peeleer nw~ FmeefueÙes Sšerheer keâes Tpee& efmekeäkesâ keânles nQ~
IV. ueJekeâ (Plastids) : iewj-hegef<hele heeoheeW pewmes efkeâ yewkeäšerefjÙee (Bacteria) keâJekeâeW (Fungi) ceW ueJekeâ (Plastid) keâer
peien ›eâesceešesHeâesj (Chromatophores) heeÙes peeles nQ~
- ueJekeâeW ceW mJeleb$e yegefæ (Self-replicating) keâer #ecelee nesleer nw~
- Fmes oes YeeieeW ceW yeebše ieÙee nw~
(i) jbieerve (Pigmented) : Ùen nefj MewJeeue (green algae) leLee GÛÛe heeoheeW ceW heeÙee peelee nw~ keäueesjeshueemš
efÉmlejerÙe efPeuueer ceW efIeje ngDee neslee nw~
- nefjle ueJekeâ keâes keäueesjesefHeâue (Chlorophyll) keâne peelee nw Ùen meewj Tpee& keâes Meesef<ele keâjkesâ heewOeeW kesâ efueS
Yeespeve lewÙeej keâjlee nw~
(b) ›eâesceeshueemš (Chromoplast) : efJeefYevve jbieeW kesâ ueJekeâ nesles nQ, pees HeâueeW Deewj HetâueeW ceW šbieeW kesâ efueS
efpeccesoej nesles nQ~ Fmemes keâeršeW keâes Deekeâef<e&le efkeâÙee peelee nw efpememes efkeâ efve<esÛeve keâer Øeef›eâÙee hetjer nes mekesâ~
GoenjCe : kewâjesefšvee@[ (Carotenoids) - Ùes peue ceW DeIegueveMeerue nesles nQ~ Ùen heeruee leLee veejbieer jbieeW kesâ efueS
efpeccesoej nw~ Fmes ieepej ceW heeÙee peelee nw~
SbLeesefmeÙeeefveve (Anthocyanin) - Ùes peue ceW IegueveMeerue nesles nQ leLee Ùen ueeue SJeb veeruee jbie kesâ efueS efpeccesoej nw~
Fmes Ûegkebâoj (beetroot) ceW heeÙee peelee nw~
(iii) uÙetkeâeshueemš (Levcoplast) : Ùes jbieefJenerve nesles nQ pees efkeâ heewOeeW ceW mšeÛe& keâefCekeâeDeeW Je lewueerÙe yetboeW keâes
yeveeves leLee Gmekesâ meb«enCe kesâ efueS efpeccesoej nesles nQ~
kegâÚ peerJeeW ceW iegCemet$e mebKÙee (Chromosome) :
1. jeTb[ Jece& (Round Worm) 2
2. ceÛÚj (Mosquito) 6

3. ces{keâ (Frog) 26
4. Ûetne (Rat) 42

5. ceveg<Ùe (Humans) 46
6. ieesu[ efHeâMe (Gold Fish) 100

7. metÙe&cegKeer (Sunflower) 34

8. cešj (Pea) 14
9. cekeäkeâe (Maize) 20

10. ÛeeJeue (Rice) 24

11. hÙeepe (Onion) 16

12. efieveer efheie (Guinea Pig) 66

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V. ueeFmeesmeesce (Lysosome) :
- ueeFmeesmeesce keâesefMekeâe DeheefMe<š efveheševes Jeeuee leb$e nw ueeFmeesmeesce (Lysosome) yeenjer heoeLe& kesâ keâesefMekeâe
DebiekeâeW kesâ štšs-Hetâšs Yeeie keâes heeefÛele keâjkesâ keâesefMekeâe meeHeâ keâjles nQ~
- FveceW MeefkeäleMeeueer peue-DeheIešveerÙe (hydrolytic Enzyme) SbpeeFce nesles nQ pees meYeer keâeye&efvekeâ heoeLeeX keâes
heÛeeves ceW me#ece nesles nQ~
- Ùes Deble: heeÛeve ef›eâÙee ceW meneÙelee keâjles nQ, FmeefueÙes Fmes heeÛekeâ Lewueer Yeer keâne peelee nw~
- Ùeefo hetCe& #eefle«emle Ùee ce=le keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâes ve<š keâjves keâer DeeJeMÙekeâlee nes lees Ùes Deheveer efPeuueer leesÌ[keâj Skeâ
ner yeej ceW Dehevee meeje õJÙe cegkeäle keâj osles nQ~ Ûetbefkeâ Fme ef›eâÙee ceW Jes mJeÙeb Yeer ve<š nes peeles nQ, FmeefueÙes FveceW
DeelceIeeleer Lewueer Yeer keâne peelee nw~
ueeFmeesmece keâe cenlJe :
(a) ®heeblejCe - peye šes[ (ces{keâ keâe yeÛÛee) ces{keâ kesâ ®he ceW ®heebleefjle neslee nw leye Fmekesâ keäueesce (Gills) leLee hetbÚ
pewmes YeütCeerÙe Tlekeâ ueeFmeesmeesce Éeje heÛee efueÙes peeles nQ~
(b) efve<esÛeve Øeef›eâÙee ceW - Meg›eâeCeg keâesefMekeâe kesâ ueeFmeesmeesce SbpeeFce Éeje Deb[eMeÙe kesâ jesOeer efPeuueer keâes heÛee efueÙee
peelee nw~ Fme Øekeâej Meg›eâeCeg Deb[eMeÙe ceW ØeJesMe keâj efve<esÛeve Øeef›eâÙee keâes hetjer keâjles nQ~
VI. Oeeveer (Vacuoles) :
- Ùes peye ØeeCeer keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW nesleer nw lees Jes Úesšer Je yengmebKÙee ceW neleer nw~ hejvleg heeohe keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW Oeeveer yengle
ner yeÌ[er nesleer nw~ Ùen keâesefMekeâe keâe ueieYeie 90() Yeeie Iesj uesleer nw~
- heeohe keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâer jmeOeeefveÙeeb ceW keâesefMekeâe õJÙe (Cytoplasm) Yeje neslee nw~ Ùes keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâes mHeâerefle
leLee keâ"esjlee Øeoeve keâjleer nw~
- heewOeeW kesâ efueS yengle mes heoeLe& jmeOeeveer ceW Skeâef$ele jnles nQ~ FmeceW Deceervees Sefme[ (Amino Acid), Meke&âje
(Sugar), efJeefYevve keâeye&efvekeâ Decue leLee kegâÚ Øeesšerve Meeefceue nw~
- Skeâ keâesefMekeâ peerJeeW pewmes Deceeryee (ameoba) keâer KeeÅe jmeOeeveer ceW Gvekesâ Éeje GheYeesie ceW ueeÙes ieÙes KeeÅe heoeLe&
nesles nQ~
- kegâÚ Skeâ keâesefMekeâerÙe peerJeeW ceW efJeefMe<š jmeOeeefveÙeeb Deefleefjkeäle peue leLee kegâÚ DeheefMe<š heoeLe& keâes yeenj efvekeâeueves
ceW cegKÙe Yetefcekeâe efveYeelee nw~
mcejCeerÙe leLÙe
 keâesefMekeâe peerJeve keâer cetueYetle mebjÛeveelcekeâ FkeâeF& nw~
 keâesefMekeâe kesâ ÛeejeW Deesj huewpcee efPeuueer nesleer nw~ Ùes efPeefuueÙeeb efueefhe[ leLee Øeesšerve keâer yeveer nesleer nw~
 keâesefMekeâe efPeuueer keâesefMekeâe keâe meef›eâÙe Yeeie nw~ Ùen heoeLeeX keâer ieefle keâes keâesefMekeâe kesâ Yeerlej leLee yeenjer
JeeleeJejCe mes efveÙeefcele keâjleer nw~
 heeohe keâesefMekeâe ceW keâesefMekeâe efPeuueer kesâ ÛeejeW Deesj Skeâ keâesefMekeâe efYeefòe nesleer nw~ keâesefMekeâe efYeefòe mesuÙetueespe keâer
yeveer nesleer nw~
 heeohe keâer keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW efmLele keâesefMekeâe efYeefòe HebâpeeF leLee yewkeäšerefjÙee keâes Deuhe hejemejCe oeyeer Ieesue (ceeOÙece)
ceW efyevee Heâšs peerefJele jnves osleer nw~
 ÙetkewâefjÙeesš ceW keWâõkeâ oesnjer efPeuueer Éeje keâesefMekeâe õJÙe mes Deueie neslee nw~ Ùen keâesefMekeâe keâer peerJeve Øeef›eâÙeeDeeW
keâes efveoxefMele keâjlee nw~

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 ER Deble:keâesefMekeâerÙe heefjJenve leLee Glheeokeâ melen kesâ ®he ceW keâeÙe& keâjlee nw~
 iee@upeer GhekeâjCe efPeuueer Ùegkeäle hegefškeâeDeeW keâe mlebYe nw~ Ùen keâesefMekeâe ceW yeves heoeLeeX keâe mebÛeÙeve, ®heeblejCe leLee
hewkesâefpebie keâjlee nw~
 DeefOekeâebMe heeohe keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW efPeuueer Ùegkeäle Debie pewmes huewefmš[ nesles nQ~ Ùes oes Øekeâej kesâ nesles nQ - ›eâesceeshueemš
leLee uÙetkeâeshueemš~
 ›eâesceeshueemš efpemeceW keäueesjesefHeâue neslee nw GvnW keäueesjeshueemš keânles nQ~ Ùes ØekeâeMe mebMues<eCe keâjles nQ~
 uÙetkeâeshueemš keâe ØeeLeefcekeâ keâeÙe& mebÛeÙe keâjvee nw~
 DeefOekeâebMe heefjhekeäJe heeohe keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW Skeâ yeÌ[er keWâõerÙe jmeOeeveer nesleer nw~ Ùen keâesefMekeâe keâer mHeâerefle keâes yeveeÙes
jKeleer nw Deewj Ùen DeheefMe<š heoeLeeX meefnle cenlJehetCe& heoeLeeX keâe mebÛeÙe keâjleer nw~
 ØeeskewâefjÙeešer keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW keâesF& Yeer efPeuueer Ùegkeäle Debiekeâ veneR neslee~ Gvekesâ ›eâesceesmeesce kesâ mLeeve hej vÙetkeâueerkeâ
Decue neslee nw Deewj GveceW kesâJeue Úesšs jeFyeesmeesce Debie kesâ ®he ceW nesles nQ~
keâesefMekeâe efJeYeepeve
(CELL DIVISION)
 keâesefMekeâe efJeYeepeve Skeâ Ssmeer Øeef›eâÙee efpemeceW hetJe&Jeleea keâesefMekeâeDeeW mes veÙes keâesefMekeâeDeeW Je efvecee&Ce neslee nw~
 DeefOekeâebMe keâesefMekeâeSb mecemet$eer efJeYeepeve (mitosis) kesâ Øeef›eâÙee mes yeveleer nw efpemeceW iegCemet$e (chromosome) keâer
Deheveer Øeefleke=âefle yeveeleer nw mebleefle keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW iegCeelcekeâ leLee cee$eelcekeâ meceeve ®he mes ceewpeto jnleer nw~
 ueQefiekeâ peveve keâesefMekeâe DeOe&met$eer efJeYeepeve (mitosis) Øeef›eâÙee mes yeveleer nw~ Fme efJeYeepeve ceW keâesefMekeâe kesâ ueieeleej
oes efJeYeepeve nesles nQ~ DeOe&met$eer efJeYeepeve lelee DeOe&met$eer efJeYeepeve-II
 keâesefMekeâe yeej-yeej Deheves keâes efJeYeeefpele keâjkesâ efÉiegefCele keâjleer nw~ keâesefMekeâe efJeYeepeve oes Øekeâej kesâ nQ -
(a) Skeâ mecemet$eer (Mitosis) peneb iegCemet$eeW keâer mebKÙee Je Øekeâej Jewmes ner yeves jnles nQ~ Skeâ efÉiegefCele (2n)
efhele=keâesefMekeâe Deheves pewmeer oes odefJeiegefCele keâesefMekeâe keâes pevce osleer nQ~
(b) otmejs Øekeâej ceW, pees DeOe&met$eer efJeYeepeve (Meiosis) keânueelee nw, iegCemet$eeW keâer mebKÙee DeeOeer jn peeleer nQ~ ( n
DeiegefCele)~ mecemet$eer efJeYeepeve DeefOekeâlej owefnkeâ keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW neslee nw Deewj DeOe&met$eer peveve keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW~
mecemet$eer Ùee DeOe&met$eer efJeYeepeve mes henues keâesefMekeâe Dehevee ›eâescesefšve heoeLe& ogievee keâj uesleer nw~
 keâesefMekeâe Ûe›eâ : oes keâesefMekeâe efJeYeepeveeW kesâ yeerÛe efJeefYevve Iešvee›eâceeW kesâ ßeb=Keueeyeæ ÛejCeeW keâes meecetefnkeâ ®he mes
keâesefMekeâe Ûe›eâ (Cell Cycle) keâne peelee nw~

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G1 = keâesefMekeâe efJeYeepeve kesâ efueS Øeesšerve efvecee&Ce

S = DeevegJeebefMekeâ heoeLe& (Genetic Material) keâe efÉiegCeve
G2 = efJeYeepeve kesâ efueS DeeJeMÙekeâ DevÙe jmeeÙeefvekeâ heoeLeeX keâe mebMues<eCe (Synthesis of other Chemical Compound)
G0 = efkeâmeer keâejCe JeMe DemLeeÙeer ®he mes efJeYeepeve keâe ®keâvee~
G1
+
G2 Interphase - Preparatory Phase
+
S
M = Mitotic Phase - Division

Je<e& 2001 ceW Hartwell, Timothy Hunt SJeb Paul Nurse Éeje Ssmes heoeLeeX keâer Keespe keâer ieF& nQ pees keâesefMekeâe Ûe›eâ Ùee
efJeYeepeve keâes efJeefveÙeefcele keâjles nQ~ Fme keâeÙe& kesâ efueS GvnW veesyesue hegjmkeâej Øeehle ngDee~
(a) Cyclin
(b) CDK Cyclin dependent kinase
peneb Cyclic Éeje efJeYeepeve kesâ efJeefYevve ÛejCeeW keâe efJeefveÙeceve efkeâÙee peelee nw Jener CDK kesâ Éeje DNA mebMues<eCe keâe
efJeefveÙeceve neslee nw~
 iegCemet$e (Chromosome) : mecemet$eer efJeYeepeve kesâ Éeje Mejerj kesâ TlekeâeW ceW Je=efæ leLee cejccele nesleer nw~ keâesefMekeâe
keâer DeefJeYeeefpele DeJemLe ceW iegCemet$e efoKeeF& veneR osles nQ keäÙeeWefkeâ Jeneb ›eâescewešf ve heoeLe& Skeâ peeue kesâ ®he ceW neslee nw~ hejvleg
pÙeeW ner efJeYeepeve ef›eâÙee ØeejbYe nesleer nw ›eâesceewefšve heoeLe& Úesše Deewj Ievee neskeâj iegCemet$e ceW heefjJeefle&le nes peeleer nw~

I. mecemet$eer (MITOSIS) :
Ùen Skeâ efvejblej Øeef›eâÙee nw pees efkeâ oes YeeieeW ceW yebšer ngF& nw -
(A) kesâvõkeâ efJeYeepeve (Nuclear Division/Karyokinesis)
(B) keâesefMekeâeõJÙe efJeYeepeve (Cytoplasmic Division/Cytokinesis)

efJeefYevve Øekeâej keâer keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW Deueie-Deueie DeJeefOe keâer mecemet$eer efJeYeepeve (mitosis) Øeef›eâÙee nesleer nw~ kegâÚ
keâesefMekeâe efJeYeepeve ceW kegâÚ efceveš ueieleer nw, lees kegâÚ ceW IebšeW ueieleer nw~
(A) kesâvõkeâ efJeYeepeve (Nuclear Division/Karyokinesis)
- Fme Øeef›eâÙee keâes Ûeej YeeieeW ceW efJeYeeefpele efkeâÙee ieÙee nw, Ùen efJeYeepeve iegCemet$e (Chromosome) ceW nesves Jeeues
heefjJele&ve kesâ DeeOeej hej efkeâÙee peelee nw~ Ùes Ûeej Yeeie nQ - ØeesHesâpe (Prophase), cesšeHesâpe (Metaphase),

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SveeHesâpe (Anaphase), šerueesHesâpe (Telophase)

- peye keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW keâesF& efJeYeepeve veneR neslee nw, Gme oewjeve
keâer Øeef›eâÙee keâes FbšjHesâpe (Interphase) keânles nQ~ Fme oewjeve
kesâvõkeâ (Nucleus) ceW yeÌ[er mebKÙee ceW ›eâescewefšve (chroma-
tin) heoeLe& heeÙes peeles nQ, pees efkeâ uebyes, heleues Øeesšeshuewpeefcekeâ
jsMes kesâ meceeve vepej Deeles nQ~
- Fme DeJemLee ceW iegCemet$e (Chromosome) vepej veneR Deeles
nQ hejbleg Jes Deheveer efJeMes<elee yeveeÙes jKeves ceW me#ece jnles nQ~
- keâesefMekeâe efJeYeepeve mes hetJe&, keâesefMekeâe ceW cenlJehetCe& jemeeÙeefvekeâ heefjJele&ve keâer Øeef›eâÙee Ieefšle nesleer nw-
(i) ›eâescewefšve () heoeLe& Dehevee Øeefle®he yeveeles nQ~
(ii) Fme oewjeve DNA mebMues<eCe neslee nw~
(iii) keâesefMekeâe kesâ DeeOeej ceW Je=efæ nesvee DeejbYe neslee nw~
(iv) Fme oewjeve Tpee& Yeb[ej (energy pools) keâe mebÛeÙeve nesvee
ØeejbYe nes peelee nw~
 ØeesHesâpe (Prophase) : ›eâescewešf ve (Chromatin) heoeLe& iegCemet$e (Chromo-
some) kesâ ®he ceW JÙeJeefmLele nes peeles nQ~

- Fme oewjeve iegCemet$e mece mebKÙee ceW nesles nQ Fme oewjeve ØelÙeskeâ ›eâesceespeesce
(Chromosome) oes mece®heer Oeeies kesâ ®he ceW neslee nw, efpemes ›eâesceeefš[
(Chromatid) keâne peelee nw~
 ›eâesceeefš[ (Chromatid) Deeheme ceW mesvš^esefceÙej (Centromere) kesâ
Éeje pegÌ[s nesles nQ~
- Fme heefjJele&ve kesâ meeLe Skeâ peesÌ[s mesefvš^Ùeesue (Centriole) Yeer oes peesÌ[s
ceW efJeYeeefpele nes peeles nQ~ Ùen Skeâ leejevegcee mebjÛevee keâer lejn Øeleerle nesleer nw~ Ùen Skeâ leejevegcee keâer lejn
Øeleerle nesleer nw, efpemes Smšj (Aster) keâne peelee nw~
Skeâ Skeâ peesÌ[e efJehejerle OeÇgJeeW keâer Deesj peevee Meg® keâj osles nQ~
 Deueie nesleer mesefvš^Ùeeue (Centriole) ceW lekeg&â levlegDeeW Yeer vepej Deeves ueieleer nw~
- Fme DeJemLee ceW kesâvõkeâ efPeuueer (nuclear membrane) štškeâj ueghle nesves
ueieleer nw~
- Ùen DeJemLee ØeesHesâpe (Prophase) DeJemLee keâer meceeefhle keâer efveMeeveer nesleer nw~
 cesšeHesâpe (Metaphase) :
- Ùen mecemet$eer efJeYeepeve keâer meyemes Úesšer DeJemLee nw~
 šerueesHesâpe (Telophase) : Fme oewjeve kesâvõkeâe (nucleolus) oesveeW OeÇgJeeW hej efoKeles
nQ Fmekesâ meeLe-meeLe kesâvõkeâ efPeuueer hegve: yeve peeleer nw leLee ›eâescewefšve vesšJeke&â FmeceW
meceefnle nes peeleer nw Fme Øekeâej Øekeâej oes mebleefle keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâe efvecee&Ce neslee nw~
- ceOÙejsKeerÙe mebkegâÛeve mes keâesefMekeâe õJÙe (Cytoplasm) efJeYeeefpele nes peeleer nw~
- Fme DeJemLee kesâ Deble lekeâ oes hetCe& mebleefle keâesefMekeâe yeve peeleer nw~

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veesš : ØelÙeskeâ mebleefle keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW cetue keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ meceeve ner iegCemet$e ceewpeto jnles nQ~ Fme DeJemLee keâes
ef[ hueesF[ (diploid) keânles nQ~
(B) keâesefMekeâeõJe efJeYeepeve (Cytoplasmic Division/Cytokinesis)
- ceOÙejsKeerÙe #es$e ceW mebkegâÛeve Meg® nes peelee nw efpememes keâer keâesefMekeâeõJÙe kesâ
efJeYeepeve keâe mebkesâle efceuelee nw~
- Ùen mebkegâÛeve yeenj mes Deboj keâer lejHeâ neslee nw, Fme Øekeâej oes mebleefle keâesefMekeâeSb DeefmlelJe ceW Deeleer nw~
- keâesefMekeâebie keâe Yeer efJeYeepeve mebhevve nes peelee nw~
heeoheeW ceW keâesefMekeâe efJeYeepeve
 yengkeâesefMekeâerÙe heeoheeW ceW mesefvš^Ùeesue (Centriole) veneR heeÙee peelee nw, hej Jes leke&â leblegDeeW (Spindle Fibre) keâe
efvecee&Ce keâjles nQ leLee ØeeCeer keâesefMekeâe kesâ meceeve ner heeoheeW ceW keâesefMekeâe efJeYeepeve neslee nw~
 meyemes ØecegKe Deblej nw keâesefMekeâeõJÙe (Cytoknesis) kesâ efJeYeepeve Øeef›eâÙee ceW~ FmeceW ceOÙejsKeerÙe #es$e ceW keâesefMekeâe
efYeefòe (Cell Wall) kesâ efvecee&Ce nesves mes keâesefMekeâe õJÙe keâe efJeYeepeve mechevve neslee nw~
II. DeOe&met$eer efJeYeepeve (Meiosis) : peveve keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW iegCemet$eeW keâe DeeOee nesvee DeeJeMÙekeâ nw, keäÙeeWefkeâ Deiej iewefcele/
Ùegicekeâ (Gamete) keâesefMekeâeSb efÉiegefCele (2n) nes lees Jes efve<esÛeve (Fertilisation) kesâ heMÛeele efÉiegefCele iegCemet$eeW keâer
ogiegveer mebKÙee DeLee&le 2n+2n=4n keâe Ùegicepe (Zygote) yeveeÙesieer~
- Fme efmLeefle mes yeÛeves nsleg, ØelÙeskeâ-Ùegicekeâ keâesefMekeâe (Meg›eâeCeg Je Deb[eCeg) efve<esÛeve mes henues ner vÙetvekeâejer efJeYeepeve
(efÉiegefCele) mes DeiegefCele keâj uesleer nQ leeefkeâ heefjCeeefcekeâ Ùegicepe Deheveer mener efÉiegefCele (2n) iegCemet$eer (Chromo-
some) mebKÙee yeveeÙes jKe mekeWâ~
Fme efJeYeepeve ceW oes Yeeie nesles nQ –
(A) DeOe&met$eer efJeYeepeve-I iegCemet$eeW keâer mebKÙee DeeOeer nes peeleer nw~
(B) DeOe&met$eer efJeYeepeve-II Ùen Skeâ mecemet$eer efJeYeepeve DeJemLee nw~
(A) DeOe&met$eer efJeYeepeve - (Meiosis-I)
- FmeceW ØeesHesâpe-(Leptotene) DeJemLee meyemes uebyeer nesleer nw, efpemes heebÛe YeeieeW ceW yeebše ieÙee nw -
(i) efuehešesefšve (Leptotene) : ›eâescewefšve (Chromatin) iegCemet$eeW ceW heefjJele&ve neslee nw, Fme oewjeve Ievelee yeÌ{leer nw leLee
uebyeeF& Iešleer nw~
- Fme oewjeve iegCemet$eeW keâes Deheveer Øeefleke=âefle yeveeles nQ, hejvleg Jes
efJeefMe<š ®he mes Deekeâej veneR ues heeles nQ, keäÙeeWefkeâ Fme meceÙe
vÙetkeäueesØeesšerve (nucleoprotein) ceewpeto jnleer nw~
- Fme oewjeve kesâvõkeâ kesâ DeeÙeleve ceW Je=efæ nes peeleer nw~
- mesvš^esÙeesue (Centriole) efJeYeeefpele neskeâj OeÇgJe keâer Deesj ieceve
keâjvee ØeejbYe keâj osles nQ~
(ii) Ùegiceve (Zygote) : meÂMe iegCemet$e (homosonal chromosome)
pees ceelee Je efhelee kesâ Ùegicekeâ (Gamete) mes yeves nesles nQ, Jes Skeâ otmejs
kesâ vepeoerkeâ Dee peeles nQ~
- Fme oewjeve oesveeW ÙegicekeâeW (Gametes) kesâ ceOÙe uebyeJele mebyebOe
mLeeefhele neslee nw, Fme DeJemLeer keâes meeFvesheefmeme (Synapsis)
keânles nQ~
- Fmekesâ heMÛeele pegÌ[s ngS iegCemet$eeW ceW ceesšeF& yeÌ{ves ueieleer nw leLee Jes
Úesšs nesves ueieles nQ~
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meeFvesheefmeme kesâ oewjeve iegCemet$eeW kesâ ceOÙe efkeâmeer Yeer Øekeâej keâe mebueieve (fusion) veneR neslee nw, yeefukeâ meÂMe peesÌ[eW
(Identical) kesâ ceOÙe heeefM&Jekeâ mebmeie& (Lateral Association) neslee nw~

(iii) hesÛeerefšve (Pachytene) : Fme oewjeve iegCemet$eeW kesâ ceOÙe uebyeJele efJeYeepeve neslee nw, Fmemes Ûeej ›eâescewefš[ (Chroma-
tid) yeveles nQ~ Fmes šsš^es[ (tetrad) keâne peelee nw~
- meÂMe iegCemet$e Deeheme ceW Skeâ efyevog hej pegÌ[s jnles nQ efpemes keâeFSspceeše (Chaismata) keâne peelee nw~
- šsš^es[ (tetrad) kesâ Deemevve ›eâescesefš[ Deeheme ceW Skeâ otmejs mes pegÌ[ peeles nQ~
(iv) ef[heueesefšve (Diplotene) : meÂMe iegCemet$eeW kesâ ceOÙe efjheueefmeJe (repulsive) yeue kesâ keâejCe, iegCemet$e Skeâ otmejs mes
Deueie nesves ueieles nQ~
- Ùen DeueieeJe keâeFSspceeše (Chaismata) efyevot hej veneR neslee nw peneb iegCemet$eeW kesâ ceOÙe DevegJeebefMekeâ iegCeeW keâe
efJeefveceÙe neslee nw~
(v) [eFefkeâvesefmeme (Diakinesis) : iegCemet$eeW ceW Ievelee ceW Je=efæ nesleer nw~ Fme ÛejCe ceW kesâvõkeâefPeuueer (Nuclear
membrane) SJeb (hucleolus) ueghle nesves ueieleer nw~
 cesšeHesâpe-I : iegCemet$e Fme ÛejCe ceW leke&â leblegDeeW kesâ ceOÙe jsKee ceW Skeâef$ele nesleer nw~ Ûeej ›eâescewefš[ (oes peesÌ[er ceW) oes
mesvš^esefceÙej (Centromere) kesâ meeLe leke&gâ leblegDeeW (Spindle fibre) mes pegÌ[er ngF& nesleer nw~
- Ùes ›eâescewefš[ efJehejerle OeÇgJeeW keâer efoMee ceW jnles nQ~
 SveeHesâpe-I (Anaphase-I) : oes peesÌ[er Deye he=Lekeâ neskeâj, leke&â leblegDeeW (Spindle Fibre) kesâ efJehejerle OeÇgJeeW keâer Deesj
ieceve ØeejbYe keâjles nQ~
 šsueerHesâpe-I (Telophase-I) : DeeOes iegCemet$eeW Jeeues oes kesâvõkeâ yeveles nQ efHeâj hetjer keâesefMekeâe oes mebleefle keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW
efJeYekeäle ceW DeiegefCele (haploid) Ùee (h) iegCemet$e ceewpeto jnleer nw~
(B) DeOe&met$eer efJeYeepeve - II (Meiosis-II/Mitotic Division)
 ØeesHesâpe II (Prophase-II) :
(i) ØelÙeskeâ kesâvõkeâ (nucleus) ceW kesâefvõkeâ (nucleolus) heggve: Øekeâš neslee nw~
(ii) ØelÙeskeâ iegCemet$e kesâ oes ›eâescewefš[ he=Lekeâ jnles nQ hejbleg keâeFSspceeše (chiasma) hej pegÌ[s jnles nQ~
 cesšeHesâpe II (Metaphase-II) :
(i) iegCemet$e veÙes lekeg&â leblegDeeW kesâ menejs ceOÙejsKee hej JÙeJeefmLele nes peeles nQ~
(ii) peesÌ[s kesâ ›eâescewefš[ he=Lekeâ nesves ueieles nQ~
 SveeefHeâpe II (Anaphase-II) : leke&â leblegDeeW kesâ efJehejerle OeÇgJeeW keâer lejHeâ ›eâescewefš[ ieceve keâjvee ØeejbYe keâjles nQ~
 šsueesHesâpe II (Telophase) : keâesefMekeâe õJÙe efJeYeepeve neslee nw leLee Fmekesâ heMÛeele Ûeej mebleefle (daughter cells)
Øeehle nesleer nw, efpemeceW ›eâescewefš[ keâe Skeâ mesš ceewpeto jnlee nw~

mecemet$eer SJeb DeOe&met$eer efJeYeepeve-II ceW leguevee

 DeOe&met$eer efJeYeepeve II (Meiosis) mecemet$eer efJeYeepeve (Mitosis) kesâ meceeve neslee nw, ØelÙeskeâ efJeYeepeve ceW ›eâesceeefš[
mesvš^escesÙej (Centromere) mes pegÌ[s nesles nQ, ceOÙe jsKeerÙe #es$eerÙe ceW JÙeJeefmLele jnles nQ, leke&gâ leblegDeeW keâe efvecee&Ce,
mesvš^escesÙej efJeYekeäle nesleer nw leLee mebleefle iegCemet$e efJehejerle OeÇgJe keâer Deesj ieceve keâjles nQ~
 DeOe&met$eer efJeYeepeve II ceW efmeHe&â 23 (meeceevÙele: n) iegCemet$e cetue keâesefMekeâeDeeW leLee mebleefle keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW ceewpeto

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jnleer nw, mecemet$eer efJeYeepeve ceW 46 (DeLeJee 2n) iegCemet$e ceewpeto jnleer nw~
heeohe ceW mecemet$eer efJeYeepeve ØeeCeer mecemet$eer efJeYeepeve
1. ØeeÙe: leves Jeeues #es$e ceW efJeYeepeve neslee nw~ 1. keâF& peieneW hej efJeYeepeve nesles nQ~
2. keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ Deekeâej ceW keâesF& heefjJele&ve veneR neslee nw~ 2. keâesefMekeâe kesâ Deekeâej ceW heefjJele&ve neslee nw~
3. mesefvš^Ùeesue veoejo~ 3. mesefvš^Ùeeue ceewpeto~
4. huesš efvecee&Ce (Plate formation) mes keâesefMekeâeõJÙe 4. keäueerJespe (Cleavage) Éeje keâesefMekeâeõJÙe keâe
keâe efJeYeepeve~ efJeYeepeve~
mcejCeerÙe leLÙe
 Mejerj Je=efæ leLee jKe-jKeeJe nsleg owefnkeâ keâesefMekeâe Skeâ met$eer efJeYeepeve mes iegCee nesleer nw~
 mecemet$eer efJeYeepeve ceW mes efÉiegefCele (2n) iegCemet$eeW keâer mebKÙee meYeer mebleefle keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW meceeve jnleer nw~
 mecemet$eer efJeYeepeve keâes efÉiegefCele (diploid) efJeYeepeve keânles nQ~
 mecemet$eer efJeYeepeve ceW Ûeej ÛejCe nesles nQ -
(a) ØeesHesâpe (Prophase)
(b) cesšeHesâpe (Metaphase)

(c) SsveeHesâpe (Anaphase)

(d) šsueesHesâpe (Telophase)
 oes ›eâefcekeâ mecemet$eer (mitosis) efJeYeepeve kesâ yeerÛe keâer efJe#eece Ùee DeefJeYeeefpele DeJemLee keâes FbšjHesâpe (Interphase)
keânles nQ~
 peveveef›eâÙee kesâ efueS peveve keâesefMekeâeSb (Reproductive Cells) DeOe&met$eer efJeYeepeve (Meiosis) mes efJeYekeäle nesleer nw~
 iegCetme$eer mebKÙee (2n) meYeer mebleefle ceW keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW (Deb[eCeg Je Meg›eâeCeg) ceW DeeOeer jn peeleer nw, FmeefueÙes Fmes
DeiegefCele (Haploid) DeJemLee Yeer keânles nQ~
 DeOe&met$eer efJeYeepeve ceW oes Øekeâej keâer efJeYeepeve nesleer nw - DeOe&met$eer efJeYeepeve-I, DeOe&met$eer efJeYeepeve-II
 DeOe&met$eer efJeYeepeve-I (meiosis) keâer ØeesHesâpe-I ÛejCe meyemes uebyeer DeJemLee nesleer nw~ FmeceW heebÛe ÛejCe Meeefceue nw -
efueheesefšve, peeFieesefšve, hesÛeerefšve, ef[heueesefš^ve leLee [eFefkeâvesefmeme~
 DeOe&met$eer-I efJeYeepeve (meosis-I) JeemleefJekeâ ceW vÙetvekeâejer efJeYeepeve (Reductional Division) nw~
 DeOe&met$eer efJeYeepeve - II (Meiosis II) keâer meejer Øeef›eâÙeeSb mecemet$eer efJeYeepeve pewmeer nesleer nw~
 DeOe&met$eer efJeYeepeve (Meiosis) ceW Skeâ efÉiegefCele (2n) keâesefMekeâe keâer Ûeej DeiegefCele (n) mebleefle keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâe pevce
neslee nw~


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¹ã㪹ã Ìã •ãâ¦ãì …¦ã‡ãŠ (Plant and Animal Tissue)

keâesefMekeâe efJeYeepeve (Cell Division) Éeje keâesefMekeâe keâer mebKÙee ceW Je=efæ nesleer nw, Fme Øekeâej Skeâ keâesefMekeâe mes yengle
meer keâesefMekeâeSb yeveleer nw~ Ùen Øeef›eâÙee peerJe keâer Je=efæ SJeb efJekeâeme kesâ efueS DeeJeMÙekeâ nw~ keâesefMekeâe mecetn mebieef"le neskeâj
efJeefYevve keâeÙe& keâjles nQ GoenjCe kesâ efueS GÛÛeJeieeaÙe heewOes pewmes - veerce, heerheue, yejieo Deeefo efYevve Øekeâej keâer keâesefMekeâeDeeW mes
efceuekeâj yevee neslee nw; Ùes meYeer Skeâ keâesefMekeâe mes efJekeâefmele ngF&~ Gmeer Øekeâej yengkeâesefMekeâ pevleg pewmes - ceveg<Ùe, Mesj, keâe@keâje@Ûe
Deeefo Yeer efYevve Øekeâej keâer keâesefMekeâeDeeW mes efceuekeâj yeves nQ~
Skeâ keâesefMekeâ peerJeeW ceW pewJe Øeef›eâÙeeSb Skeâ keâesefMekeâe kesâ Éeje ner mechevve keâer peeleer nw~ yengkeâesefMekeâ peerJeeW ceW Deueie-Deueie
keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâe mecetn efYevve keâeÙe& keâjles nQ~ Fmes ßece efJeYeepeve (division of labour) keânles nQ~
efJekeâeme Øe›eâce ceW keâesefMekeâe efJeYesefole (differentiate) nes peeleer nw~ Ùes efJeYesefole keâesefMekeâeSb Deheveer efJeMes<e mebjÛevee kesâ
Devegmeej efJeMes<e keâeÙe& keâjleer nw~
 keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ Ssmes mecetn, efpevekeâer Glheefòe, jÛevee Je keâeÙe& meceeve nes Gmes Tlekeâ (Tissue) keânles nQ~
heeohe Tlekeâ (Plant Tissue)
heewOeeW keâe Mejerj efJeefYevve Øekeâej kesâ TlekeâeW mes yevee nw~ Fve TlekeâeW keâes ØeeÙe: oes YeeieeW ceW efJeYeeefpele efkeâÙee peelee nw~
(A) efJeYeepÙeeslekeâ Tlekeâ (Meristematic Tissue)
(B) mLeeÙeer Tlekeâ (Permanent Tissue)

(A) efJeYeepÙeeslekeâ Tlekeâ (Meristematic Tissue)

- Ùen Tlekeâ kesâJeue Je=efæ keâjves Jeeues YeeieeW pewmes Øejesn keâer Ûeesšer (Shoot tip), peÌ[ keâer Ûeesšer (root tip), keQâefyeÙece
(Cambium) ceW efceuelee nw~
- Fme Øekeâej keâer keâesefMekeâe heewOeeW keâer uebyeeF& Je ceesšeF& yeveeves ceW meneÙelee keâjleer nw~
efJeMes<eleeSb
(i) Fve keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâer mebjÛevee meceeve nesleer nQ leLee Fvekeâer keâesefMekeâe efYeefòe heleueer nesleer nw~
(ii) keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâe Deekeâej ieesue (Spherical), Deb[ekeâej (Oval) yengkeâes‰erÙe (Polygonal) neslee nw~
(iii) Ùes Deeheme ceW meIevelee mes pegÌ[er jnleer nw Deewj FmeefueÙes Fvekesâ ceOÙe Deble:keâesefMekeâerÙe mLeeve (intercellular space)
veneR neslee nw~
(iv) Fve keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW meIeve DeLeJee heÙee&hle keâeseMf ekeâe õJÙe (Cytoplasm) Deewj Skeâ yeÌ[e kesâvõkeâ (Nucleus) neslee nw~
(v) FveceW keâce efjkeäleeSb (Vacuole) nesleer nw DeLeJee veneR nesleer nw~
 keâeÙe& : Fve TlekeâeW keâe cegKÙe keâeÙe& efJeYeepeve Éeje efvejblej veF& keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâe efvecee&Ce keâjvee nw~
(B) mLeeÙeer Tlekeâ (Permanent Tissue) : mLeeÙeer Tlekeâ efJeYeepÙeeslekeâ (Meristematic Tissue) mes yeveer nesleer nw~
hejvleg Fvekeâer efJeYeepeve keâer #ecelee meceehle nes peeleer nw~ FveceW Mevew: - Mevew: efJeYesove (differentiation) nes peelee nw
leLee mLeeÙeer Tlekeâ yeve peeles nQ~
- mLeeÙeer TlekeâeW keâe Skeâ efveefMÛele Deekeâej neslee nw~
- Ùes keâesefMekeâeSb peerefJele Ùee ce=le, heleueer efYeefòe (thin walled) Ùee ceesšer efYeefòe (thick walled) nes mekeâleer nw~
- keâesefMekeâe keâe Deekeâej Dehes#eeke=âle yeÌ[e neslee nw Deewj jmeOeeveerÙegkeäle keâesefMekeâe õJÙe (Cytoplasm) neslee nw~
- mLeeÙeer Tlekeâ efvecve Øekeâej mes efJeYeeefpele efkeâÙee peelee nw -
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mLeeÙeer Tlekeâ
(Permanent Tissue)

mejue Tlekeâ peefšue Tlekeâ

(Simple Tissue) (Complex Tissue)

hewjWkeâeFcee keâe@ueWkeâeFcee mkesâueWkeâeFcee

(Parenchyma) (Collenchyma) (Sclerenchyma)

peeFuece HeäueesSce
(Xylem) (Phloem)

 mejue Tlekeâ (Simple Tissue) : Ùes Tlekeâ kesâJeue Skeâ Øekeâej keâer keâesefMekeâeDeeW mes yeves nesles nQ, heeohe keâeÙe& ceW heeÙes
peeves Jeeues mejue Tlekeâ nw - 1. hewjWkeâeFcee (Parenchyma), 2. keâe@ueWkeâeFcee (Collenchyma), 3. mkesâueWkeâeFcee
(Sclerenchyma)

1. hewjWkeâeFcee (Parenchyama) :
(a) efmLeefle : heewOeeW kesâ efJeefYevve Yeeie pewmes peÌ[, levee, heefòeÙeeb, Heâue Hetâue ceW ØecegKelee mes heeÙee peelee nw~
(b) Deekeâej Je ceehe : Deb[ekeâej (Oval), ieesue (Spherical), uebyeer (long), yenghe=‰erÙe (Polygonal) nesleer nw -
- Fvekeâer efYeefòe heleueer nesleer nw~
- meIeve keâesefMekeâeõJÙe heeF& peeleer nw~
(c) keâeÙe& : Yeespeve keâe mebÛeÙe Je mJeebieerkeâjCe keâjvee -
- ÂÌ{lee Øeoeve keâjvee (keâesefMekeâe keâer mHeâerefle Yeer yeveeÙes jKeleer nw)
- Jes jsefpeve (resins), šwefveve (Tannin), Dekeâe@ye&efvekeâ heoeLeeX kesâ jsefpeve keâes mebÛeefle keâjles nQ~
- Yeespeve yeveevee (peye Fve TlekeâeW ceW nefjle ueJekeâ heeÙes peeles nQ leye Fmes keäueesjWkeâeFcee (Chlorenchyma)
Fmekeâe cegKÙe keâeÙe& mšeÛe& keâe efvecee&Ce keâjvee nw~

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2. keâe@ueWkeâeFcee (Collenchyma) :
(a) efmLeefle : heewOes kesâ ØelÙeskeâ Yeeie ceW meyemes yeenjer keâJeÛe Sheer[efce&me (epidermis) nesleer nw~ Fmekesâ veerÛes keâe@ueWkeâeFcee
heeÙee peelee nw~
(b) Deekeâej Je ceehe : Fvekeâe Deekeâej ieesue (Spherical), Deb[ekeâej (Oval) leLee yenghe=‰erÙe (Polygonal)
- FveceW ØeeÙe: kegâÚ keäueesjeshueemš (Chloroplast) nesles nQ~
(c) keâeÙe& : heewOeeW keâes ueÛeerueeheve leLee ÂÌ{lee Øeoeve keâjlee nw~
- peye keâe@ueWkeâeFcee ceW njs JeCe&keâ (Chloroplast) nesles nQ, leye Ùes Meke&âje (sugar) leLee ceb[ (starch) keâe
efvecee&Ce keâjles nQ~
3. mkesâueWkeâeFcee (Sclerenchyma) :
(a) efmLeefle : Ùen heewOes kesâ efJeefYevve Yeeie pewmes - keâebšxkeäme (Cortex), efheLe (Pith), keâ"esj yeerpeeW ceW GheefmLele neslee nw~
Ùes ce=le keâesefMekeâe nesleer nw~
(b) Deekeâej Je ceehe : Ùen ØeeÙe: uebyeer Je heleueer efueefiveveÙegkeäle nesleer nw~
- Ùes keâesefMekeâeSb Skeâ otmejs mes mešer nesleer nw, Fmeer Øekeâej Fvekesâ ceOÙe Deble&keâesefMekeâerÙe mLeeve (intercellular
space) veneR nesleer nw~
(c) keâeÙe& : heewOeeW keâes ÂÌ{lee Øeoeve keâjvee nw~
- heeohe kesâ yeeÿe Yeeie ceW Ùes j#eer TlekeâeW (Protective Tissue) ceW heefjJeefle&le nes peeleer nw~

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j#eer Tlekeâ (Protective Tissue)

Ùes Tlekeâ heewOeeW kesâ YeeieeW pewmes heefòeÙeeb, HetâueeW, leveeW leLee peÌ[eW kesâ yeeÿe hejle hej efmLele nesles nQ~ Ùen hejle Skeâ keâesefMekeâe
ceesšer nesleer nw Deewj ceesce pewmes heoeLe& keäÙetefšve mes {keâer jnleer nw~ Ùes Tlekeâ heewOeeW kesâ Yeerlejer TlekeâeW keâer j#ee keâjles nQ~
GoenjCe : keâe@ke&â (Cork) heefjefOe hej efmLele Sheer[efce&me kesâ Deboj keâer keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ ®heeblejCe kesâ heMÛeele yevelee nw~ keâe@ke&â
Deboj keâer keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâer j#ee keâjlee nw~
veesš : heewOeeW ceW yeeÿe lJeÛee Ùee Sheer[efce&me keâer keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW yeerÛe-yeerÛe ceW Úesšs jbOeÇ nesles nQ, efpevnW JeelejbOeÇ (stomada) keânles
nQ~ FvneR JeelejbOeÇ Éeje heewOes iewmeeW Deeoeve-Øeoeve keâjles nQ~
 peefšue Tlekeâ (Complex Tissue) : Ùes Tlekeâ Skeâ mes DeefOekeâ
Øekeâej keâer keâesefMekeâeDeeW mes efceuekeâj yeves nesles nQ Deewj Ùes meYeer Skeâ
meeLe efceuekeâj Skeâ FkeâeF& keâer lejn keâeÙe& keâjles nQ~ peefšue Tlekeâ
peue, Keefvepe, ueJeCe leLee heewOeeW Éeje yeveeÙes ieÙes Yeespeve keâes heewOeeW
kesâ DevÙe Yeeie ceW hengbÛeelee nw~
- Fme Tlekeâ kesâ oes Øekeâej nQ - 1. peeFuece (Xylem), 2. HeäueesSce
(Phloem)~
peeFuece leLee HeäueesSce keâes mebJenve Tlekeâ (Vascular tissue) keânles
nQ Deewj Ùes efceuekeâj mebJenve ceb[ue (Vascular bundle) keânles nQ~
1. peeFuece (Xylem) : Ùen Skeâ mebJenve Tlekeâ nw~
- Ùen Ûeej keâesefMekeâeDeeW mes efceuekeâj yevee nesles nQ, Ùes keâesefMekeâe nw
: (a) š^kw eâer[md e (tracheid), (b) Jewmesume (Vessels), (c) peeFuece
hew j W k eâeFcee (Xylem Parenchymas) , (d) peeFuece
mkeâuesjWkeâeFcee (Xylem Sclerenchyma)
keâeÙe& :
(a) Ùes heeveer leLee Keefvepe ueJeCe peÌ[ mes heewOeeW kesâ DevÙe Yeeie ceW
hengbÛeelee nw~
(b) peeFuece heewOeeW keâes ÂÌ{lee Øeoeve keâjlee nw~
2. HeäueesSce (Phloem) : Ùen Skeâ peerefJele mebJenkeâ (Vascular) Tlekeâ nw~
- Ùen Ûeej Øekeâej keâer keâesefMekeâeDeeW mes yeveer nesleer nw -
(a) Ûeeueveer veefuekeâe (Sieve Tubes)
(b) meeOeer keâesefMekeâe (Companion Cells)

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(c) HeäueesSce hewjWkeâeFcee (Phloem Parenchyma)

(d) HeäueesSce jsMes (Phloem Fibre)
- keâeÙe& : heefòeÙeeW mes Yeespeve heewOeeW kesâ DevÙe Yeeie ceW hengbÛeelee nw~
pevleg Tlekeâ (Animal Tissue)
ceveg<Ùe meefnle meYeer GÛÛe pevlegDeeW ceW Ûeej efYevve Øekeâej kesâ Tlekeâ heeÙes peeles nQ~ Ùes nQ - SefheLeerefueÙeceer (Epithelial),
mebÙeespeer Tlekeâ (Connective Tissue), hesMeerÙe Tlekeâ (Moscular Tissue), lebef$ekeâe Tlekeâ (Nervous tissue)~
pebleg Tlekeâ
(Animal Tissue)
|

   
SefheLeerefueÙeceer hesMeerÙe Tlekeâ mebÙeespeer Tlekeâ lebef$ekeâe Tlekeâ
(Epithelial) (Muscular tissue) (Connective tissue) (Nervous tissue)

1. SefheLeueerÙeceer Tlekeâ (Epithelial Tissue)

 Ùen Skeâ Dejnj Tlekeâ (Covering Tissue) nw~ Ùen Skeâ j#eer Dejnj (Protective Covering) keâe efvecee&Ce
keâjlee nw~
 Ùen Mejerj kesâ Deboj efmLele efJeefYevve YeeieeW keâer iegefnkeâe (Cavity) keâe DeeJejCe yeveeleer nw~
- lJeÛee, cegbn, Deenejveeue leLee HesâHeâÌ[eW keâer melen SefheLeefueÙeceer Tlekeâ mes yeveer nesleer nw~
 efJeefYevve mLeeveeW hej heeÙes peeves Jeeues keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâer Deekeâej Je jÛevee ceW efYevvelee nesleer nw~
SefheLeerueÙeceer Tlekeâ
(Epithelial Tissue)
|

    
Meukeâer-Ûehešer keâesefMekeâeSb Oeveekeâej mlebYeekeâej meerefueÙeeceÙe «ebefLeue
(Squamous) (Cuboid) (Columnar) (Ciliated) (Glandular)

keâeÙe& :
 Ùes keâesefMekeâeSb lJeÛee keâer yeeÿe hejle yeveeleer nw~ Ùes Deebleefjkeâ keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâer j#ee keâjlee nw~ SefheLeerueÙeceer
keâesefMekeâeSb Deebleefjkeâ keâeseMf ekeâeDeeW keâes metKeves mes, Ûeesš mes, peerJeeCegDeeW kesâ Deefle›eâceCe Je jmeeÙeefvekeâ heoeLeeX kesâ
ØeYeeJe mes yeÛeleer nw~
 nceejs Mejerj ceW Debieleb$eeW pewmes cegKe iegne, Yeespeve veueer keâer yeeÿe Je Deebleefjkeâ hejle yeveekeâj Ùes Gve DebieeW keâer j#ee
keâlejer nw~
 peue leLee DevÙe hees<ekeâ heoeLeeX kesâ DeJeMees<eCe (Absorption) ceW meneÙelee keâjleer nw~
 JÙeLe& heoeLeeX kesâ efve<keâemeve ceW meneÙelee keâjleer nw~

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 kegâÚ keâesefMekeâeSb m$eeJeCe (Secretory) keâeÙe& keâjves kesâ efueS efJeefMe<š

nes peeleer nw~

2. hesMeerÙe Tlekeâ (Muscular Tissue)

 nceejs Mejerj ceW nesves Jeeueer ieefle hesMeerÙe TlekeâeW kesâ keâejCe nesleer nw~
hesMeer-keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW GheefmLele mebkegâÛeveMeerue Øeesšerve (Contractile
Protein) ceW mebkegâÛeve (Contraction) SJeb Øemeej (relaxation)
nesves mes DebieeW ceW ieefle nesleer nw~
- ùoÙe keâer OeÌ[keâve leLee Yeespeve veueer (Alimentary Canal) ceW
mebkegâÛeve Je Øemeej hesMeerÙe keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ keâejCe ner neslee nw~
- nceejs Mejerj ceW leerve Øekeâej keâer hesMeer Tlekeâ (muscular
tissue) heeF& peeleer nw, Jes nQ -

(a) jsefKele hesMeer (Striated muscle or skele tal or volun-

tary muscle)

(b) DejsefKele hesMeer (Unstriated or smooth or involun-

tary muscle)

(c) ùoÙe hesMeer (Cardiac muscle)

(a) jsefKele Ùee kebâkeâeue hesMeer (Striated or voluntary muscle)

- Ùen hesMeer nef[d[ÙeeW mes pegÌ[er nesleer nw Deewj Mejerj keâes ieefle
Øeoeve keâjves ceW meneÙelee keâjleer nw~
- Ùes hesefMeÙeeb nceejer FÛÚevegmeej keâeÙe& keâjleer nw, FmeefueÙes FvnW SsefÛÚkeâ hesMeer (Voluntary muscle) keâne
peelee nw~
- ue#eCe :
(i) Fme Tlekeâ keâer keâesefMekeâeSb uebyeer leLee yesueveekeâej
leLee DeMeeefmele jnleer nw~
(ii) Fve hej nukesâ SJeb ienjs jbie kesâ yebOe nesles nQ pees
›eâceevegmeej (Skeâeblej) GheefmLele nesles nQ, FmeefueÙes
FvnW jsKeerÙe hesMeer keânles nQ~
(iii) FveceW yengle meejs kesâvõkeâ nesles nQ pees hesMeer kesâ yeenjer Deesj efmLele nesles nQ~
(b) DejsefKele hesMeer Ùee efÛekeâveer hesMeer (Unstriated Muscle/Involuntary Muscle)

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- efÛekeâveer hesMeer nceejs Mejerj kesâ Deboj DeceeMeÙe

(Stomach) Deebl e (intestine) , cet $ eJeeefn veer
(ureter) Deeefo DebieeW keâer efYeefòe ceW ceewpeto jnleer
nw~
- ue#eCe :
(i) keâesefMekeâe uebyeer Deewj lekeg&â®he (Spindle
shape) nesleer nw~
(ii) ØelÙeskeâ keâesefMekeâe kesâ Deboj ceOÙeYeeie ceW efmLele
kesâJeue Skeâ kesâvõkeâ neslee nw~
(iii) hesMeer lebleg kesâ Deej-heej keâesF& yebOe veneR neslee
nw, FmeefueÙes FvnW DejsefKele hesMeer (Smooth
muscle) keâne peelee nw~
(c) ùoÙe hesMeer (Cardiac Muscle)
- Ùen hesMeer kesâJeue ùoÙe ceW ner heeF& peeleer nw~
- ue#eCe :
(i) keâesefMekeâe lekeg&â®he veneR nesleer nw, Gmekesâ Deej-heej yebOe
nukesâ nesles nQ~
(ii) ØelÙeskeâ keâesefMekeâe kesâ ceOÙe Øeele: Skeâ Ùee keâYeer-keâYeer oes
kesâvõkeâ nesles nQ~
(iii) keâesefMekeâeSb yesueveekeâej leLee MeeefKele nesleer nQ~
(iv) meeceevÙe heefjefmLeefleÙeeW ceW Ùen peerJeveheÙe&vle ùoÙe ceW
ueÙeyeæ mebkegâÛeve SJeb Øemeej keâjleer nw~ Fmeer mes Mejerj
ceW ®efOej keâe heefjJenve neslee nw~
hesMeerÙe TlekeâeW keâe legueveelcekeâ DeOÙeÙeve
jsefKece Ùee kebâkeâeue hesMeer DejsefKele ùoÙe hesMeer
(Striated muscle) (Unstriated Muscle) (Cardioc)
1. hesMeer nef[d[ÙeeW mes pegÌ[er nesleer nw 1. Deebleefjkeâ Debie DeceeMeÙe Deeble, 1. ùoÙe ceW ceewpeto jnleer nw~
leLee ieefle Øeoeve keâjleer nw~ cet$eJeeefnveer DebieeW keâer efYeefòe ceW
ceewpeto jnleer nw~
2. FÛÚevegmeej keâeÙe& keâjleer nw~ 2. mJeleb$e ®he mes keâeÙe& keâjleer nQ~ 2. mJeleb$e ®he mes keâeÙe& keâjleer nw~
3. uebyeer, yesueveekeâej Je DeMeeefKele 3. uebyeer Je leke&gâ ®heer mJe®he 3. lekeg&â®heer veneR nesles nQ~
mJe®he~
4. nukesâ Je ienjs jbie kesâ yebOe ceewpeto 4. keâesF& yebOe veneR neslee nw~ 4. nukesâ yebOe GheefmLele jnles nQ~
jnles nQ~
5. DemebKÙe kesâvõkeâ hesMeer kesâ yeenjer 5. efmeHe&â Skeâ kesâvõkeâ ceOÙe Yeeie 5. ØelÙeskeâ keâesefMekeâe ceW ØeeÙe: keâYeer-keâYeer
melen hej jnles nQ~ ceW GheefmLele jnlee nw~ oes kesâvõkeâ nesles nQ~
2. mebÙeespeer Tlekeâ (Connective Tissue)
 Fme Tlekeâ keâe keâeÙe& Deewj Mejerj kesâ efJeefYevve DebieeW keâes Skeâ otmejs mes peesÌ[vee, meneje osvee leLee yeebOevee nw~
 Fme Tlekeâ keâer keâesefMekeâeSb ceeOÙece (Matrix) kesâ Deboj GheefmLele nesleer nw~

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- ceeOÙece (Matrix) keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ ceOÙe Yeer DeJeefmLele nesleer nw~

- Ùen ceeOÙece (Matrix) "esme nes mekeâleer nw, GoenjCe DeefmLe Je GheeefmLe (Cartilage)
- Ùen õJÙe kesâ ®he ceW Yeer nes mekeâlee nw, GoenjCe ®efOej (Blood)~

 DeefmLe, GheeefmLe, kebâ[je (tendon), mveeÙeg (ligaments), ®efOej (blood) Deeefo ØecegKe mebÙeespeer Tlekeâ nw~
 DeefmLe Je GheeefmLe (Bone and Cartilage)
- nceejs Mejerj ceW kebâkeâeue DeefmLe Je GheeefmLe mes yevee nw~ DeefmLeÙeeb ÂÌ{ (Strong) nesleer nw, peyeefkeâ GheeefmLe
(Cartilage) ceW ueÛeerueeheve (Flexible) neslee nw~
- DeefmLeÙeeW ceW ÂÌ{lee, Gmekesâ ceeOÙece (Matrix) ceW ØeÛegj cee$ee kewâefumeÙece (Calcium) ueJeCeeW kesâ keâejCe neslee nw~
- GheeefmLe nceejer yeeÿe keâeve leLee veekeâ keâer Ûeesšer (tip of nose) hej heeF& peeleer nw~
DeefmLe (Bone) GheeefmLele (Cartilage)

1. ÂÌ{ nesleer nw~ 1. ueÛeerueeheve heeÙee peelee nw~

2. ÂÌ{lee kewâefumeÙece kesâ ceewpetoieer kesâ keâejCe nesleer nw~ 2. kewâefumeÙece keâer keâceer nesleer nw~
3. Fmekeâes ceewpetoieer JÙeehekeâ nw~ 3. ceewpetoieer meerefcele nw~
4. mebhetCe& Mejerj kesâ Debie~ 4. veekeâ keâer Ûeesšer, yeeÿe keâeve~
 kebâ[je Je mveeÙeg (Tendon & ligaments)
kebâ[je (Tendon) mveeÙeg (Ligaments)

1. MeefkeäleMeeueer nesles nQ~ 1. vece& nesles nQ~

2. hesMeer keâes DeefmLe mes peesÌ[les nQ~ 2. DeefmLe keâes DeefmLe mes peesÌ[les nQ~
3. Fve JemlegDeeW keâe efvecee&Ce efvekeâšJeleea mebÙeespeer Tlekeâ 3. efvecee&Ce mebÙeespeer Tlekeâ kesâ m$eeJeCe kesâ keâejCe
mes m$eeJeCe kesâ keâejCe neslee nw~
veesš : SefjÙeesuej Tlekeâ (Areolar Tissue) mebÙeespeer Tlekeâ keâe Skeâ Øekeâej nw~ Ùen Tlekeâ Mejerj iegefnkeâe (body cavity) ceW
efmLele DebieeW keâes Deeheme ceW peesÌ[lee nw~
 ®efOej (Blood)

- Ùen Yeer Skeâ mebÙeespeer Tlekeâ nw, Ùen nceejs Mejerj ceW heeÙee peeves
Jeeuee lejue Tlekeâ (Fluid Tissue) nw~
- Fme Tlekeâ keâer keâesefMekeâeSb lejue ceeOÙece ceW lewjleer jnleer nw~
- Fve keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâes ®efOej keâefCekeâeSb (Blood Corpuscles) leLee
ceeOÙece (Matrix) keâes hueeefJekeâe (blood plasma) keânles nQ~
®efOej
|
––––––––––––––––––––––––
 
keâefCekeâeSb hueepecee/hueeefJekeâe

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GoenjCe :
(a) ueeue ®efOej keâefCekeâe (Red Blood Corpuscles)
(b) MJesle ®efOej keâefCekeâe (White Blood Corpuscles)
(c) huesšuewšdme (Platletes)
- Ùen Mejerj kesâ meYeer YeeieeW ceW oewÌ[lee nw, Dele: Mejerj kesâ meYeer YeeieeW keâes peesÌ[lee nw~
4. lebef$ekeâe Tlekeâ (Nerve Tissue)
 ceefmle<keâ, ces®jppeg (Spinal Cord) leLee lebef$ekeâeSb
meYeer lebef$ekeâe Tlekeâ mes yeveer nesleer nw~
 lebef$ekeâe Tlekeâ keâer keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâes vÙetje@ve (Neu-
ron) keânles nQ~
- Ùes keâesefMekeâe efJeefMe<š Øekeâej keâer nesleer nw leLee
mebosMeJeenkeâ keâe keâeÙe& keâjleer nw~
 yeveeJeš :
(i) keâesefMekeâe keâeÙe (Cell Body) efpemeceW Skeâ
kesâvõkeâ leLee keâesefMekeâe õJÙe neslee nw~
(ii) vÙetje@ve (Neuron) kesâ keâesefMekeâe keâeÙe mes efvekeâues heleues pees Skeâ Ùee DeefOekeâ nesles nQ, [W[^eFš (dendrites)
keânueelee nw~ [s[^eFš lebef$ekeâe keâesefMekeâe (vÙetje@ve) mes efvekeâueles nQ~
(iii) keâesefMekeâe keâeÙe mes ØeejbYe neskeâj Skeâ yengle heleuee SJeb ueyee lebef$ekeâe lebleg (Nerve Fibre) efvekeâuelee nw~ Ùen
Skeâ vÙetje@ve mes otmejs vÙetje@ve meboMs eJeenkeâ keâe keâeÙe& keâjlee nw, efpemes Skeäpee@ve (Axon) keânles nQ~
veesš : [s[^eFš mebosMe (impulse) Øeehle keâjlee nw, peyeefkeâ Skeäpee@ve (Axon) Fmes keâesefMekeâe keâeÙe (Cell body) mes otj ues peelee nw~
mcejCeerÙe leLÙe :
 meceeve GodYeeJe, jÛevee Deewj keâeÙe& keâjves Jeeueer keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ mecetn keâes Tlekeâ (Tissue) keânles nQ~
 heeohe Tlekeâ (Plant Tissue) cegKÙe ®he mes leerve Øekeâej kesâ nesles nQ~
 efJeYeepÙeeslekeâ (meristematic) peerefJele keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ yeves nesles nQ Deewj yeej-yeej efJeYeeefpele nesles jnles nQ~
 mLeeÙeer Tlekeâ Jes nesles nQ, pees Deheveer efJeYeepeve keâer #ecelee Kees Ûegkesâ nQ~
 mLeeÙeer Tlekeâ mejue Je peefšue oes Øekeâej kesâ nesles nQ~
 pevleg Tlekeâ efYevve Øekeâej kesâ nesles nQ - SefheLeerefueÙeceer, mebÙeespeer, hesMeerÙe, leb$eerÙe Tlekeâ~
 SheerLeueerefueÙeceer Tlekeâ Deheveer jÛevee Je keâeÙe& kesâ Devegmeej keâF& Øekeâej kesâ nesles nQ~
 hesMeerÙe Tlekeâ leerve Øekeâej kesâ nesles nQ - jsefKele, DejsefKele leLee no~
 mebÙeespeer Tlekeâ kesâ Øekeâej - DeefmLe Je GheeefmLe, mveeÙeg Je kebâ[je, ®efOej FlÙeeefo~
 ceefmle<keâ, ces®jppet leLee lebef$ekeâeSb meYeer lebef$ekeâe Tlekeâ kesâ yeves nesles nQ~ lebef$ekeâe Tlekeâ keâer FkeâeF& vÙetje@ve (Neuron)
nw~ Ùen mebosMeJeenkeâ (impulse) keâe keâeÙe& keâjles nQ~


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¹ããñÓã¥ã †Ìãâ ¹ããÞã¶ã (Nutrition and Digestions)

 meYeer peerJeeW ceW Tpee& leLee heoeLe& keâer meeceevÙe DeeJeMÙekeâlee meceeve nw~ uesefkeâve Gmekeâer Deehetefle& efYevve efJeefOeÙeeW mes nesleer
nw~ kegâÚ peerJe Dekeâeye&efvekeâ m$eesleeW mes keâeye&ve [eF&Dee@keämeeF[ leLee peue kesâ ®he ceW mejueheoeLe& Øeehle keâjles nQ~
 peerJe keâer Je=efæ, efJekeâeme SJeb Devegj#eCe (maintainance) SJeb meYeer pewJe Øe›eâceeW keâes megÛee® {bie mes Ûeueeves kesâ efueS
DeeJeMÙekeâ meYeer heoeLeeX hees<ekeâeW (Nutrient) kesâ DeefOe«enCe kesâ hees<eCe keânles nQ~
 hees<eCe keâer DeeJeMÙekeâlee : Deenej Skeâ Øekeâej keâer FËOeve nw, pees Mejerj keâes mebÛeeefuele keâjves kesâ efueS DeeJeMÙekeâ nw~
Deenej keâer DeeJeMÙekeâlee nesleer nw -
(i) efJeefYevve GheeheÛeÙe Øeef›eâÙeeDeeW (metabolic octivity) nsleg Tpee& Øeoeve keâjves nsleg~
(ii) veÙes keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâe efvecee&Ce leLee hegjeves, peerCe&-MeerCe& keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâes ØemLeeefhele SJeb cejccele keâjves nsleg~
(iii) jesie kesâ efKeueeHeâ ØeeflejesOeer #ecelee efJekeâefmele keâjves nsleg~
 heeoheeW leLee peerJeeW ceW efJeefYevve Øekeâej keâer hees<eCe Øeef›eâÙee heeF& peeleer nQ -
mJehees<eer hees<eCe (Autotrophic Nutrition)
mJehees<eer peerJe keâe keâeye&ve leLee Tpee& keâer DeeJeMÙekeâleeSB ØekeâeMe mebMues<eCe Éeje hetjer nesleer nQ~ Ùen Jen Øe›eâce nw efpemeceW
mJehees<eer yeenj mes efueS heoeLeeX keâes Tpee& mebefÛele ®he ceW heefjJeefle&le keâj oslee nw~ Ùes heoeLe& keâeye&ve [eF&Dee@keämeeF[ leLee peue kesâ
®he ceW efueS peeles nQ pees metÙe& kesâ ØekeâeMe leLee keäueesjesefHeâue keâer GheefmLeefle ceW keâeyeexneF[^sš ceW heefjJeefle&le keâj efoS peeles nQ~
keâeyeexneF[^sš heewOeeW keâes Tpee& Øeoeve keâjves ceW ØeÙegkeäle nesles nQ~
veesš : keâeyeexneF[^sš legjble ØeÙegkeäle veneR nesles nQ GvnW ceb[ (Starch) kesâ ®he ceW mebefÛele keâj efueÙee peelee nw~ Ùen jef#ele
Deebleefjkeâ Tpee& keâer lejn keâeÙe& keâjsiee leLee heewOes Éeje DeeJeMÙekeâleevegmeej ØeÙegkeäle keâj efueÙee peelee nw~ kegâÚ Fmeer lejn keâer
efmLeefle nceejs Deboj Yeer osKeer peeleer nw, nceejs Éeje KeeS Yeespeve mes JÙeglhevve Tpee& keâe kegâÚ Yeeie nceejs Mejerj ceW iueeFkeâespeve
kesâ ®he ceW mebefÛele nes peelee nw~
keäueesjesefHeâue
6CO2 + 12H2O ––––––––––––––– C6H12O6+6O2+6H2O
metÙe& keâe ØekeâeMe
Fme DeefYeef›eâÙee ceW -
(i) keäueesjesefHeâue (Chlorophyll) Éeje ØekeâeMe Tpee& keâes DeJeMeesef<ele keâjvee~
(ii) ØekeâeMe Tpee& keâes jemeeÙeefvekeâ Tpee& ceW ®heebleefjle keâjvee leLee peue DeCegDeeW keâe neF[^espeve leLee Dee@keämeerpeve ceW
DeheIešve~
(iii) keâeye&ve [eFDee@keämeeF[ keâe keâeyeexneF[^sš ceW DeheÛeÙeve~
 Ùen DeeJeMÙekeâ veneR nw efkeâ Ùes ÛejCe lelkeâeue Skeâ kesâ yeeo otmeje nes~ GoenjCe kesâ efueS, ce®odefYeo heewOes jeef$e ceW keâeye&ve
[eFDee@keämeeF[ uesles nQ Deewj Skeâ ceOÙemLe Glheeo yeveeles nQ~ efove ceW keäueesjesefHeâue Tpee& DeJeMeesef<ele keâjkesâ Debeflece Glheeo
yeveelee nw~
 heewOes keâeye&ve [eFDee@keämeeF[ jvOeÇes (Stomata) mes Øeehle keâjles nQ pees heòeer keâer melen hej met#ce efÚõ nesles nQ~
ØekeâeMemebMues<eCe kesâ efueS iewmeeW keâe DeefOekeâebMe Deeoeve-Øeoeve FvneR efÚõeW kesâ Éeje neslee nw~ iewmeeW keâe Deeoeve-Øeoeve leves,
peÌ[ Deewj heefòeÙeeW keâer melen mes Yeer neslee nw~ Fve jbOeÇeW mes heÙee&hle cee$ee ceW peue keâer Yeer neefve nesleer nw Dele: peye
ØekeâeMemebMues<eCe kesâ efueS keâeye&ve [eFDee@keämeeF[ keâer DeeJeMÙekeâlee veneR nesleer leye heewOee Fve efÚõeW keâes yebo keâj ueslee nw~
- efÚõeW keâe Keguevee Deewj yebo nesvee Éej keâesefMekeâeDeeW (Door Cell) keâe Skeâ keâeÙe& nw~ Éej keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW peye peue
Deboj peelee nw lees Jes Hetâue peeleer nQ Deewj jbOeÇ keâe efÚõ Kegue peelee nw~ Fmeer lejn peye Éej keâesefMekeâeSB efmekegâÌ[leer
nw lees efÚõ yebo nes peelee nw~
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hees<eCe kesâ ceeOÙece

(Mode of Nutrition)
|
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
 
mJehees<eer hees<eCe efJe<ecehees<eer
(Autotrophics) (Heterotrophic)

(Dehevee Yeespeve mJeÙeb lewÙeej keâjles nQ) Ùes peerJe Dehevee Yeespeve mJeÙeb lewÙeej veneR
keâjleer nw, Jes Fmes efkeâmeer DevÙe ceeOÙece mes

 Øeehle keâjleer nw~
 
nesueesHeâeFefškeâ (Holopytic) 
   
 Ùen ceeOÙece heeoheeW ceW heeÙee nesueespeesFkeâ meeØeesHeâeFefškeâ hejpeerJeer
peelee nw~ Fme Øeef›eâÙee ceW mejue (Holozoic) (Saprophytic) (Parasitic)

heoeLeeX mes peefš YeespÙe heoeLe&
lewÙeej efkeâÙee peelee nw~
 GoenjCe : ØekeâeMe-mebMues<eCe
kesâ oewjeve heerÚs keâeye&ve [eF&
Dee@keämeeF[ (CO2) leLee peue
mes keâeyeexneF[^sš keâe efvecee&Ce
 Ùen peerJeeW ceW heeÙee peeves
Jeeuee hees<eCe keâe ceeOÙece
nw efpemeceW "esme leLee
peefšue KeeÅe heoeLeeX
mes mejue heoeLe& Øeehle
efkeâÙee peelee nw~
 Ùes Dehevee Yeespeve cejs
leLee meÌ[s-ieues
heoeLeeX mes Øeehle
keâjles nQ~
 GoenjCe : keâJekeâ
(Fungus)
 Ùes Dehevee hees<eCe
otmejs peerJeeW mes
menpeerJeer kesâ ®he ceW
Øeehle keâjles nQ~
 GoenjCe : šsceheJece&
(Tapeworm)

keâjles nQ~  GoenjCe : peerJe Øeesšerve

 iewj-nefjle heeohe pewmes efkeâ leLee keâeyeexneF[^s[š mes
veeFš^erkeâjCe yewkeäšerefjÙee Deceervees Sefme[ leLee
jemeeÙeefvekeâ mebMues<eCe meeOeejCe Meke&âje Øeehle
(Chemosynthesis) Éeje keâjles nQ~
Dehevee Deenej lewÙeej
keâjleer nw~
efJe<ecehees<eer hees<eCe (Heteotrophic Nutrition)
 ØelÙeskeâ peerJe Deheves heÙee&JejCe kesâ efueS Devegketâefuele nw~ Yeespeve kesâ mJe®he SJeb GheueyOelee kesâ DeeOeej hej hees<eCe keâer efJeefOe
efJeefYevve Øekeâej keâer nes mekeâleer nw, Fmekesâ Deefleefjkeäle Ùen peerJe kesâ Yeespeve «enCe keâjves kesâ {bie hej Yeer efveYe&j keâjleer nw~
GoenjCe kesâ efueS, Ùeefo Yeespeve m$eesle DeÛeue nw (pewmes efkeâ Ieeme) Ùee ieefleMeerue nw pewmes efnjCe, oesveeW Øekeâej kesâ Yeespeve
keâe DeefYeiece keâe lejerkeâe efYevve-efYevve nw leLee ieeÙe Je Mesj efkeâme hees<ekeâ GhekeâjCe keâe GheÙeesie keâjles nQ~ peerJeeW Éeje
Yeespeve «enCe keâjves Deewj Gmekesâ GheÙeesie keâer Deveskeâ ÙegefkeäleÙeeB nQ~

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- kegâÚ peerJe YeespÙe heoeLeeX keâe efJeIešve Mejerj kesâ yeenj keâer keâj osles nQ Deewj leye Gmekeâe DeJeMees<eCe keâjles nQ~
HeâHetBâoer, Ùeermš leLee ceMe®ce Deeefo keâJekeâ Fmekesâ GoenjCe nQ~
- DevÙe peerJe mebhetCe& YeespÙe heoeLe& keâe Deble«e&nCe keâjles nQ leLee Gvekeâe heeÛeve Mejerj kesâ Devoj neslee nw~
 ®#e DebMe (jsMee) SJeb peue Yeer Mejerj kesâ efueS DeeJeMÙekeâ~
 megefJeOee kesâ efueS Yeespeve keâes leerve ØecegKe JeieeX ceW yeebše ieÙee nw -
(A) Tpee& Øeoeve keâjves Jeeues KeeÅe heoeLe& (Energy Rich Food)

(B) Mejerj efvecee&Ce keâjves Jeeues KeeÅe heoeLe& (Body Building Food)

(C) jesOeer #ecelee Jeeues KeeÅe (Protective Food)

(A) Tpee& Øeoeve keâjves Jeeues KeeÅe heoeLe& (Energy Rich Food) : Fme Øeef›eâÙee ceW KeeÅe heoeLeeX keâe efJeIešve neslee
nw leLee Gmemes Tpee& keâe Glmepe&ve neslee nw~ Fme Tpee& keâe Skeâ Yeeie ceebmehesMeerÙe keâeÙe& kesâ efueS GheÙeesie neslee nw, DevÙe Yeeie
peefšue ÙeewefiekeâeW kesâ efvecee&Ce ceW neslee nw leLee Gvekeâe meb«enCe Sšerheer (ATP) keâe ef›eâÙesefšve Heâe@mHesâš (Kriyatin Phosphate) ceW
neslee nw~
GoenjCe : Jemee leLee keâeyeexneF[^sš (ÛeeJeue, iesntb, Deeuet, lesue, Ieer, Meke&âje FlÙeeefo)
cenlJehetCe& Keefvepe heoeLe& leLee Gvekesâ keâeÙe&
Keefvepe DeeJeMÙekeâlee DeYeeJe kesâ keâejCe Œeesle
Glhevve nesves Jeeues jesie
1. meesef[Ùece Ùeewefiekeâ ®efOej SJeb Mejerj kesâ DevÙe yue[ ØesMej keâce nesvee, njer meefypeÙeeb SJeb leLee vecekeâ
(Sodium compound) TòekeâeW kesâ efvecee&Ce nsleg~ ceebme hesMeer ceW SW"ve Øemebmke=âle ceebme meefypeÙeeb
2. cewiveerefMeÙece Ùeewefiekeâ hesMeer lelJe SJeb lebef$ekeâe leb$e - meefypeÙeeb
(Magnesium) keâer ef›eâÙee nsleg~
3. ueewn Ùeewefiekeâ ueeue jkeäle keâefCekeâeDeeW kesâ SveerefceÙee njer heòejeroej meefypeÙeeb, ceebme
(Iron compound) efvecee&Ce nsleg~ (Ketve keâer keâceer) Ùeke= â le meueeo, ef k eâMeef c eMe
FlÙeeefo~
4. kewâefuMeÙece Ùeewefiekeâ DeefmLeÙeeW Je oebleeW kesâ efvecee&Ce, DeefmLeÙeeW SJeb oebleeW kesâ otOe, meypeer, ceebme leLee Deveepe
(Calcium compound) jkeäle keâe Lekeäkeâe yeveves SJeb jesie, efjkesâšdme~
ùoÙe Je lebef$ekeâe kesâ efJeefYevve
keâeÙeeX nsleg~
5. DeeÙees[erve Ùeewefiekeâ LeeÙeje@F[ «ebefLe ceW LeeÙeje@efkeämeve IeWIee jesie (Goitre) otOe, meypeer, ceebme leLee Deveepe
(Iodine compound) ne@ceexve kesâ efvecee&Ce nsleg~
6. Heâe@mHeâesjme Ùeewefiekeâ DeefmLeÙeeW Je oebleeW leLee peerJeeMce keâcepeesj DeefmLe Je=efæ mecegõ mes Øeehle nesves Jeeueer KeeÅe
(Phosphorus kesâ efvecee&Ce nsleg JemlegSb, peue SJeb DeeÙees[erve
Compound) Ùegkeäle vecekeâ~
7. meuHeâj (Sulphur) Øeesšerve mebMues<eCe Deewj ceebmehesefMeÙeeW keâe Heâšvee ceebme, otOe, Deb[e, cekeäKeve Je
keâes-SbpeeFce kesâ ®he ceW~ oner~
8. heesšw efMeÙece Ùeewefiekeâ Je=efæ leLee ®efOej SJeb ØeeÙe: DeYeeJe veneR neslee~ meefypeÙeeb

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(Potassium keâesefMekeâerÙe ieefleefJeefOeÙeeW nsleg~

Compound)
9. keäueesjerve (Chlorine) heeÛeve, peue meblegueve SJeb cegKÙe GheeheÛeÙeer ef›eâÙeeSb meefypeÙeeb, vecekeâ
$e+Ceelcekeâ DeeÙeve kesâ ®he ceW~ ØeYeeefJele
10. pemlee (Zine) Fvmegefueve keâeefÙe&keâer kesâ efueS YetKe veneR ueievee, Je=efæ Ùeke=âle, ceÚueer SJeb DevÙe YeespÙe
ceW Üeme heoeLe&~
11. leebyee (Copper) nerceesiueesefyeve leLee DeefmLeÙeeW ØeeÙe: veneR neslee nw~ ceebme, ceÚueer Ùeke=âle SJeb
kesâ efvecee&Ce SJeb Fueskeäš^e@ve Deveepe~
mebJeenkeâ kesâ ®he ceW~
12. keâesyeeuš (Cobalt) RBCs leLee efJešeefceve B12 - ceebme, ceÚueer leLee peue~
kesâ mebMeesOeve nsleg~
(B) Mejerj efvecee&Ce keâjves Jeeues KeeÅe heoeLe& (Body Building Food) : Ùes hees<ekeâ lelJe keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ efvecee&Ce nsleg
ÙeewefiekeâeW keâe mebMues<eCe keâjlee nw~ Ùes lelJe TlekeâeW kesâ cejccele leLee õJÙeceeve yeÌ{eves ceW cenlJehetCe& Yetefcekeâe efveYeelee nw~
(C) jesOeer #ecelee Jeeues KeeÅe (Protective Food) : Ùes Meejerefjkeâ ef›eâÙeeDeeW kesâ mebÛeeueve ceW cenlJehetCe& Yetefcekeâe
efveYeelee nw, Fmekeâer keâceer kesâ keâejCe DehetCe&lee jesie (Deficiency Disease) neslee nw~
Yeespeve ceW keâeye&efvekeâ (Organic) leLee Dekeâeye&efvekeâ (Inorganic) YeespÙe heoeLe& nesles nQ~ keâeye&efvekeâ YeespÙe heoeLeeX ceW
ØecegKe keâeyeexneF[^sš (Carbohydrate), JemeeSb (Fats), Øeesšervme (Proteins), efJešeefcevme (Vitamins) leLee vÙetkeäueerkeâ Decue
(Nucleic acid), Dekeâeye&efvekeâ YeespÙe heoeLeeX ceW Keefvepe ueJeCe (Minerals Salts) leLee peue (H2O) Deeles nQ~
keâeyeexneF[^sme keâe efvecee&Ce keâeye&ve, neF[^espeve leLee Dee@keämeerpeve mes neslee nQ mejue keâeyeexneF[^sšdme kesâ ®he ceW Meke&âjeSb
iuetkeâespe (Glucose), øeâkeäšespe (Fructose), uewkeäšesme (Lactose) Deeefo ØecegKe nQ~ Ùes ievvee, Ûegkeâvoj, Debietj Deeefo mes
efceueleer nQ~ peefšue keâeyeexneF[^šsme kesâ ®he ceW ceC[ ØecegKe KeeÅe heoeLe& nw~ Ùen Deeuet, ÛeeJeue Deeefo ceW heÙee&hle cee$ee ceW heeÙee
peelee nw~
JemeeDeeW keâe efvecee&Ce keâeye&ve, neF[^espeve leLee Dee@keämeerpeve kesâ efceueves mes neslee nw~ Ùen cekeäKeve heveerj otOe leLee Ieer mes
Øeehle neslee nw~
iuetkeâesme keâes keâesefMekeâerÙe FËOeve (Cellular fuel) keânles nQ~
Øeesšervme peefšue keâeye&efvekeâ heoeLe& nQ, efpevekeâe efvecee&Ce keâeye&ve, neF[^espeve, Dee@keämeerpeve leLee veeFš^espeve mes neslee nw~
pevleg Øeesšerve ceebme, ceÚueer, otOe DeC[e Deeefo mes Øeehle nesleer nQ Jevemheefle Øeesšervme oeue, iesntB, cetBieHeâueer Deeefo mes Øeehle neslee nw~
Øeesšerve keâe ØecegKe keâeÙe& štš-Hetâš keâer cejccele keâjvee nw~
efJešeefcevme peefšue keâeye&efvekeâ heoeLe& nQ~ Mejerj keâer GheeheÛeÙeer ef›eâÙeeDeeW kesâ efueS DeeJeMÙekeâ nQ~ FvnW Je=efæ keâejkeâ Yeer
keânles nQ
Fmekeâer keâceer mes DehetCe&lee jesie (deficiency disease) nes peelee nw~ efJešeefcevme keâer Keespe Sve.DeeF&. uetefveve ves keâer Leer~
’Hebâkeâ (Funk)’ ves meJe&ØeLece efJešeefceve Meyo keâe ØeÙeesie efkeâÙee ceeveJe Mejerj ceW mebMuesef<ele nesves Jeeues efJešeefceve meeceevÙele:
pevlegDeeW kesâ Mejerj ceW efJešeefceveeW keâe mebMues<eCe ceeveJe kesâ Mejerj ceW neslee nw~
(1) efJešeefceve D keâe mebMues<eCe ceveg<Ùe keâer lJeÛee Éeje metÙe& keâer hejeyeQieveer efkeâjCeeW (UV Rays) mes neslee nw~ (2)
efJešeefceve K keâe mebMues<eCe Yeer ceveg<Ùe keâer Deeble kesâ menpeerJeer peerJeeCegDeeW Éeje neslee nw~
veesš : efJešeefcevme keâer Keespe Sve.DeeF&. uetefveve (N I Lunin) ves efkeâÙee Lee~ Hebâkeâ (Funk) ves meJe&ØeLece efJešeefceve Meyo
keâe ØeÙeesie efkeâÙeee~
ceeveJe keâe mevlegefuele Deenej T Mejerj keâer Je=efæ, mJeemLÙe ef›eâÙeeMeeruelee, GÅeceMeeruelee, DeeÙeg Deeefo ue#eCe nceejs
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Mejerj Éeje efueÙes ieÙes hees<ekeâ lelJeeW keâer iegCeJeòee leLee cee$ee hej efveYe&j keâjles nQ~ nceejs Deenej ceW efJeefYevve Øekeâej kesâ meYeer
hees<ekeâ heoeLe& Ssmes Devegheele ceW nesves ÛeeefnÙes efkeâ efpememes nceejs Mejerj keâer efJeefYevve Øekeâej keâer meYeer DeeJeMÙekeâleeDeeW keâer hetefle&
nesleer jnW~ Ssmes Deenej keâes ’mevlegefuele Deenej’ keâne peeÙesiee~ Yeespeve keâer GheeheÛeÙeer GheÙeesefielee keâes T<ceebkeâ Tpee& keâer FkeâeFÙeeW
ceW JÙekeäle efkeâÙee peelee nw efpevnW T<ceebkeâ (Calories) keânles nQ~
mJemLe Deenej : Jew%eeefvekeâeW kesâ Devegmeej YeejleerÙeeW ceW owefvekeâ DeeJeMÙekeâlee keâer ueieYeie 50% mes 60% Tpee& keâer hetefle&
keâeyeexneF[^sš mes, 25% mes 30% keâer hetefle& JemeeDeeW mes leLee 15% Tpee& keâer hetefle& Øeesšervme mes nesleer nQ Fme Øekeâej nceejer
Yeespeve meece«eer ceW 400 mes 500 «eece keâeyeexneF[^sme, 60 mes 70 «eece JemeeSb leLee 65 mes 75 «eece Øeesšervme keâe nesvee
DeeJeMÙekeâ neslee nw~ mJemLe mevlegefuele Deenej kesâ efueS keâeyeexneF[^sšme, Øeesšerve leLee JemeeDeeW keâer cee$ee leeefuekeâe ceW oer
ieÙeer nw~
ceeveJe mJeemLÙe SJeb hees<eCe (Human health and Nutrition)
Mejerj kesâ meeceevÙe efJekeâeme kesâ efueÙes meblegefuele Yeespeve keâer DeeJeMÙekeâlee nesleer nw~ Fmekesâ efueÙes Yeespeve keâer cee$ee SJeb
iegCeJeòee oesveeW cenlJehetCe& nw~ Yeespeve keâer GefÛele cee$ee leLee iegCeJeòee kesâ DeYeeJe ceW kegâhees<eCe keâer efmLeefle Glhevve nes peeleer nw~
Deuhe hees<eCe kesâ keâejCe Mejerj pewefJekeâ ef›eâÙeeDeeW kesâ mebÛeeueve nsleg Deheves ner TlekeâeW keâes efJeIeefšle keâjkesâ Tpee& Øeehle keâjlee nw~
Fme efmLeefle keâes Øeesšerve ’kewâueesjer kegâhees<eCe’ keânles nQ~ Fmekeâe Demej 1 mes 4 Je<e& kesâ yeÛÛeeW ceW meyemes DeefOekeâ neslee nw~ Øeesšerve
’kewâueesjer kegâhees<eCe’ kesâ keâejCe yeÛÛeeW ceW keäJeeMejkeâesj (Kwashiorkar) SJeb cesjsmceme (Marasmus) veecekeâ jesie nes peeles nQ~
mevlegefuele Deenej - efpeme Yeespeve ceW Mejerj keâer DeeJeMÙekeâleeDeeW keâes hetje keâjves Jeeues lelJe DeLee&led Øeesšerve, Jemee,
keâeyeexneF[^wš, Keefvepe ueJeCe SJeb efJešeefcevme GefÛele cee$ee ceW efJeÅeceeve nes, Gmes ’mevlegefuele Deenej’ keânles nQ~
ceveg<Ùe kesâ Yeespeve keâer cee$ee, efuebie, DeeÙeg SJeb peueJeeÙeg ceW ØeYeeefJele nesles nQ~ 16 mes 18 Je<e& keâer DeeÙeg kesâ JÙeefkeäle keâes
ueieYeie 3000 kewâueesjer Tpee& Glheeokeâ Yeespeve keâer DeeJeMÙekeâlee Øeefleefove nesleer nw~
3000 kewâueesjer Tpee& Øeehle keâjves kesâ efueÙes Øeefleefove Yeespeve ceW YeespÙe heoeLeeX keâe Devegheele Fme Øekeâej nesvee ÛeeefnÙes~
90-100 «eece Øeesšerve 360-400 kewâueesjer
80-90 «eece Jemee 720-810 kewâueesjer
360-450 «eece keâeyeexneF[^wš 1440-810 kewâueesjer
Yeespeve keâe JeieeakeâjCe - TlekeâeW keâer cejccele leLee veÙes TlekeâeW kesâ efvecee&Ce kesâ efueÙes Mejerj keâer hees<eCe lelJeeW keâer
DeeJeMÙekeâlee nesleer nw, Tpee& leLee hees<ekeâ lelJeeW keâer GheueefyOe Mejerj keâes Yeespeve mes nesleer nw~
Øeesšerve (Protein) - Øeesšerve Meyo keâe meJe&ØeLece ØeÙeesie pes. yejpesefueÙeme (J.Berzelius) ves 1938 ceW efkeâÙee Lee~
efJeefYevve YeespÙe heoeLeeX ceW Øeesšerve ner Ssmee heoeLe& nw efpemeceW veeFš^espeve heeÙee peelee nw~ Ùen pevleg leLee Jevemheefle oesveeW ŒeesleeW
mes Øeehle neslee nw~ ØelÙeskeâ peerefJele keâesefMekeâe kesâ ’Øeesšeshueepce’ (Protoplasm) keâe Ùen DeeJeMÙekeâ heoeLe& nw~ Øeesšerve keâes pevleg
leLee Jevemheefle Øeesšerve ceW yeebše ieÙee nw~
 ’Sceervees Sefme[’ (Amino Acid) kesâ DeeOeej hej Yeer Øeesšerve keâe JeieeakeâjCe efkeâÙee ieÙee nw~ Øeke=âefle ceW ueieYeie 200 Øekeâej
kesâ Sceervees Sefme[ heeÙes peeles nQ~
- efpeveceW mes kesâJeue 22 Sceervees Sefme[ ceveg<Ùe kesâ Mejerj ceW heeÙes peeles nQ~
- FveceW 10 DeefveJeeÙe& Sceervees Sefme[ nceejs Mejerj ceW veneR yeveles nQ Deewj nceW YeespÙe heoeLeeX mes Øeehle keâjvee neslee nw~
Dele: FvnW DeeJeMÙekeâ Sefcevees Sefme[ (Essential Amino Acid) keânles nQ~
- Mes<e 12 Sefcevees Sefme[ keâe nceejs Mejerj ceW ner efvecee&Ce neslee nw~ FmeerefueS FvnW Non-essential Amino Acid
keânles nQ~
- efpeme Øeesšerve ceW heebÛe Ùee Fmemes DeefOekeâ DeefveJeeÙe& Deceervees Sefme[ neW, Jen ’ØeLece ßesCeer keâer Øeesšerve’ keânueeleer nw~

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- heebÛe mes keâce SceerveeW Sefme[ Jeeueer Øeesšerve ’efÉleerÙe ßesCeer keâer Øeesšerve’ keânueeleer nw~
- ØeLece ßesCeer kesâ Øeesšerve keâe m$eesle pevleg neslee nw~ MEAT, MILK, FISH, EGG Fmekesâ efvecve GoenjCe nQ -
(i) Suyegefueve (Albumin) keâe cegKÙe GoenjCe Deb[s keâer meHesâoer nw~ otOe ceW Ùen ’uewkeäš-Suyegefceve’ kesâ ®he ceW heeÙee
peelee nw~
(ii) iueesyegefueve (Globunim) jkeäle iueesyegefueve kesâ ®he ceW, efJešsefueve jkeäle iueesyegefueve kesâ meceeve Deb[s keâer peoea ceW,
kewâmeerveespeve otOe ceW, ceeÙeesefmeve meeOeejCe ceebme leLee ceÚueer ceW heeÙee peelee nw~
- efÉleerÙe ßesCeer keâer Øeesšerve Jevemheefle heoeLeeX mes Øeehle nesleer nw, Fme ßesCeer kesâ cegKÙe ØeesšerveeW ceW iuetšsve iesnBt leLee DevÙe
DeveepeeW mes Øeehle, ’uesiÙetcesve’ cešj, oeueeW leLee meeÙeyeerve mes Øeehle ’efpeuesefšve’ nef[d[ÙeeW leLee mveeÙegDeeW mes Øeehle
nesleer nw~
 Øeesšerve SceerveeW Sefme[ keâer yeveleer nw, heeÛeve ef›eâÙee kesâ oewjeve Øeesšerve SceerveeW DecueeW ceW efJeIeefšle nes peeleer nw leLee ’DeeBle’
Éeje DeJeMeesef<ele neskeâj Ùes DeceerveeW Decue jkeäle ceW henggbÛe peelee nw~ jkeäle mes efJeefYevve Debie DeeJeMÙekeâleevegmeej Sceervees
Decue «enCe keâj uesles nQ~
 efkeâmeer JÙemkeâ JÙeefkeäle keâes ’YeejleerÙe DeeÙegefJe&%eeve DevegmebOeeve heefj<eod’ (ICMR) kesâ Devegmeej 50-60 «eece Øeesšerve keâer
DeeJeMÙekeâlee nesleer nw~ Meejerefjkeâ Yeej keâer Âef<š mes Ùes JÙemkeâeW ceW 1 «eece Øeefle efkeâuees«eece leLee yeÛÛeeW ceW 1.5-2.5 «eece
Øeefle efkeâuees«eece keâer DeeJeMÙekeâlee nesleer nw~
kegâÚ Øeesšerve kesâ ØekeâeÙe&
Øeesšerve kesâ Øekeâej ØekeâeÙe&
1. SbpeeFce (Enzyme) pewJe GlØesjkeâ; Mejerj ceW ueieeleej nesves Jeeueer pewJe jmeeÙeefvekeâ Øeef›eâÙeeDeeW
ceW meneÙelee keâjlee nw~
2. heefjJenve Øeesšerve (Circulatory Protein) jkeäle ceW efJeefYevve heoeLeeX keâes efJeefYevve TlekeâeW lekeâ ues peeles nQ~
3. mebkegâÛeveMeerue Øeesšerve (Contractile Protein) ieefle leLee Ûeueve nsleg ceebmehesefMeÙeeW keâe mebkegâÛeve~
4. ne@ceexve (Harmone) Deveskeâ Meejerefjkeâ ØekeâeÙeeX keâes efveÙebef$ele nesles nQ~
5. mebjÛeveelcekeâ Øeesšerve (Structural Protein) keâesefMekeâe SJeb TlekeâeW ceW mebjÛeveelcekeâ Yeeie yeveeles nQ~
6. j#eelcekeâ Øeesšerve (Protective Protein) meb›eâceCe mes ueÌ[ves ceW meneÙelee keâjlee nw~ GoenjCe - ØeeflepewefJekeâ
keâeÙe& Øeesšerve
(i) Je=efæ Je efJekeâeme; GoenjCe - mebjÛeveelcekeâ Øeesšerve~
(ii) jmeeÙeefvekeâ DeefYeef›eâÙee hej efveÙeb$eCe; GoenjCe - SbpeeFce ne@ceexve
(iii) jesOeer #ecelee; GoenjCe -ØeeflepewefJekeâ
(iv) Tpee& m$eesle
(v) heefjJenve; GoenjCe - nsceesiueesefyeve (Haemoglobin)
keâeyeexneF[^sš
keâeye&ve, neF[^espeve leLee Dee@keämeerpeve kesâ efceßeCe mes efveefce&le nesles nQ~ FmeceW neF[^espeve Deewj Dee@keämeerpeve Gmeer Devegheele ceW
nesles nQ, efpeme Devegheele ceW Ùes peue (H2O) keâe efvecee&Ce keâjles nQ~ keâeyeexneF[^sš kesâ peueves mes Mejerj keâes ieceea leLee Meefkeäle Øeehle
nesleer nw~ «eece keâeyeexneF[^sš kesâ cegKÙe GoenjCe mšeÛe& leLee Meke&âje nw, efpevnW Skeâ JeÙemkeâ Øeefleefove ueieYeie 300 «eece Keelee
nw~

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keâeyeexneF[^sš
(Carbohydrate)
|
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
 
mejue Meke&âje peefšue Meke&âje
(Simple Sugar) (Complex Sugar)
 |

  
ceesveesmewkeâjeF[ (Mono Saccharide) [eFmewkeâjeF[ hee@ueer mewkeâjeF[
(Di Saccharide) (Poly Saccharide)
 Heâe@cet&uee : C6H12O6  Heâecet&uee : C12H22O11  Heâe@cet&uee : C6H10O5
 meyemes meeOeejCe Je Úesše Meke&âje  ceesveesmewkeâjeF[ mes oesiegvee keâeye&ve  ceesveesmewkeâjeF[ keâer uebyeer
keâe DeCeg nw~ kesâ DeCeg ceewpeto jnles nQ~ ßeb=Keuee kesâ ®he ceW jnleer nw~
 GoenjCe : iuegkeâespe (Glucose)  GoenjCe : ceeuešespe (Maltose)  GoenjCe : mesuÙetueespe
øegâkeâšerpe (Fructose), iueskeâšespe meg›eâespe (Sucrose), uewkeäšespe (Cellulose) ceb[ (Starch)
(Galoctose) (Lactose)
keâeÙe& :
(i) Tpee& Deehetefle&~
(ii) Jemee keâer GheeheÛeÙe Øeef›eâÙee~
(iii) Øeesšerve keâer meneÙekeâ kesâ ®he ceW~
(iv) DebleÌ[er kesâ ieceve ceW~
mesuÙegueespe JevemheefleÙeeW ceW heòeeW, leveeW, peÌ[er Deeefo ceW heeÙee peeves Jeeuee jsMee neslee nw~
ieueeFkeâespeve - Mejerj ceW mejue Meke&âjeDeeW kesâ Ùeesie mes yevelee nw leLee Ùeke=âle leLee hesMeer ceW mebefÛele jnlee nw, DeeJeMÙekeâlee
heÌ[ves hej Mejerj FvnW hegve: iuetkeâespe ceW yeoue mekeâlee nw~
Jemee (Fat) - cetuele: keâeye&ve, neF[^espeve leLee Deekeämeerpeve kesâ efceueves mes yeveleer nw~ Fvekesâ cegKÙe Debie mes efiueefmeje@ue
leLee Jemee Decue Ùee HewâšerSefme[ nesles nQ~
pevleg Jemee (Animal Fat) kesâ GoenjCe kesâ ceeBme, Ûeyeea, otOe, cekeäKeve DeC[s keâer peoea nw~ FmeceW efJešeefceve A leLee D
efJeÅeceeve nesles nQ~ ’Jevemheefle Jemee’ kesâ GoenjCeeW ceW mejmeeW, veeefjÙeue, efleue, cetBieHeâueer, efJeveewuee, keâ[er Ùee kegâmegcYe Deeefo kesâ
lesue leLee Fmemes yeveeÙee ieÙee Jevemheefle Ieer, yeeoece, DeKejesš Deeefo nQ~
Yeesp eve ceW efJeÅeceeve Jemee oes Øekeâej keâer mebl eghle leLee Demele=hle Jemee nesleer nw~ Deeflekeâesuesm šjesuejkeä lelee
(Hypercholesterolaemia), Deefleefueefhe[jkeälelee (Hyperlipidaemia), keâewjesvejer Oeceveer jesie Deeefo oMeeDeeW ceW Demeble=hle
Jemee keâe mesJeve ueeYeoeÙekeâ neslee nw~
neF[^espeervesMeve (Hydrogenation) : Skeâ Øeef›eâÙee nw, efpemekesâ Éeje Demeble=lhe (Unsaturated) Jemee keâes meble=le
Jemee (saturated) kesâ ®he ceW heefjJeefle&le efkeâÙee peelee nw~

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lesue + neF[^espeve - Ieer

- Jemee keâe cegKÙe DeJeÙeJe Jemee Decue (Fatty Acid) nw~ JemeerÙe Decue iueermejesue (Glycerol) mes pegÌ[e jnlee nw~
Jemee Decue + iueermejesue = Jemee
- Deble«eefnle Jemee jmeeÙeefvekeâ ®he mes Mejerj kesâ TlekeâeW kesâ Jemee mes efYevve neslee nw~ Yeespeve kesâ efueÙes ieÙes Jemee SbpeeFce
kesâ menejs iueermejerue leLee HewâšerSefmepe ceW heefjJeefle&le ne speelee nw, leYeer Fvekeâe DeJeMees<eCe Mejerj kesâ TlekeâeW ceW mebYeJe nes
heelee nw~
- Jemee keâe cenlJehetCe& keâeÙe& :
(i) Tpee& m$eesle
(ii) mebjÛeveelcekeâ Yetefcekeâe - efueefhe[ (lipid) keâesefMekeâe õJÙe, kesâvõkeâ, pewefJekeâ efPeefuueÙeeW FlÙeeefo keWâõ keâebieeW keâe
mebjÛeveelcekeâ Ieškeâ nw~
(iii) jesOekeâ #ecelee - Mejerj ceW meb«eefnle Tlekeâ Mejerj ceW jesOekeâ #ecelee keâe efJekeâeme keâjleer nw leLee Mejerj ceW meeceevÙe
leeheceeve yeveeÙes jKeleer nw~
(iv) heweE[ie (Padding) - Deebleefjkeâ DebieeW pewmes Je=keäkeâ, Ùeke=âle ceW Jemee Skeâef$ele neslee nw leLee Fve DebieeW keâes kegâMeve
(Cushion) Øeoeve keâjlee nw~
(v) IegueveMeerue efJešeefceveeW keâe mebJenve

HewâšerSefme[ keâe GoenjCe

1. yÙetšeFefjkeâ (Butyric Acid) - cekeäKeve
2. heeueefceefškeâ Decue (Palmitic Acid) - Palm oil
3. DeesuesFkeâ Decue (oleic Acid) - meble=hle Je Demeble=lhe Jemee

1 «eece Jemee mes 9.3 kewâueesjer Tpee& Øeehle nesleer nw Mejerj ceW Jemee keâe mebÛeÙe ’Jemee Tlekeâ’ kesâ ®he ceW neslee nw~ Jemee
leLee keâeyeexneF[^sš keâes FËOeve Yeespeve (Fuel Food) keânles nQ~
peue (Water) - cegKÙele: hesÙeeW kesâ ®he ceW «enCe efkeâÙee peelee nw~ "esme Yeespeve keâe Skeâ yeÌ[e Yeeie peue kesâ ®he ceW neslee
nw~ Deveskeâ HeâueeW ceW 85 ØeefleMele peue neslee nw, lejyetpe ceW lees 95% peue neslee nw~
cesšeyeesefuepce (kesâ meceÙe Yeespeve keâe DeekeämeerkeâjCe nesves hej kegâÚ peue keâe efvecee&Ce neslee nw~ ueieYeie 2500 mes 3000
ml peue keâe Mejerj mes efvekeâeme neslee nw pees efvecve Øekeâej nw
cet$e 1500 ml
lJeÛee (hemeerves Éeje) 900 ml
MJemeve ef›eâÙee (efve:MJeefmele JeeÙeg) 400 ml
ceue 200 ml
efJešeefcevme (Vitamins) - peerJeve, mJeemLÙe leLee efJekeâeme kesâ efueS DeeJeMÙekeâ nesles nQ~ Ùes Mejerj ceW GefÛele cesšeyeesefuepce
kesâ efueS DeeJeMÙekeâ nesles nQ~ Fvekeâe JeieeakeâjCe Fvekesâ IegueveMeerue iegCe kesâ DeeOeej hej Jemee leLee peue efJeuesÙe efJešeefceveeW cesW efkeâÙee
peelee nQ efJešeefceve meeceevÙele: ’#ego Deev$e’ ceW DeJeMeesef<ele nesles nQ~ Jemee efJeuewÙe efJešeefceveeW ceW A,D,E leLee K Deeles nQ~ efJešeefceve
A otOe Deewj ogiOe pevÙe heoeLeeX, Ùeke=âle, ceÚueer leLee ceÚueer kesâ efpeiej kesâ lesue ceW heeÙee peelee nw~ Jevemheefle heoeLeeX ceW Ùen
kewâjesšerve kesâ ®he ceW heeÙee peelee nw~ efJešeefceve A keâer keâceer mes jleeQOeer (Night blindness) leLee peerjeHeäLewefuceÙee (Xe-
rophthalmia) veecekeâ jesie nes peeles nQ~

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efJešeefceve
peue ceW efJeueÙe - B,C
Jemee ceW efJeueÙe - A D EK
efJešeefceve D kesâ keâF& ®he nw, Øeeke=âeflekeâ ®he ceW heeÙee peeves Jeeuee efJešeefceve D3 keânueelee nw~ efJešeefceve D3 DeLeJee
kewâefumeHesâjewue Gme meceÙe yevelee nw peye Mejerj keâer lJeÛee ’Deieexmšerjewue’ Ergosterol (7-dehydrocholesterol) hej metÙe& kesâ
efJeÅeceeve Deuš^eJeeÙeuesš efkeâjCeW heÌ[leer nw~ Ùen cekeäKeve, DeC[e, ceÚueer leLee ceÚueer kesâ Ùeke=âle lesue ceW heeÙeer peeleer nw~ Ùen
Deev$e mes kewâefuMeÙece kesâ DeJeMees<eCe ceW, meneÙekeâ neslee nQ Fmekeâer keâceer mes ’efjkesâšdme’ veecekeâ jesie nes peelee nw~ Fmes ’efjkesâšdme
jesOeer efJešeefceve’ Yeer keânles nQ~ JeÙemkeâeW Keemekeâj efŒeÙeeW ces Fme efJešeefceve keâer keâceer mes DeesefmšÙeesceuesefMeÙee (Osteomalacia)
DeefmLece=oglee jesie nes peelee nw~
efJešeefceve E- DeC[s keâer peoea, otOe leLee kegâÚ njer meefypeÙeeW ceW neslee nQ Fmekeâer keâceer mes pevlegDeeW ceW Øepeveve ef›eâÙee ceW
yeeOee heÌ[leer nw~ Fmes ’JevOeÙelee jesOeer efJešeefceve’ Yeer keânles nQ~
efJešeefceve K - DeuHeâeHeâe, heeuekeâ meesÙeeyeerve leLee metDej kesâ efpeiej ceW heeÙee peelee nw~ ’ØeesLeÇeefcyeve’ kesâ efvecee&Ce kesâ efueS
Ùen DeeJeMÙekeâ neslee nw~ Fme efJešeefceve keâer keâceer mes mkebâove meceÙe (Clotting time) yeÌ{ peelee nw~ Ùen efmLeefle veJepeele efMemeg
kesâ jkeäleŒeeJe jesie leLee DeJejesOeer keâeceuee (Obstructive Jaundice) ceW heeÙeer peeleer nQ~
efJešeefceveeW kesâ keâeÙe& Deewj cenlJehetCe& Œeesle
efJešeefceve keâe veece IegueveMeeruelee keâeÙe& cegKÙe Œeesle keâceer mes ØeYeeJe
efJešeefceve A Jemee ceW IegueveMeerue Je=efæ, DeebKeeW keâer efvejesielee, lJeÛee ceÚueer kesâ Ùeke=âle keâe lesue, Je=efæ ®keâvee, jleeQOeer Je
(Retinol) Deewj Muesef<cekeâ efPeuueer keâer keâesefMekeâeDeeW Ùeke=âle, iegoe&, Heâue, šceešj, peerjeHeäLesefuceÙee, meb›eâceCeeW kesâ
keâer ef›eâÙeeDeeW kesâ efueS DeeJeMÙekeâ~ ieepej, cekeäKeve, DeC[s keâer peoea Øeefle ØeYeeJÙelee, lJeÛee Deewj
Deeefo~ efPeefuueÙeeW ceW heefjJele&ve keâe
Deevee, oes<ehetCe& oeble leLee
yeerceeefjÙeeb Deeefo~
efJešeefceve B1 peue ceW IegueveMeerue Je=efæ, keâeyeexneF[^sš GheeheÛeÙe yeerpe Jeeues Devve, ceebme, otOe, Je=efæ keâe ®keâvee, YetKe Deewj
(Thiamine) efveÙeb$eCe, ùoÙe, lebef$ekeâe Deewj hesefMeÙeeW meesÙeeyeerve, cegiee&, Debkegâefjle Deveepe, Jepeve Iešvee, lebef$ekeâe
keâer meef›eâÙelee kesâ efueS DeeJeMÙekeâ~ Deb[e, Ùeermš Deeefo~ efJekeâeme, yesjer-yesjer, Lekeâeve keâe
nesvee, yeonpeceer, hesš keâer
Kejeyeer Deeefo~
efJešeefceve B2 peue ceW IegueveMeerue Je=efæ, lJeÛee Deewj cegKe keâer efvejesielee, ceebme, meesÙeeyeerve, otOe, njer Je=efæ keâe ®keâvee, OegbOeueer Âef<š
(Riboflavin) DeebKeeW keâer meef›eâÙelee~ lejkeâeefjÙeeb, Deb[s, cegie&s Deeefo~ keâe nesvee, peerYe hej Úeues heÌ[
peevee, DemeceÙe yegÌ{ehee Deevee,
ØekeâeMe ve men heevee Deeefo~
efJešeefceve B5 peue ceW IegueveMeerue keâesSvepeeFce S leLee SsmeeršeFuekeâesueerve Ùeermš, ceebme, efpeiej, iegoe&, otOe, hesefMeÙeeW ceW uekeâJee, hewjeW ceW
(Pantothenic kesâ mebMues<eCe kesâ efueS DeeJeMÙekeâ Deb[s Deeefo~ peueve cenmetme keâjvee~
acid)
efJešeefceve B3 peue ceW IegueveMeerue Je=efæ, keâeyeexneF[^sš GheeheÛeÙe, ceebme, cetbieHeâueer keâe cekeäKeve peerYe keâe efÛekeâveeheve, lJeÛee
(Pyridosine) DeceeMeÙe Deewj DeebleeW keâer meef›eâÙelee, (heerveš yešj), Deeuet, meeyetle hej Heâes[s-Hegbâmeer keâe nesvee,
lebef$ekeâe leb$e keâer meef›eâÙelee kesâ efueS Deveepe, šceešj, heòes Jeeueer heeÛeve ef›eâÙee ceW ieÌ[yeÌ[er nesvee,
lejkeâeefjÙeeb Deeefo~ ceeveefmekeâ efJekeâejeW keâe nesvee~
efJešeefceve B7 peue ceW IegueveMeerue keâeyeexneF[^sš GheeheÛeÙe, lJeÛee Je ceebme, Deb[e, Ùeke=âle, efiejeroej ceeveJe ceW uekeâJee, Mejerj ceW
(Biotin) yeeueeW keâer j#ee~ Heâue, otOe Deeefo~ oo&, yeeueeW keâe efiejvee leLee
Je=efæ ceW keâceer Deeefo~
Heâesefuekeâ Decue peue ceW IegueveMeerue ®efOej keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâe efvecee&Ce efiejeroej Heâue, njer lejkeâeefjÙeeb, DeveerefceÙee leLee hesefÛeMe jesie
(Folic Acid) leLee Je=efæ, vÙetefkeäuekeâ Ùeke=âle, mesce, Ùeermš, Deb[e Deeefo~ nes peelee nw~
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 SCIECNE

Decue kesâ GheeheÛeÙe ceW

meneÙekeâ Deeefo~
efJešeefceve B12 peue ceW IegueveMeerue ®efOejeCeg yeveevee, vÙetefkeäuekeâ Decue Ùeke=âle Deeefo~ ®efOej keâer keâceer keâe nesvee
(Cynocobalmin) kesâ mebMues<eCe kesâ efueS, veeFš^espeve Deeefo~
GheeheÛeÙe Deeefo~
efJešeefceve C peue Je=efæ oeblees keâe efJekeâeme leLee veeRyet , mebleje, veejbieer, šceešj, cemetÌ[s Hetâuevee, DeefmLeÙeeW kesâ
(Ascorbic Acid) cepeyetleer, cemetÌ[eW keâer efvejesielee, heòeer Jeeueer lejkeâeefjÙeeb, DeebJeuee, ÛeejeW Deesj m$eeJe, peje meer
IeeJe Yejvee Deeefo~ Kešdšs heoeLe& Deeefo~ Ûeesš hej ®efOej efvekeâuevee
(mkeâJeea), DeefmLeÙeeb keâcepeesj
nesvee~
efJešeefceve D Jemee Je=efæ leLee DeefmLeÙeeW Deewj ceÚueer keâe Ùeke=âle DeeÙeleue, metKee jesie (efjkesâšdme),
(Calciferol) oebleeW keâe efvecee&Ce~ mechetCe& otOe, Deb[s, metÙe& keâe ØekeâeMe~ keâcepeesj oeble, oebleeW kesâ jesie,
oebleeW keâe meÌ[vee Deeefo~
efJešeefceve Jemee meeceevÙe peveve~ heòeer Jeeueer lejkeâeefjÙeeb, otOe, peveve-Meefkeäle keâe keâce nesvee~
E (Tocopherol) cekeäKeve, Debkegâefjle iesntb,
Jevemheefle keâe lesue
efJešeefceve K Jemee ®efOej kesâ meeceevÙe Lekeäkesâ pecevee, njer lejkeâeefjÙeeb, meesÙeeyeerve keâe ®efOej m$eeJe keâe nesvee, SW"ve,
(Phylloquinone) Ùeke=âle keâer meeceevÙe ef›eâÙeeDeeW kesâ lesue, šceešj, DeebleeW ceW peerJeeCeg nerceesHeâerefueÙee Deeefo~
efueS~ Yeer mebMues<eCe keâjles nQ~
peue ceW efJeuesÙe efJešeefceveeW ceW efJešeefceve B, C leLee P Deeles nQ~
efJešeefceve P (Hesperidin)
meeFš^me HeâueeW ceW heeÙee peelee nw leLee jkeäle keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâer cepeyetleer nsleg DeeJeMÙekeâ nw~
efJeefJeOe leLÙe :
pevlegDeeW SJeb ceveg<Ùe kesâ efueÙes DeeJeMÙekeâ hees<ekeâ heoeLe& - Deheves Yeespeve mes ceeveJe meefnle meYeer pevleg efvecveefueefKele meele
ßesefCeÙeeW kesâ hees<ekeâ heoeLe& Øeehle keâjles nQ -
 Øeesšervme  keâeyeexneF[^sš  vÙetefkeäuekeâ Decue peue
Keefvepe ueJeCe  efueefhe[dme  efJešeefceve
GheÙeg&keäle heoeLeeX ceW peue Je Keefvepe ueJeCe Dekeâeye&efvekeâ nw leLee Mes<e keâeye&efvekeâ heoeLe& nQ~ Mejerj ceW keâeyeexneF[^sšme,
efueefhe[dme leLee Øeesšervme keâer keâeHeâer cee$ee Keheleer nw~ peue kesâ Deefleefjkeäle DevÙe hees<ekeâ heoeLe& met#ce hees<ekeâ (Micronutrients)
keânueeles nQ~ GheÙeesefiekeâele kesâ DeeOeej hej hees<ekeâ heoeLeeX keâes Ûeej YeeieeW ceW yeebše ieÙee nw -
 FËOeve heoeLe& Ùee Tpee& Glheeokeâ (Fuel Substances) - keâeyeexneF[^sšme SJeb JemeeSb
 efvecee&Cekeâ heoeLe& (Building Substances) - efJešeefcevme, peue SJeb Keefvepe ueJeCe
 GheeheÛeÙeer efveÙeb$ekeâ (Metabolic Requlators) - efJešeefcevme, peue SJeb Keefvepe ueJeCe
 DeevegJeebefMekeâ heoeLe& (Hereditary Substances) - vÙetefkeäuekeâ Decue
ceesveesmewkeâjeF[ kesâ oes DeCegDeeW mes ’iueeFkeâesefmeef[keâ yevOe’ (Glycosidic Bond) Éeje hejmhej pegÌ[ peeves mes Skeâ
[eF&mewkeâjeF[ (Disaccharide) keâe DeCeg yevelee nw~ [eF&mewkeâjeF[ Meke&âjeSb peue ceW IegueveMeerue, ceer"er leLee leerve Øekeâej
(ceeušesme, meg›eâesme leLee uewkeäšesme) keâer nesleer nw~ ceesveesmewkeâjeF[ (Monosaccharide) kesâ ome mes DeefOekeâ DeCegDeeW kesâ efceueves
mes hee@ueermewkeâjeF[ (Polyscharide) keâe efvecee&Ce neslee nw~ nceejs Yeespeve kesâ meejs lesueerÙe leLee Ûejyeeroej Ieškeâ ’efueefhe[dme’
(Lipids) nesles nQ~ vÙetkeäueerkeâ Decue Øeesšervme mes efceuekeâj vÙetefkeäueÙees Øeesšervme yeveeles nQ pees keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ kesâvõkeâ ceW ’iegCemet$eeW’
kesâ ®he ceW jnleer nw~ vÙetefkeäueDeeW Øeesšervme keâe meyemes DeYetlehetJe& ue#eCe mejue Ieškeâ heoeLeeX mes Deheveer lejn kesâ heoeLe& keâes
mebMues<eCe keâjvee nw~

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ceveg<Ùe ceW hees<eCe Je heeÛeve leb$e

(Human Nutrition and Digestive System)
heeÛeve (Digestion)
|
 
Yeeweflekeâ (Physical) jemeeÙeefvekeâ (Chemical)
(YeespÙe heoeLeeX keâe efJeIešve)
 oebleeW Éeje Yeespeve keâes Ûeyee keâj Úesše keâjvee~  SbpeeFce kesâ Éeje YeespÙe heoeLeeX keâe ØeesmeseEmeie~
 Goj ceW Yeespeve keâe efnuevee~  SbpeeFce Éeje keâeyeexneF[^sš, Jemee, Øeesšerve keâes mejue heoeLeeX
ceW heefjJeefle&le efkeâÙee peelee nw~
heeÛeve ef›eâÙee kesâ heefjCeecemJe®he Yeespeve mejue heoeLeeX ceW efJeIeefšle nes peelee nw~ heeÛekeâ jme ceW efJeÅeceeve SbpeeFce heeÛeve
ef›eâÙee ceW meneÙelee hengBÛeeles nQ~ šeÙeefueve (Ptylin) veecekeâ SbpeeFce keâe ØeYeeJe Meke&âje leLee mšeÛe& hej neslee nw Deewj hesefhmeve
(Pepsin) keâe ØeYeeJe Øeesšerve hej neslee nw~
SbpeeFce Ssmee jemeeÙeefvekeâ heoeLe& nw pees mJeÙeb heefjJeefle&le ngS efyevee DevÙe heoeLeex keâer jemeeÙeefvekeâ ef›eâÙees keâes ØeYeeefJele
keâjlee nw
hees<eCe veeue keâe DeejcYe ’cegKe’ mes neslee nw~ cegKe keâes oes YeeieeW ceW yeeBše ieÙee nw (1) cegKe ØeOeÇeCe (Vestibule) (cemetÌ{eW
Deewj oeBleeW leLee Dees" Deesj ieeueeW kesâ yeerÛe keâe DeJekeâeMe) (2) cegKe iegne (Oral cavity)~ cegKe iegne kesâ leue ceW efpeJne nesleer nw~
Ùen neÙe[ DeefmLe mes pegÌ[er nesleer nQ megKe keâer Muesef<cekeâ (cÙetkeâme) keâuee mleefjle Ghekeâuee mes {keâer nesleer nw~
 oeBle oes Øekeâej kesâ nesles nQ (i) DemLeeÙeer leLee (ii) mLeeÙeer~ DemLeeÙeer oeBleeW keâer kegâue mebKÙee 20 nesleer nw leLee ØelÙes peyeÌ[s
ceW 10-10 oeBle nesles nQ~ ceOÙe mes heeMJe& lekeâ oes ke=âvlekeâ (inciser), Skeâ jovekeâ (Canine) leLee oes ÛeJeCe&keâ (molar)
oeBle nesles nQ~
- mLeeÙeer oeBleeW keâer kegâue mebKÙee 32 nesleer nw~ ØelÙeskeâ peyeÌ[s ceW 16-16 oeBle nesles nQ~ Fve oeBleeW ceW ceOÙe mes heeMJe& keâer
Deesj oes FvemeeFpej Skeâ kewâveeFve oes Øeerceesuej (De«eÛeJeCe&keâ) leLee leerve ceesuej nesles nQ~
- efMeMegDeeW ceW meyemes henuee oeBle 6 ceeme keâer DeeÙeg hej efvekeâuelee nw~ ceOÙeJeleea FvemeeFpej henues efvekeâueles nQ leLee
heeMJe& FvemeeFpej yeeo ceW efMeMegDeeW ceW 12 cenerves keâer DeeÙeg hej 8 oeBle nesles nQ~ 6 Je<e& keâer DeeÙeg kesâ Deeme-heeme
DemLeeÙeer oeBleeW keâe mLeeve mLeeÙeer oeBle uesvee Meg® keâj osles nQ~
- oeBle keâes ’efMeKej’ (Crown), «eerJee (Neck) leLee cetue (root) ceW efJeYeeefpele efkeâÙee pee mekeâlee nw~ efMeKej cemetÌ{eW
mes yeenj GYeje jnlee nw, «eerJee cemetÌ{s mes {keâer jnleer nw leLee cetue Gmekesâ veerÛes efmLele nesleer nw~ oeBle keâer yeenjer
keâ"esj Yeeie ’[svšerve’ (Dentine) keâe yevee neslee nw leLee Fmekesâ yeerÛe ceW heuhe iegne Ùee ceppee iegne heeÙeer peeleer nw~
efMeKej Ùee ›eâeGve keâer yeendÙe hejle ovleJeukeâ (enamel) keâer yeveer nesleer nw~ Ùen [svšerve keâer Dehes#ee DeefOekeâ keâ"esj
heoeLe& neslee nw~ oeBleeW Éeje Yespeves keâes Ûeyeevee Ùee heermevee ÛeJeCe& keânueelee nw~ cegKÙe ÛeJeCe& hesefMeÙeeW ceW cewmesšj
(Masseter), nw~ cegKÙe ÛeJeCe& hesefMeÙeeW ceW cewmesšj (Masseter), ÛeJeCe&keâ (Temporallis), MebKeÛÚefokeâe leLee
ceOÙe Deewj heeMJe& šsefjieewÙe[ hesefMeÙeeB (Pterygoid) he#eeefYekeâe Deeleer nw~

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DENTAL FORMULA
I C pm M I C Pm M

2, 1, 2, 3 2, 1, 2, 0
Adult = 32 Child = 20
2, 1, 2, 3 2, 1, 2, 0

hees<eCe veueer kesâ Yeeie (Alimentary Canal)

1. cegKe (Mouth) : Fmekesâ meeLe oeble leLee efpe£e keâer Yeer mebjÛevee FmeceW Meeefceue nw~
2. «emeveer (Pharyhx) : Ùen Deenej SJeb JeeÙeg peeves keâe Deece jemlee nw~
3. «eemeveueer (Oesophagus) : Yeespeve keâes DeceeMeÙe ceW hengbÛeeves keâe keâeÙe& keâjlee nw~
4. DeceeMeÙe (Stomach) : hesMeerÙe Lewuee, efpemeceW Øeesšerve keâe DeebefMekeâ heeÛeve Øeef›eâÙee hetje neslee nw~
5. #egõeb$e (Small intestine) : Ùen leerve Yeeie ceW yebše neslee nw ef[Dees[svece (duodenum), pespesvece (Jejenum),
FefueÙece (ilum)~
6. Je=noeb$e (Large intestine) : leerve YeeieeW ceW yebše neslee nw -kewâkeâce (Caecum), keâesueesce (Colon), jskeâšce
(Rectum)~

meneÙekeâ «ebefLeÙee (Accessory Gland)

1. ueeuee «ebefLe (Salivary Gland) : Ùen leerve «ebefLeÙeeW keâe mecetn nw - hewjesefš[ (Parotid), meyecewkeämeeruejer
(Submoxillary), meyeefuebiegDeue (Sublingual)~
2. DeiveeMeÙe (Pancreas) : Ùen Deble«ebefLe SJeb yeefn&«ebefLe keâe mecetn nw pees SbpeeFce SJeb ne@ceexve keâe m$eeJe keâjleer nw~
3. Ùeke=âle/efpeiej (Liver) : Ùen meyemes yeÌ[e «ebefLe nw, FmeceW efheòe (Bike) keâe m$eesJe neslee nw~
«emeveer leLee «eemeveueer (Pharynx and Oesophagus)
«emeveer veekeâ, cegKe leLee mJejÙev$e kesâ heerÚs efmLele nesleer nw~ Fmekeâe efJemleej keâheeue DeeOeej mes Ú"eR «eerJee keâMes®keâe lekeâ
neslee nw~ Fme keâMes®keâe hej ef›eâkeâesÙe[ keâeefš&uespe[ kesâ mlej hej «emeveer mes «eeme veueer DeejcYe nesleer nw~ «emeveer ueieYeie 12
mesceer. uecyeer nesleer nw~ leLee leerve YeeieeW ceW yeBšer nesleer nw~
veekeâ kesâ heerÚs veemee«emeveer cegKe kesâ heerÚs «emeveer leLee «emeveer keâe efvecvelece Yeeie mJejÙev$e «emeveer nw~ «emeveer ceW meele
Éej nesles nQ~ «emeveer keâer efYeefòe leerve mlejeW keâer yeveer nesleer nw~ cÙetkeâme mlej, levleg mlej, hesMeer mlej~
ueeue «eefvLeÙeeB leLee ueeuee jme (Salivary Glands and Saliva)
ueeuee «eefvLeÙeeB keâcheeGb[ jsmeerceespe «eefvLeÙeeB nesleer nQ~ cegKÙe ueeue «eefvLeÙeeW ceW hewjesefš[ (Parotid), meyecewefv[yeguej
(Submandibular) leLee meyeefuebiegDeue (Sublingual GheefpeJne) Deeles nQ~ ueeuee «eefvLeÙeeB ueeuee jme DeLeJee ueej Glhevve
keâjleer nQ pees heeÛeve lev$e keâe ØeLece heeÛekeâ jme nw~ ueeuee jme keâe m$eeJe efvecve oMeeDeeW ceW DeefOekeâ neslee nw (a) cegKe ceW Yeespeve
Deeves hej (b) Yeespeve keâe OÙeeve Deeves hej DeLeJee Gmes osKeves Ùee metBIeves hej~ Fme «eefvLe keâer metpeve ’keâCe&hetJe& «eefvLeMeesLe’
(Parotitis) keânueeleer nQ, leer›e MeesLe efJejue neslee nw~ cecme (Mumps) veecekeâ jesie ceW Ùes «eefvLeÙeeB Skeâ JeeÙejme meb›eâceCe kesâ
keâejCe metpe peeleer nQ~
ueeuee (Saliva) heeveer kesâ meceeve heleuee Skeâ #eejerÙe (Basic) lejue neslee nw~ FmeceW Deuhe cee$ee ceW kegâÚ "esme heoeLe&
cÙetefmeve leLee šeÙeefueve veecekeâ Skeâ mšeÛe& efJeIeškeâ heoeLe& neslee nw~

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heeÛeve SbpeeFce
heeÛeve SbpeeFce keâes leerve YeeieeW ceW yeebše ieÙee nw -
1. Sefceueesuesefškeâ SbpeeFce (Amyloytic Enzyme) : keâeyeexneF[^sš keâe efJeIešve~
2. ØeesefšÙeesueeFefškeâ SbpeeFce (Proteolytic Enzyme) : Øeesšerve keâe efJeIešve~
3. efueheesueeFefškeâ SbpeeFce (Lipolytic Enzyme) : Jemee keâe efJeIeve~
Goj iegne (Abdominal Cavity) : Ùen Mejerj keâer meyemes yeÌ[er iegne nw efpemekeâer Deeke=âefle DeC[ekeâej nesleer nw leLee Ùen
Thej [eÙeøeâece mes veerÛes ßeesefCe lekeâ Hewâueer nesleer nQ hees<eCe veeue keâe DeefOekeâebMe Yeeie (DeeceeMeÙe (intestine), Úesšer DeeBle leLee
yeÌ[er DeeBle) Goj iegne ceW meceeefnle nw~ Ùeke=âle (Liver) Goj kesâ oeÙeW Deewj Thejer Yeeie ceW [eÙeøeâece kesâ veerÛes efmLele neslee nQ
DeeceeMeÙe leLee Úesšer DeeBle keâe DeejefcYekeâ Yeeie Fmemes oyes jnles nQ~ efheòeeMeÙe Ùeke=âle kesâ veerÛes efmLele neslee nQ DeivÙeeMeÙe
(Pancreas) DeceeMeÙe kesâ heerÚs efmLele neslee nw leLee hueerne DeivÙeeMeÙe hegÛÚ kesâ efvekeâš yeeÙeeR Deewj efmLele nesleer nQ~
DeeceeMeÙe leLee pe"j heeÛeve (Stomach and gastric digestion) - DeeceeMeÙe hees<eCe veeue keâe meyemes DeefOekeâ
efJemleeefjle Debie nw~ Fmekeâe DeefOekeâebMe Yeeie Goj kesâ Sefheiesefmš^keâ (epigastric) DeefOepe" ØeosMe ceW efmLele neslee nw leLee kegâÚ
Yeeie yeeÙes neFheeskeâesefv[^Ùece (hypochondrioum) Deewj veeefYe ØeosMe ceW efmLele neslee nQ DeeceeMeÙe kesâ leerve Yeeie nesles nQ~

ceeveJe heeÛekeâ leb$e (Human Digestive System)

 HeâC[me (Thejer Yeeie)
 efheC[ Ùee yeew[er (ceOÙe Yeeie) leLee
 pe"j efveie&ce keâesšj (Pyloric antrum) (efvecve Yeeie)

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 SCIECNE

pe"jeiece «eefvLeÙeeB (Gatric Glands) «eeme veueer kesâ Éej kesâ efvekeâš efmLele nesleer nQ, Fvemes efvekeâueves Jeeuee cÙetkeâme
(Mucus) #eejerÙe neslee nw pe"j efveie&ce «eefvLeÙeeB Yeer cegKÙele: #eejerÙe cÙetkeâme Glhevve keâjleer nQ DeeceeMeÙe ceW Yeespeve «eeme veueer
mes peelee nw~
- ÙeneB mes Yeespeve ef[Dees[svece (Duodenum) ceW Deelee nw, Ùen Yeespeve DelÙevle DecueerÙe neslee nw efkeâvleg ef[Dees[svece
ceW efheòe Deewj DeivÙeeMeÙe jme mes efceuekeâj Ùen Goemeerve nes peelee nw~
- DeeceeMeÙe keâer cÙetkeâme keâuee ceW efmLele «eefvLeÙeeB pe"j jme veecekeâ cenlJehetCe& heeÛekeâ jme (Gastric Juice) yeveeleer
nQ Ùen jme Skeâ mJeÛÚ jbienerve, DecueerÙe lejue neslee nw, FmeceW 0.4% cegkeäle neF[^eskeäueesefjkeâ Decue (HCI) neslee
nw, Fme Decue kesâ keâejCe Yeespeve ceW efJeÅeceeve met#ce peerJe cej peeles nQ leLee ØeesšerveÙegkeäle Yeespeve kesâ heeÛeve ceW
meneÙelee efceueleer nw~ pe"j jme ceW hesefhmeve, jsefveve leLee pe"j ueeFhespe veecekeâ SbpeeFce heeÙes peeles nQ~
- hesefhmeve Øeesšerve keâes heshšesve ceW, jsefveve kesâmeerveespeve (Casinogen) veecekeâ efJeuesÙe Øeesšerve mes kesâmeerve (Casein) keâe
efvecee&Ce keâjlee nw pees DeefJeuesÙe nesleer nw~ jsefveve keâer GheefmLeefle ceW otOe pecekeâj Heâš peelee nw~ pe"j ueeFhespe
(Gastric Lipase) kesâ keâejCe, kegâÚ no lekeâ Jemee keâe heeÛeve DeeceeMeÙe ceW ner nes peelee nw~
DeceeMeÙe (Stomach) : yengmebKÙekeâ m$eeJeer «ebefLeÙeeb DeceeMeÙe ceW Kegueleer nw~ Fmemes pe"j jme (Gastric Juice)
Glhevve nesleer nw~
veesš : Skeâ Deece JÙemekeâ JÙeefkeäle ceW Øeefleefove 2 mes 2.5 ueeršj pe"j jme Glhevve neslee nw~
 pe"j jme kesâ cenlJehetCe& Ieškeâ :
(i) pewefJekeâ SbpeeFce hesefhmeve (Pepsin), jsefveve (Renin)
(ii) neF[^eskeäueessefjkeâ Decue (0.4 mes 0.6 ØeefleMele)
(iii) #egõ cee$ee ceW peue leLee Keefvepe heoeLe&~
 hesefhmeve (Pepsin) : Goemeerve hesefhmeveespeerve (Pepsinogen) mJe®he ceW Glheeefole neslee nw~ neF[^eskeäueesefjkeâ Decue
(HCL) keâer ceewpetoieer ceW Ùen hesefhmeve (Pepsin) kesâ ®he ceW heefjJeefle&le neslee nw~
- hesefhmeve (Pepsin) efmeHe&â DecueerÙe (Acidic) ceeOÙece ceW keâeÙe& keâjlee nw~ Ùen Øeesšerve keâes ØeesefšÙeesmesme (Proteo-
ses) SJeb heshšesve (Peptone) kesâ ®he ceW leesÌ[lee nw~

- yeÛÛeeW ceW jsefveve (Renin) IegueveMeerue ogiOe Øeesšerve (Milk Protein) kesâefmeveespesve (Caseinogen) hej keâeÙe& keâjlee
nw~ Fmes Ùen DeIegueveMeerue kesâefmeve (Casein) ceW heefjJeefle&le keâjlee nw~
 neF[^eskeäueesefjkeâ Decue keâe keâeÙe& :
(a) yewkeäšerefjÙee keâes ceejlee nw leLee DeceeMeÙe kesâ Deebleefjkeâ JeeleeJejCe keâes Megæ keâjlee nw~
(b) Goemeerve hesefhmeveespesve (Pepsinogen) keâes hesefhmeve (Pepsin) kesâ ®he ceW heefjJeefle&le keâjlee nw, pees efkeâ Øeesšerve keâe
heeÛeve ceW cegKÙe Yetefcekeâe efveYeelee nw~
(c) hesefhmeve keâes keâeÙe& keâjves kesâ efueS DecueerÙe ceeOÙece (Acidic medium) lewÙeej keâjlee nw~
 KeeÅe heoeLe& DeceeMeÙe ceW leerve Iebšs kesâ efueS jnlee nw~ Fmekesâ heMÛeele Ùen Úesšer Deeble ceW heeFueesefjkeâ efmhevekeäšj
(Plyoric Sphincter) kesâ menejs hengbÛeleer nw~
 DeceeMeÙe ceW nesves Jeeueer cewkesâefvekeâue SJeb kewâefcekeâue DeefYeef›eâÙee ceW KeeÅe heoeLe& keâeFce (Acidic medium) ceW
heefjJeefle&le nes peelee nw~
Yeespeve Keeles meceÙe Yeespeve kesâ mJeeo mes Deewj DeefOekeâ pe"j jme Glhevve neslee nw~ Ùen oMee ’leefv$ekeâe ØeeJemLee’
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keânueeleer nw~ peye Yeespeve DeeceeMeÙe ceW hengBÛeelee nw lees DeeceeMeÙe keâer efYeefòe mes ’iewefmš^ve’ veecekeâ neceexve Glhevve neslee nw, Ùen
oMee jemeeÙeefvekeâ ØeeJemLee keânueeleer nw~
Skeäme-js hejer#eCe (BARIUM MEAL yesefjÙece ceerue) pe"j oMeea Ùeb$e DeLeJee iesmš^esmkeâeshe Éeje DeeceeMeÙe keâe ØelÙe#e
oMe&ve pe"j Heâesšes«eeHeâer, pe"j m$eeJe keâe DeOÙeÙeve keâjves kesâ efueS šsmš ceerue heæefle keâece ceW ueeÙeer peeleer nw~
ceveg<Ùe keâer Deenejveeue mes ŒeeefJele nesves Jeeues neceexve
neceexve neceexve kesâ keâeÙe&
iewefmš^ve Ùen DeeceeMeÙe keâer Mues<eCe keâuee mes pe"j jme kesâ ŒeeJeCe keâes Øesefjle keâjlee nw~
Svšjesiewmš^esve Ùen «enCeer mes m$eeefJele neslee nw leLee pe"j jme kesâ ŒeeJeCe keâes jeskeâlee nw~
keâesueer efmemšeskeâeFefveve «enCeer mes ŒeeefJele neslee nw leLee efheòeeMeÙe keâes mebkegâÛeve kesâ efueS Øesefjle keâjlee nw~
hewef›eâÙeespeeFefceve Ùen «enCe mes ŒeeefJele neslee nw leLee DeivÙeeMeemeer jsme kesâ ŒeeJeCe keâes Øesefjle keâjlee nw~
Úesšer DeeBle leLee heeÛeve® Úesšer DeeBle ueieYeie 2.4 ceeršj uecyeer Skeâ šdÙetye nesleer nw Deewj cejCeesòej keâeue ceW Fmekeâer
uecyeeF& 6 ceeršj lekeâ hengBÛe peeleer nw~ Ùen DeeceeMeÙe mes FefueÙee meerkeâue Jeeuye lekeâ nesleer nw Deewj Fmeer mLeeve hej yeÌ[er DeeBle mes
pegÌ[er nesleer nw~ Úesšer DeeBle keâe DeejbYe «enCeer Ùee ef[Dees[svece (Duodenum) mes neslee nw~
keâeÙe&® DeeceeMeÙe mes Deeves Jeeues keâeFce (Chyme) DeLeJee lejue Yeespeve keâe Yeespeve keâe heeÛeve Úesšer DeeBle ceW neslee nw~
«enCeer ceW efheòe SJeb DeivÙeeMeefÙekeâ jme Yeespeve mes Deekeâj efceuelee nw~
- efheòe (Bile) Jemee kesâ heeÛeve kesâ efueS DeeJeMÙekeâ neslee nw~ Fmekesâ Éeje Jemee keâe FceumeerkeâjCe (Emulsification)
neslee nw~
- efheòe #eejerÙe neslee nw DeeceeMeÙe ceW mes Deeves Jeeues Yeespeve keâer DecueerÙelee keâce keâjlee nw~ ’efheòeueJeCe’ (bile salts)
heeefÛele Jemee kesâ FceumeerkeâjCe ceW Ùeesie osles nQ~
DeivÙeeMeÙe jme (Pancreatic Juice) :
 DeivÙeeMeÙe jme #eejerÙe neslee nw leLee FmeceW heeÙes peeves Jeeues leerve Øekeâej kesâ heeÛekeâ SbpeeFce SceeFuespe (keâeyeexneF[^sš
keâe heeÛeve), ueeFhespe (Fmekesâ Éeje Jemee keâe heeÛeve neslee nw~ FmeerefueS Fmes efJeIeškeâ SbpeeFce keânles nQ) efš^efhmeve
(Fmekesâ Éeje Øeesšerve keâe heeÛeve) neslee nw~
 efš^efhmeve ØeesšerveeW leLee heshšerveeW keâes hee@ueer heshšeF[ Jeie& ceW yeouelee nw~ DeeB$e jme ceW efJeÅeceeve SvšjeskeâeFvespe veecekeâ
FbpeeFce DeivÙeeMeÙe jme kesâ Øeesšerve efJeIeškeâ SbpeeFce keâes meef›eâÙe keâjlee nw~ Fjwefhmeve heeueer heshšeF[eW keâes SceerveeW
Sefme[ ceW yeouelee nw~
 keâeyeexneF[^sš hej leerve Øekeâej kesâ SvpeeFce meg›esâpe SUCRASE (F&#eg Meke&âje keâe heeÛeve), uewkeäšspe (LACTASE),
ceeušspe (MALTASE) ØeYeeJe [eueles nQ leLee [eFmewkeâjeF[eW keâes ceesveesmewkeâjeF[es ceW yeoueles nQ~
 Fme Øekeâej Úesšer Deeble ceW Yeespeve hetjer lejn heÛe peelee nw~ Úesšer Deeble kesâ Devle lekeâ hengBÛeves ceW Yeespeve keâes Ûeej
Iebšs ueielee nw~ Øeesšerve keâe efJeIešve pe"j Je DeivÙeeMeÙe kesâ FbpeeFceeW Éeje ØeesšerveeW keâe SceerveeW Sefme[ ceW,
keâeyeexneF[^sš keâe iuetkeâespe ceW leLee Jemee keâe Jemee Decue Deewj efiuemejerve ceW efJeIešve nes peelee nQ Fmekesâ yeeo Ùes meye
heoeLe& DeJeMees<eCe kesâ efueS lewÙeej nes peeles nQ~
DeJeMees<eCe (Absorbtion) :
 heÛes ngS Yeespeve keâe DeJeMees<eCe hetCe&le: Úesšer Deeble ceW neslee nw~ DeJeMees<eCe oes ceeieex jkeäle keâesefMekeâeSB leLee Deeble
DebkegâjeW keâer ueefmekeâe JeeefnefveÙeeW mes neslee nw~
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hees<ekeâ lelJeeW keâer DeefOekeâlee mes nesves Jeeueer yeerceeefjÙeeb

hees<ekeâ lelJe yeerceejer ue#eCe
Jemee ceesšehee Meejerefjkeâ ceesšehee yeÌ{ peevee, Mejerj keâer ef›eâÙeeMeeruelee keâce nes peevee,
jkeäleÛeehe mecyevOeer jesie, ®efOej ceW keâesuesmšje@ue keâer cee$ee ceW Je=efæ,
Meke&âje jesie nesves keâer mecYeeJevee~
neFhej jkeäle ceW keâesuesmšsje@ue noÙeeIeele keâer mecYeeJevee~
keâesuesmšsjesuesefceÙee keâer cee$ee ceW Je=efæ,
Heäueesjerve HeäuegDeesjesefmeme oebleeW keâe keâcepeesj nesvee, DeefmLeÙeeW ceW kewâefuMeÙece keâe DemeeceevÙe peceeJe~
efJešeefcevme neFhej efJešeefceveesefmeme efJeefYevve Øekeâej keâer Meejerefjkeâ DemeeceevÙeleeSb~
yeÌ[er DeeBle leLee ceue efJemepe&ve (Large Intestine and defaecation) :
 Ùen FefueDeeskeâme JeeuJe mes ØeejcYe neskeâj ueieYeie [sÌ{ ceeršj uecyeer nesleer nw~ DeeceeMeÙe ceW peye Yeespeve ØeefJe<š nes
peelee nw pees pe"j Je=noev$e ØeefleJele& (gastro-calicreflex) Øekeâš neslee nw efpemekesâ HeâuemJe®he yeÌ[er DeeBle ceW hegj:
mejCe yeÌ{ peelee nw~ Fme ØeefleJele& kesâ HeâuemJe®he ceue efJemepe&ve neslee nQ~
Shesefv[keäme (Appendix) :
 GvneR Ûeej mlejeW keâe yevee neslee nw pees DeeBle ceW nesles nQ~ Shesefv[keäme keâer efmLeefle meerkeâce kesâ veerÛes DeLeJee heerÚs nes
mekeâleer nQ Shesefv[keäme MeesLe keâer oMee ceW Shesefv[meeFefšme keânueelee nw~ Fme efmLeefle ceW ØeeÙe: ’Shesefv[Skeäšceer’ keâe
DeehejsMeve keâjvee neslee nw~
veesš : Meekeâenejer peeveJejeW ceW Shesefv[keäme (Appendox) mesuÙetueespe kesâ heeÛeve ceW cenlJehetCe& Yetefcekeâe efveYeelee nw~
Ùeke=âle Jebkeâ leLee hueerne yebkeâ :
 Ùeke=âle leLee hueerne peneB yeÌ[er DeeBle cegÌ[leer nw, Jen mLeue ›eâceMe: Ùeke=âle yebkeâ leLee hueerneW yebkeâ keânueeles nQ~
ceueeMeÙe yeÌ[er DeeBle keâe meyemes efvecvelece Yeeie neslee nw, Fmekeâer uecyeeF& ueieYeie 13 mesceer nesleer nw~ Ùen ßeesefCe
DeeBle (Large intestine) mes Meg® neslee nw Deewj iegoeveeue (anal canal) hej meceehle neslee nw~ iegoeveeue keâer
uecyeeF& ueieYeie 4 mesceer. nesleer nw~ Ùen iegoe hej meceehle nesleer nw~
Ùeke=âle (Liver) keâe keâeÙe&
 Ùen Mejerj keâe meyemes yeÌ[e «ebefLe nw, Fmekeâe Jepeve 1500 «eece kesâ keâjerye neslee nw~ Ùen ienjs Yetjs jbie keâe neslee
nw~ FmeceW oes Yeeie neslee nw Skeâ oeÙeeb Yeeie (Right lobe) leLee Skeâ yeebÙee Yeeie (Left lobe) neslee nw~ ØelÙeskeâ
Yeeie keâF& YeeieeW npeej ueesyÙegue (Lobules) mes yevee neslee nw~
- Ùen efheòe (Bile) keâe m$eeJe keâjlee nw pees efkeâ efueefhe[ (lipid) kesâ GheeheÛeÙe (metabolism) kesâ efueS
DeeJeMÙekeâ nw~
- Ùen Deefleefjkeäle iuegkeâespe (Glucose) keâes iueeFkeâespeve (Glyocogen) ceW heefjJeefle&le keâjkesâ, Fmekeâe meb«enve
keâjlee nw~ Fmemes ®efOej ceW iuegkeâespe (Glucose) keâer cee$ee keâes efveÙebef$ele keâjlee nw~
- Deefleefjkeäle Deceervees Sefme[ (Amino Acid) mes veeFš^espeve (N2) iewme keâes ef[DeceervesMeve heæefle (deanimation)
mes cegkeäle keâjlee nw~ Fme Øekeâej Ùen ®efOej keâer cee$ee keâes Deefleefjkeäle peue kesâ meb«enve mes efveÙebef$ele keâjlee nw~
- YeütCe ceW ueeue ®efOej keâefCekeâeDeeW (RBC) keâe Glheeove keâjlee nw~ JeÙemkeâeW ceW ueeue ®efOej keâefCekeâeDeeW keâe
efJeIešve Ùeke=âle (Liver) ceW mebhevve neslee nw~

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- HeâeFefyeÇveespesve (Fibrinogen) keâe efvecee&Ce Yeer Ùeke=âle (Liver) ceW neslee nw~
 nsheeefjve (Heparin) pees efkeâ ®efOej ceW LekeäkeâejesOeer lelJe neslee nw, Gmekeâe Yeer Glheeove Ùeke=âle ceW ner neslee nw~
pe"jerÙe jme (Gastric juice) :
 nceejs DeeceeMeÙe keâer oerJeej ceW GheefmLele ueieYeie 3.5 keâjesÌ[ pe"j «eefvLeÙeeB efove Yej ceW ueieYeie 1 mes 3 ueeršj lekeâ,
Skeâ heerues mes GÛÛe DecueerÙe (PH 1.0 mes 3.0) pe"j jme keâe m$eeJeCe keâjleer nQ~ Fme jme ceW 97% mes 99% lekeâ peue
neslee nw~ keâeseMf ekeâeDeeW Éeje m$eeefJele Skeâ leeeflJekeâ DeefYekeâlee& leLee peeFceespeerevf ekeâ keâesefMekeâeDeeW Éeje m$eeefJele hesefhmeveespeve
SJeb pe"j ueeFhespe veecekeâ FbpeeFce nesles nQ~ pe"j jme keâer GÛÛe DecueerÙelee HCI kesâ keâejCe nesleer nQ~
efheòe (Bile)
 heerues-njs jbie keâe #eejerÙe ( PH-7.6-8.6) õJe neslee nw~ ceveg<Ùe ceW Øeefleefove ueieYeie 800 mes 100 efceueer heòe keâe
m$eeJe neslee nw~ efheòe ceW ueieYeie 92% peue, 6.0% efheòe, ueJeCe 0.3%, efheòe jbie (bile pigment) SJeb efheòe
Decue 0.3-0.9, keâesuesmš^e@ue 0.3%, efuemeeFefLeve SJeb 0.3 mes 1.2% JemeerÙe Decue nesles nQ~
heeÛeve ef›eâÙeeDeeW keâe mebef#ehle JeCe&ve
Debie heeÛeve jme #eejerÙe/DecueerÙe SbpeeFce FbpeeFceeW keâer jemeeÙeefvekeâ ef›eâÙee
cegKe ueeue m$eeJe #eejerÙe šeÙeefueve (ueeuee SceeFuespe) hekesâ ngS mšeÛeeW keâes efJeuesÙe Meke&âje ceW (ceeušespe)
ceW yeouelee nw~
DeeceeMeÙe pe"j jme DecueerÙe (1) jsefveve (2) hesefmeve kesâmeerveespeve keâes kesâmeerve ceW yeouelee nw~ Øeesšerve
(3) pe"j ueeFhespe keâes heshšesve ceW yeouelee nw~ JemeeDeeW keâe
neF[^esefueefmeme DeejbYe keâjlee nw~
«enCeer efheòe #eejerÙe ® DeivÙeeMeÙe SbpeeFceeW kesâ keâeÙe& ceW Ùeesie oslee
nw~ JemeeDeeW keâes Fceumeerke=âle keâjlee nw~
«enCeer DeivÙeeMeÙe #eejerÙe (1) efš^efhmeve Øeesšerve leLee heshšesveeW keâes heesueerheshšeF[ leLee
jme Deceervees Sefme[ ceW yeouelee nw~
(2) SceeFuespe meYeer Meke&âjeDeeW leLee mšeÛeeX keâes ceesušespe ceW
yeouelee nw~
(3) ueeFhespe JeemeeDeeW keâes Jemee Decueer leLee efiumevejerve ceW
yeouelee nw~
Úesšer DeeBle Deev$e jme #eejerÙe (1) SbšjeskeâeFvespe DeivÙeeMeÙe jme kesâ efš^efhmeveespeve ceW efš^efhmeve
efveceg&keäle keâjvee
(2) Fjsefhmeve meYeer Øeesšerve heoeLeeX keâes DeceerveeW Sefme[ ceW
yeouelee nw~
(3) meg›esâpe meg›eâespe keâes iuetkeâespe Deewj øeâkeäšespe ceW yeouelee
nw~
(4) ceeušspe ceeušespe keâes iuetkeâespe ceW yeouelee nw~
(5) uewkeäšspe uewkeäšespe keâes iuetkeâespe Deewj iewueskeäšespe ceW yeouelee
nw~

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hees<ekeâ lelJeeW keâe DeJeMees<eCe

1. peue, Keefvepe ueJeCe, efJešeefceve keâe DeJeMees<eCe Úesšer Deeble ceW neslee nw~
- peue leLee Keefvepe ueJeCe: kegâÚ Yeeie yeÌ[er Deeble leLee DeceeMeÙe ceW Yeer DeJeMeesef<ele neslee nw~
2. keâeyeexneF[^sš (Carbohydrate) : iuetkeâespe (Glucose), øegâkeâšespe (Fructose), iueskeâšespe (Galactose) keâe
DeJeMees<eCe FefueÙece (Ileum) ceW neslee nw~
3. Øeesšerve (Protien) : FefueÙece (Ileum)
4. efiuemejespe (Glycerol) : peue ceW Deemeeveer mes Iegue peelee nw~ HewâšerSefme[ (Fatty Acid) uemeerkeâe (Lymph)~
mcejCeerÙe leLÙe
 Je=no hees<ekeâ lelJe - keâeyeexneF[^sš, Øeesšerve, Jemee~
 DevÙe heesef<ele lelJe - efJešeefceve, Keefvepe ueJeCe, FlÙeeefo~
 mepeerJeeW ceW oes Øekeâej keâer hees<eCe Øeef›eâÙee ceewpeto nQ - mJehees<eer (Autotrophs), efJe<ecehees<eer (Heterophs)~
 mleveheeefÙeDeeW ceW mLeeÙeer oebleeW keâer efmLeefle
I : C : Pm : M I = FvemeeFpej Pm = Øeerceesuej

I : C : Pm : M C= kewâveeFve M = ceesuej
 JeÙemkeâeW ceW oebleeW keâer mebKÙee 32 nw, peyeefkeâ yeÛÛeeW ceW Fmekeâer mebKÙee 20 nw~
 ’Jemee’ meyemes DeefOekeâlece 9.3 kewâueesjer Øeefle«eece Tpee& hewoe keâjleer nw~
 mJehees<eer hees<eCe ceW heeohe leLee iewj nefjle yewkeäšerefjÙee Meeefceue nw~ Jes Dehevee Yeespeve ØekeâeMe mebMues<eCe Je jmeeÙeefvekeâ
mebMues<eCe Éeje Øeehle keâjles nQ~
 heeÛeve ef›eâÙee ceW Yeeweflekeâ leLee jmeeÙeefvekeâ Øeef›eâÙeeSb Meeefceue nw~
 heeÛeve ef›eâÙee cegKe ceW Yeespeve peeves mes Meg® neslee nw~
 heeÛeve Øeef›eâÙee ceW ØecegKe DeefYeef›eâÙeeSb Úesšer Deeble (Small Intestine) ceW mechevve nesleer nw~
 #egõ Deeble (Small Intestine) ceW ner DeJeMees<eCe Øeef›eâÙee mebhevve nesleer nw~
 Úesšer Deeble (Large Intestine) heeÛeve ef›eâÙee keâer Debeflece Øeef›eâÙee keâe mLeeve nw, peneb DeJeebefÚle heoeLeeX keâes ’ceue’
kesâ ®he ceW Mejerj ceW Glmepe&ve neslee nw~


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ÍÌãÔã¶ã ‚ããõÀ ØãõÔããò ‡ãŠã ãäÌããä¶ã½ã¾ã (Breathing & Exchange of Gases)

mepeerJe hees<ekeâ lelJeeW pewmes- iuetkeâespe kesâ leesÌ[ves kesâ efueS Dee@keämeerpeve (O2) keâe hejes#e ¤he mes GheÙeesie keâjles nQ, efpememes
efJeefYevve ef›eâÙeeDeeW keâes mebheeefole keâjves kesâ efueS DeeJeMÙekeâ Tpee& Øeehle nesleer nw~ Ghejeskeäle DeheÛeÙeer ef›eâÙeeDeeW ceW keâeye&ve[eF&Dee@keämeeF[
(CO2) Yeer cegkeäle nesleer nw pees neefvekeâejkeâ nw~ FmeefueS Ùen DeeJeMÙekeâ nw efkeâ keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâes ueieeleej O2 GheueyOe keâjeF& peeS
Deewj CO2 keâes yeenj cegkeäle efkeâÙe peeS~ JeeÙegceb[ueerÙe O2 Deewj keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW Glhevve CO2 kesâ Deeoeve-Øeoeve (efJeefveceÙe) keâer
Fme Øeef›eâÙee keâes MJeemeve (Breathing Ùee meeceevÙeleÙee MJemeve (Respiration) keânles nQ~
veesš–peerJeOeejer Éeje Dee@keämeerpeve Øeehle keâjves SJeb keâeye&ve[eF& Dee@keämeeF[ kesâ cegkeäle keâjves keâer Øeef›eâÙee keâes MJeeme
(Breathing) uesvee keânles nQ~
 MJemeve (Respioration)–Skeâ peefšue Øeef›eâÙee nw FmeceW Meeefceue nQ-
(a) Dee@keämeerpeve (O2) SJeb keâeve& [eF& Dee@keämeeF[ (CO2) iewmeW keâe efJeefveceÙe~
(b) heeefÛele KeeÅe heoeLeeX keâe Dee@keämeerkeâjCe (Oxidation)
 MJemeve (Respiration)–Øeef›eâÙee ceW Glheeefole Tpee& peerJeOeeefjÙeeW ceW GòejpeerefJele (Survival) leLee Gvekesâ YejCe-hees<eCe
(maintainance) kesâ efueS DeeJeMÙekeâ pewefJekeâ ef›eâÙeeDeeW keâes mebhevve keâjleer nQ~
- MJemeve Skeâ pewJe jemeeÙeefvekeâ (Biochemical) Øeef›eâÙee pees ceeFšeskeâe@efv[^Ùee (Mitchondria) ceW Ieefšle nesleer nw~
- MJemeve kesâ meceÙe cegkeäle T%epee& (Released energy) Ss[sveesmeerve š^eFHeâe@mHesâš Ùee Sšerheer (ATP) ceW efveefnle neskeâj
jmeeÙeefvekeâ ¤he mes Yeb[eefjle nesleer nw~
- Ùen Øeef›eâÙee ÛejCeeW ceW nesleer nw leLee meceW keâF& SbpeeFceeW (Enzymes) keâer DeeJeMÙekeâlee nesleer nw~
- MJemeve kesâ meceÙe cegkeäle Tpee& (released energy) S[sveesmeerve š^eFHeâe@hesš Ùee Sšerheer (ATP) ceW efveefnle neskeâj
jmeeÙeefvekeâ ¤he mes Yeb[eefjle nesleer nw~
Sšerheer–S[sveesmeerš š^eFHeâe@me,Hesâš opr ATP - Adenosine tri phoshate

JeeÙeJeerÙe SJeb DeeJeeÙeJeerÙe MJemeve (Aerobic and Ahaerobic Respiration)

 KeeÅe keâe DeekeämeerkeâjCe (Oxidation) Dee@keämeerpeve (O2) keâer GheefmLeefle SJeb DevegheefmLeefle oesveeW DeJemLee ceW nes mekeâlee
nw~ Fme Øekeâej MJemeve oes Øekeâej neslee nw-
1. JeeÙeJeerÙe MJemeve (Aerobic Respiration)–Fme Øeef›eâÙee ceW DeefOekeâlej peerJeOeejer Dee@keämeerpeve (O2) keâe GheÙeesie MJemeve
ef›eâÙee ceW keâjles nQ SJeb Dee@keämeerpeve (O2) Éeje efveÙebef$ele Fme Øeef›eâÙee keâ JeeÙeJeerle MJemeve keânles nQ~
- Fme Øeef›eâÙee ceW iuegkeâespe (Glucose) hetCe& ¤he mes keâeye&ve[eF&Dee@keämeeF[ (CO2) SJeb peue (H2O) ceW efJeKebef[le
nes peelee nw~
- FmeceW Tpee& kesâ m$eesle Sšerheer (ATP) keâe Glheeove neslee nw~
›eâsJe Ûe›eâ
iueeFkeâesefueefmeme (Krebs Cycle)
iuetkeâespe  heeÙe®Jesš (Pyruvate)  CO2 + H2O + Tpee& 
keâesefMekeâeõÙe& O2
(Cytoplasm)
Dee@keämeerpeve DeeJeMÙekeâ veneR nw~
veesš– Dee@keämeerpeve (O2) keâer GheefmLeefle ceW cegkeäle Tpee& keâe GheÙeesie Sšerheer (ATP) Glheeove ceW nbeslee nw~
2. DeJeeÙeJeerÙe MJeme (Anaerobi Respifotion) –
- peerJeeCeg Je Ùeermš pewmes kegâÚ peerJeOeejer Dee@keämeerpeve (O2) keâer DevegheefmLeefle ceW Tpee& cegkeäle keâjles nQ~ Fme
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Øeef›eâÙee keâ DeJeeÙeJeerÙe (anaedrobic) MJemeve ef›eâÙee keânles nQ~

- Fme meceÙe Dee@keämeerpeve (O2) keâe GheÙeesie Fmekeâer GheueyOelee mes pÙeeoe nesvee ueielee nw~
- kegâÚ heeoheeW SJeb peerJeeCegDeeW (bacteria) ceW S@Levee@ue (Ethonal) keâe Glheeove neslee nw peyeefkeâ peerJeOeeefjÙeeW kesâ
hesefMeÙeeW ceW uewefkeäškeâ Decue (Oactic Acid) keâe Glheeove neslee nw~
met$e –
(a) Ùeermš ceW –
iueeFkeâesefueefmeefme efkeâCJeve
(Glycolysis) (Fermentation)
iuetkeâespe (Glucose)  heeÙe®Jesš (Pyruvate)  C2 H2 OH + H2O + Tpee&
Dee@keämeerpeve O2 keâer Dee@keämeerpeve keâer
DeeJeMÙekeâlee veneR DevegheefmLeefle
(b) peerJeOeeefjÙeeW ceW –
iuetkeâespe heeÙe®Jesš uewefkeäškeâ Decue
(Glucose)  (Pyruvate)  (Lactic Acid)
JeeÙeJeerÙe MJemeve (Aerobic Respiration) DeeJeeÙeJeerÙe MJemeve (Ahaerodi Respiration)
1. Dee@keämeerpeve (O2) keâe GheÙeesie neslee nw~ 1. Dee@keämeerpeve (O2) keâer DevegheefmLeefle ceW neslee nw~
2. CO2 leLee peue Debeflece Glheeo neslee nw~ 2. SLevee@ue (Etanol) SJeb uewekf eäškeâ Decue (Lactic) Deble Glheeo~
3. ÙeLes<" (Considerable) Tpee& cegkeäle nesleer nw~ 3. keâce Tpee& hewoe nesleer nw~

heeoheeW ceW MJemeve

 heeoheeW ceW MJemeve ceW Dee@keämeerpeve (O2) SJeb keâeye&ve [eF& Dee@keämeeF[ keâe Deeoeve-Øeoeve neslee nw~ FmeefueÙes Fveb oesveeW iewmeeW
keâes MJemeve iewmeeW keâes MJemeve iewme (Respiratory Gases) keâne peelee nw~
 heeoheeW keâe MJemeve leerve ØeCeeefueÙeeW cebs neslee nw-
(a) heeoheeW kesâ meYeer Yeeie-cetue (peÌ[), levee, heòeer, MJemeve keâjles nQ~
(b) heeoheeWve kesâ Skeâ Yeeie mes otmejs Yeeie lekeâ iewmeeW keâe heefjJenve yengle keâce neslee nw~
(c) heeoheeW keâe MJemeve oj ØeeefCeÙeeW kesâ Dehes#ee Oeerceer nesleer nw~
 peÌ[W (cetue) ce=oe ceW GheefmLeefle Dee@keämeerpeve keâes efJemejCe keâer Øeef›eâÙee (Process of diffution) Éeje «enCe keâjlee nw~
- cetue jesce (Root hair) pees cetue kesâ yee¢e lJeÛeerÙe keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâe efJemleej nesles nQ, ce=oe ceW GheefmLele Dee@keämeerpeve
kesâ mebheke&â ceW nesles nQ~
- Dee@keämeerpeve efJemejCe Éeje cetuejesceeW ceW hengbÛe peelee nw, peneb mes cetue keâer DevÙe keâesefMekeâeDeeW lekeâ hengbÛe peelee nw.
 cetue kesâ hegjeves efnmmeeW hej cetue jesce veneR heeÙes peeles nQ, Jes ce=le keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ Skeâ megjef#ele mlej mes {kesâ jnles nQ
efpemeceW met#ce jbOeÇ nesles nQ, efpemes JeelejbOeÇ (Lenticles) keânles nQ~
- JeelejbOeÇ Éeje ce=oe SJeb cetue keâer Deebleefjkeâ peerefJele keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ yeerÛe iewmeerÙe efJeefveceÙe neslee nw~
- keâe<"erÙe heeohees cebs iewmeerÙe efJeefveceÙe kesâ efueS Úle hej JeelejbOeÇ (Lenticles heeÙes peeles nQ~
 heefòeÙeeW ceW Dee@keämeerpeve jbOeÇ Ùee mšescesše (Stomata) kesâ Éeje efJemeefjle neskeâj heòeer keâer keâesefMekeâeDeeW lekeâ hengbÛe peeleer
nw~
- peye keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW keâeyee&ve [eF& Dee@keämeeF[ keâer meebõlee (Concentration) yeÌ{ peeleer nw lees Fmes JeeleeJejCe ceW
cegkeäle keâjves nsleg mšescesše (Stomata) Kegue peeles nQ~
- heòeeEÙe ceW MJemeve Øeef›eâÙee ieuewmeeW kesâ efJeefveceÙe efJemejCe Éeje neslee nw.

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MJemeve kesâ Debie

veesš–ceW{keâ (Frog) lJeÛee SJeb HegâhHegâme (Lung) oesveeW kesâ MJeeme uesles nQ~
 MJemeve kesâ Debie kesâ ¤he ceW keäueesce (*Gills), HegâhHegâme (Lungs) SJeb lJeÛee leerveeW ceW leerve meceeve ue#eCe nQ-
1. heÙee&hle Dee@keämeerpeve Øeehle keâjves nsleg Je=nle melener #es$eHeâue~
2. mejue efJemejCe (diffusion) SJeb iewmeeW kesâ Deeoeve Øeoeve kesâ efueS efYeefòeÙeeW keâe heleuee nesvee~
3. MJeeme veefueÙeeW kesâ leb$e ceW JeeÙeg keâesefMekeâeDeeW lekeâ meerOes hengbÛeleer nw~
- DevÙe meYeer MJemeve Debie (lJeÛee Je HegâhHegâme) ceW iewmeerÙe heefjJenve kesâ efueS heÙee&hle ke&âle Deehete|le~
MJemeve kesâ Debie (Organs of Respiration)
 ØeeefCeÙeeW kesâ efJeefYevve JeieeX kesâ yeerÛe MJemeve keâer ef›eâÙeeefJeefOe Gvekesâ efveJeeme Deewj mebie"ve kesâ Devegmeej yeoueleer nw~
 efvecve DekeâMes®keâer (Lower Vertebrate) pewmes mhebpe, meeruebšsjsše Ûehešske=âefce Deeefo ceW O2 Deewj CO2 keâe Deeoeve-Øeoeve
Deheves meejs Mejerj keâer melen kesâ mejue efJemejCe (Diffusion) Éeje keâjles nQ~
- keWâÛegS Deheveer Dee&õ keäÙetefškeâue (Cuticle) keâes MJemeve kesâ efueS GheÙeesie keâjles nQ~
- keâeršeW kesâ Mejerj ceW veefuekeâeDeeW keâe Skeâ peeue `MJeveme veefuekeâeSb'
(Trachea) neslee nw; efpevemes JeeleeJejCe keâer JeeÙeg Gvekesâ Mejerj
ceW efJeefYevve mLeeve hej hengbÛeleer nw; leeefkeâ keâesefMekeâeSb meerOes
iewmeeW keâe Deeoeve-Øeoeve keâj mekeWâ~
- peueerÙe DeeLeexhees[e leLee ceewuemkeâe ceW MJemeve efJeMes, mebJenveerÙe
mebjÛevee keäueesce (Gill) Éeje neslee nw~
- mLeueÛej ØeeefCeÙeeW ceW MJemeve efJeMes<e mebJenveerÙe Lewueer HegâhHegâme/HesâHeâÌ[s Éeje neslee nw~ keâMes®KeeW ceW ceÚefueÙeeB keäueesce
Éeje MJemeve keâjleer nQ peyeefkeâ mejerme=he he#eer Deewj mleveOeejer HesâHeâÌ[eW Éeje MJemeve keâjles nQ~
- GYeÙeÛej pewmes ceW{keâ Deheveer Dee&õ lJeÛee (veJe lJeÛee) Éeje Yeer MJemeve keâj mekeâles nQ~ mleveOeeefjÙeeW ceW Skeâ hetCe&
efJekeâefmele MJemeve ØeCeeueer nesleer nw~
ceeveJe MJemeve leb$e (Human Respiratory System)
ceveg<ÙeeW ceW MJemeve (Respiration in Humans)
 veemee iegne (Nassal Cavity) ceW JeeÙeg keâes iece& SJeb vece efkeâÙeepeelee nw~ FmeceW GheefmLele OetuekeâCe Mues<cee (Mucous)
Éeje jeskeâ efueÙee peelee nw~
Jeekeâd Ùeb$e
 Jeekeâ Ùeb$e keâes keâb" (larynx) Yeer keânles nQ, pees MJeemeveueer
(Traachea) keâe yeÌ{e ngDee efnmmee nw~
- Ùen GheeefmLe (Cartilage) kesâ keâF& efnmmeeW mes efceuekeâj
yeveer yee@keämegvee jÛevee nw~
 heg®<eeW ceW keâb" keâer GheeefmLe GYejer ngF& nesleer nw, efpemes
S[ce keâe Shheue (Adam's Apple) keâne peelee nw~
 keâb" (Larynx) kesâ yeerÛe oes mJej jppet (Vocal Cords)
heeF& peeleer nw, efpeveskeâ keâbheve mes yeesueer Glhevve nesleer nw~
 nceeje Skeâ peesÌ[er yee¢e veemeeÉej nesles nQ, pees nes"eW kesâ
Thej yeenj keâer lejHeâ Kegueles nQ~ Ùes veemee ceeie& (nasal
Passage) Éeje veemee keâ#e (nasal Chamber) lekeâ
hengBÛeles nQ~
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 veemee keâ#e «emeveer (Pharynx) kesâ Skeâ Yeeie, veemee «emeveer (Nasppharynx) ceW Kegueles nQ~ «emeveer (Pharynx) Deenej
Deewj JeeÙeg oesveeW kesâ efueS GYeÙeefve<" ceeie& nw~veemee «emeveer keâb"#es$e efmLeefle IeeBšer (Glottis) Éeje MJeemeveueer (Trachea)
ceW Kegueleer nw.
- keâb" Skeâ GheeefmLeceÙe (Cartilagenous Box) hesefškeâe nw pees OJeefve lheeove ceW meneÙelee keâjleer nw FmeerefueS Fmes
OJeefve hesefškeâe (Sound Box) Yeer keâne peelee nw~ Yeespeve efveieueles meceÙe Ieebšer Skeâ heleueer ueesÛeoej GheeefmLeue
heuues/Heäuewhe keâb"ÛÚo (epiglottis) mes {keâ peeleer nw, efpememes Deenej «emeveer mes keâb" ceW ØeJesMe ve keâj mekesâ~
 MJeemeveueer Skeâ meerOeer veefuekeâe nw pees oes ØeeLeefcekeâ MJemeefveÙeeW ceW efJeYeeefpele nes peeleer nw~ ØelÙeskeâ MJemeveer keâF& yeej
efJeYeeefpele nesles ngS efÉleerÙekeâ SJeb le=leerÙekeâ mlej keâer MJemeveer (Bronchil), MJemeefvekeâe(Brochioles) Deewj yengle heleueer
MJemeefvekeâeDeeW (Alveoli) ceW meceehle nesleer nw~
- MJemeefvekeâe lewueer (Alveolar Sac) pewmeer mebjÛevee ketâefhekeâeDeeW ceW Kegueleer nw, efpemes JeeÙeg ketâefhekeâe keânles nQ~ ßevemeer,
MJemeefvekeâeDeeW Deewj ketâefhekeâeDeeW keâe MeeefKele peeue hesHeâÌ[eW (:eura) mes {kesâ jnles nQ Deewj efpevekesâ yeerÛe HegâhHegâmeeJejCeer
(Pleural Fluid) õJe Yeje neslee nw~ Ùen HesâHeâÌ[s keâer melen hej Ie<e&Ce keâce keâjlee nw yeenjer heghHegâmeeJejCeer efPeuueer
(Pleaural Membrane) hesHeâÌ[s keâer melen mes mebheke&â ceW nesleer nw~
MJemeve keâer ef›eâÙeeefJeefOe (Mechanism of Respiration)
 peye nce MJeeme uesles nQ lees yeenj keâer JeeÙeg HegâhHegâme ketâefhekeâeDeeW
(Alveoli) ceW ØeJesMe keâjleer nw~ Fmes nce Deble:MJemeve (Inhalation)
keânles nQ~
- Ùen ef›eâÙee Je#e iegne (Thoracic Cavity) kesâ HewâueeJe kesâ keâejCe
mebYeJe nes heelee nw~
- Je#eiegne keâe HewâueeJe [eÙeøeâe@ce (Diphragm) leLee hemeefueÙeeW
(Ribs) kesâ yeerÛe keâer pegÌ[er hesefMeÙeeW (Muscle) kesâ mebkegâÛeve kesâ
keâejCe neslee nw~
 Fmemes Je#e keâer hemeefueÙeeW keâer GheefjcegKeer (Upward) SJeb yeefnce&gKeer
(Outward) ieefle nesleer nw efpememes Je#eiegne keâe DeeÙeleve (Vol-
ume) yeÌ{ peelee nw~

 Fmemes JeeÙeg keâe oyeeJe Ieš peelee nw leLee yee¢e JeeÙeg veemeeÉej
(Nassal Cavity), MJeemeveueer (Trachea), SJeb MJemeveer (Brochi)
Éeje HegâhHegâme (Lungs) ceW ØeJesMe keâjles nQ~
 Fmemes ketâefhekeâe (Alveolar Soc) Dee@keämeerpeve JeeÙeg mes hetefjle nes
peeleer nw, peneb keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW GheÙe&gkeäle cee$ee ceW jkeäle ØeJeeefnle
nesleer nw.
- ketâefhekeâeDeeW keâer heleueer efYeefòe kesâ ceeOÙece mes jkeäle keâesefMekeâeSB
iewmeeW keâe Deeoeve-Øeoeve keâjleer nQ~

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Dee@keämeerpeve efJemejCe (Diffusion) Éeje ketâefhekeâe mes jkeäle ceW

ØeJesMe keâjleer nw, peneb mes Gmekeâer Deehete|le Fmeeskeâ (Tissue) mes
ieer peeleer nw~
 Dee@keämeerpeve (O2) keâe heefjJenve
 keâeye&ve [eF& Dee@keämeeF[ (O2) keâe heefjJenve

 efve:MJemeve (Exhalation)–
- TlekeâeW (Tissue) mes CO2 efJemeefjle neskeâj jkeäle cebs hengbÛeleer nw, peneb mes HegâhHegâme ketâefhekeâeDeeW (Alveoli) lekeâ
efve:mJemeve kesâ efueS hengbÛee oer peeleer nw~
- yeeo ceW CO2 MJeemeveueer SJeb veemeeÉej (Nostril) mes yeen jefve<keâeefmele keâj oer peeleer nw.
- Ssmee Je#eiegne kesâ meeceevÙe Deekeâej «enCe keâjves kesâ keâejCe neslee nw~ efpemeceW [eÙeøeâe@ce (Diaphragm) leLee hemeueer
hesefMeÙeeB efMeLeefuele nesleer nQ~
veesš–MJeeme uesves veW oes IešveeÙeW Deble MJemeve (Inhalation) leLee efve:MJemeve (Exhalation) nesleer nw~
 MJeeme uesves keâer ef›eâÙee DevewefÛÚkeâ (mJele:) nesleer nw, Fme hej Fmekeâer ieefle ceef<le<keâ ceW GheefmLele MJemeve kesâvõ Éeje
efveÙebef$ele nesleer nw~

meeceevÙe DeJemLee ceW MJemeve keâer oj 15 mes 18 yeej Øeefle efceveš nesleer nw~
keâef"ve heefjßece DeLeJee JÙeeÙeece kesâ meceÙe O2 keâer ceebie yeÌ{ peeleer nw leLee MJemeesve oj 20 mes 25 iegvee yeÌ{ peeleer nw~

MJeemeesÛÚJeeme leLee MJemeve cebs Devlej

MJeemeesÛÚJeeme (Breathing) MJemeve (Respiration)

Ùen ef›eâÙee keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ yeenj nesleer nw~
Fme ef›eâÙee ceW FvpeeFceeW keâer DeeJeMÙekeâlee veneR nesleer~
Fme ef›eâÙee ceW Tpee& Glhevve veneR nesleer~ Ùen kesâJeue
Skeâ Yeeweflekeâ ef›eâÙee nw efpemeceW Mejerj Dee@keämeerpeve keâe
Devleie&nCe leLee keâeye&ve [eF&-Dee@keämeeF[
keâe yeefn:#esheCe keâjlee nw~
Ùen ef›eâÙee keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ Yeerlej nesleer nw~
Fme ef›eâÙee ceW FvpeeFceeW keâer DeeJeMÙekeâlee nesleer nw~
Fme ef›eâÙee ceW Tpee& Glhevve nesleer nw efpemeceW iuetkeâespe keâe
Dee@keämeerkeâjCe neslee nw~ Fmekesâ HeâuemJe¤he keâeye&ve [eF&-Dee@keämeeF[
leLee Tpee& Glhevve nesles nQ~

 MJemeve keâer Debeflece ÛejCe KeeÅe DeCegDeeW (Glucose) keâe Dee@keämeerkeâjCe nw, efpemesme Tpee& cegkeäle nesleer nw~ Ùen
keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ ceeFšeskeâe@efv[^Ùee (Mitochondria) ceW neslee nw~

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veesš: oesveeW HegâhHegâmeeW ceW efceuekeâj 30 keâjesÌ[ ketâefhekeâeSB (Alveole) DeJeefmLele nesleer nQ, pees iewme efJeefveceÙe nsleg 36 mes 72
Jeie& ceeršj #es$eHeâue Øeoeve keâjeleer nQ~
 MJeeme uesves keâer ef›eâÙee kesâ ØelÙeskeâ Ûe›eâ ceW ueieYeie 500 Gme JeeÙeg keâlee Deble: MJemeve ()Inhalation) SJeb efve:MJemeve
(Exhalation) neslee nw~
- MJeeme oj 15 mes 18 Ûe›eâ Øeefleefceveš nesleer nw~
24 IebšeW ceW nce 15000 ueeršj JeeÙeg keâe Deble: MJemeve keânles nQ~

The organisation of the Respiratory System, the ribs have been removed in front, and the left lung is shown in cross-section.

iewmeeW keâe heefjJenve (Transport of Gases)

 O2 Deewj CO2 kesâ heefjJenve keâe ceeOÙece jkeäle neslee nw~ ueieYeie 97 ØeefleMele O2 keâe heefjJenve jkeäle ceW ueeue jkeäle
keâefCekeâeDeeW Éeje neslee nw~ Mes<e 3 ØeleefkeâMele O2 keâe hueepcee Éeje yeeF&keâeyeexvesš kesâ ¤he ceW DeefYeieefcele neslee nw~
- ueieYeie 7 ØeefleMele CO2 keâe heefjJenve hueepcee Éeje IeguÙe DeJemLee neslee nw~
Dee@keämeerpeve keâe heefjJenve (Transport of Oxygen)
 nerceesiueesefyeve (Haemoglobin) ueeue jkeäle keâefCekeâeDeeW ceW efmLele Skeâ ueeue jbie keâe ueewnÙegkeäle JeCe&keâ nw~ nerceesiueesefyeve
kesâ meeLe Gl›eâceCeerÙe (Reresible) {bie mes yebOekeâj Dee@keämeer-nerceesiueesefyeve (Oxyhaemoglobin) keâe ie"ve keâj mekeâlee
nw~ ØelÙeskeâ nerceesiueesefyeve DeCeg DeefOekeâlece Ûeej O2 DeCegDeeW keâe Jenve keâj mekeâles nQ~ nerceesiueesefyeve kesâ meeLe Dee@keämeerpeve
keâe yebOevee ØeeLeefcekeâ leewj hej O2 kesâ DeebefMekeâ oeye mes mebyebefOele nw~ CO2 keâe DeebefMekeâ oeye, neF[^espeve DeeÙele meeõlee
Deewj leehe›eâce kegâÚ DevÙe keâejkeâ nQ pees Fme yebOeve keâes yeeefOele keâj mekeâles nQ~
keâeye&ve[eFDee@keämeeF[ keâe heefjJenve (Transport of CO2)
 keâeye&ve[eFDee@keämeeF[ (CO2) nerceesiueesefyeve Éeje keâeyee&ceervees-nerceesiueesefyeve (Carbomino Haemoglobin) (ueieYeie
20-25 ØeefleMele) kesâ ¤he ceW Jenve keâer peeleer nw~ Ùen yebOeve CO2 kesâ DeebefMekeâ oeye mes mebyebefOele nesleer nw.

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- pO2 Fme yebOeve keâes ØeYeeefJele keâjves Jeeuee Skeâ cegKÙe keâejkeâ nw TlekeâeW ceb GÛÛe pCO2 Deewj efvecve pO2 keâer
DeJemLee nesves mes nerceesiueesefye ceW CO2 keâje yebOeve neslee nw; peyeefkeâ ketâefhekeâe ceW, peneB pCO2 efvecve Deewj pO2 GÛÛe
nesle nw, keâeyee&ceervees-nerceesiueesefye mes CO2 keâe efJepeesÙeve nesves ueielee nw DeLee&led TlekeâeW ceW nerceesiueesefyeve mes yebefOele
CO2 ketâefhekeâe ceW cegkeäle nes peeleer nw~
 SbpeeFce keâeyeexefvekeâ SvneF[^spe (Carbomic Anhydrase) keâer meebõlee ueeue jkeäle keâefCekeâeb ceW GÛÛe Deewj hueepcee ceW
Deuhe nesleer nw~ Fme SbpeeFce mes efvecveefueefKele Øeefleef›eâÙee oesveeW efoMeeb ceW megiece nesleer nw~
keâeyeexefvekeâ SbneF[^spe keâeyeexefvekeâ SbneF[^spe
CO2+H2O H2CO3 H2CO-3+H+

 TlekeâeW ceW DeheÛeÙe kesâ keâejCe pCO2 DeefOekeâ nesves mes CO2 jkeäle (RRBCs Deewj hueepcee) ceW efJemeefjle nesleer nw Deewj
HCO3 Deewj H+ yeveeleer nw~ ketâefhekeâe ceW pCO2 keâce nesves mes Øeefleef›eâÙee keâer efoMee efJehejerle nes peeleer nw efpemesme CO2
Deewj H2O yevesle nQ~ Fme lejn yeeFkeâeyeexvesš kesâ ¤he cebs Tlekeâ mlej hej «eefnle Ie(Trapped) Deewj ketâefhekeâe lekeâ
heefjJeefnle keâeye&ve[eFDee@keämeeF[ yeenj keâer lejHeâ hegve: CO2 kesâ ¤he ceW cegkeäle nes peeleer nw Øeefle 100 efceueerueeršj
efJeDee@keämeerpeefvele ke&âle Éeje ketâefhekeâe ceW ueieYeie CO2 keâer 4 efceueer. cee$ee cegkeäle nesleer nw~
MJemeve keâer ef›eâÙeeefJeefOe (Mechanism of Respiration)
MJemeve keâer Øeef›eâÙee meeceevÙele: oes heoeW cebs hetjer nesleer nw~
 iueeFkeâesefueefmeme,
 ›eâsyme Ûe›eâ~
iueeFkeâesefueefmeme (Glycolysis)-Fme ÛejCe cebs iuetkeâespe kesâ Skeâ DeCeg mes heeF®efJekeâ Decue kesâ oes DeCegDeeW keâe efvecee&Ce
neslee nw~ FmeceW Dee@keämeerpeve keâer DeeJeMÙekeâlee veneR nesleer~ Dele: Ùen Dee@keämeer MJemeve Je Devee@keämeer MJemeve, oesveeW ceW Skeâ pewmee
neslee nw~ Ùen hetje ÛejCe keâesefMekeâe-õJÙe ceW hetje neslee nw.
meyemes henues iuetkeâespe keâe Skeâ DeCeg ATP kesâ oes DeCegDeeW keâes
Øe&hle keâjkesâ øeâkeäšespe 1,6-[eFHe=âmHesâš veecekeâ Ùeewefiekeâ yeveelee nw
efpememes Heâe@mHeâes-efiuemejwefu[neF[ kesâ 2 DeCeg Øeehegle nesles nQ~
Heâe@mHeâesefiuejwefue[neF[ mes HeâemHeâesefiuemeefjkeâ Decue yevelee nw pees
Devlele: heeF®efJekeâ Decue cebs yeoue peelee nw.
iueeFkeâesefueefmeme kesâ hetjs ÛejCe ceW ATP kesâ oes DeCeg KeÛe& nesles
nQ Je Ûeej ATP kesâ DeCeg yeveles nQ~ Fme Øekeâej Fme ÛejCe cebs oes ATP
kesâ DeCegDeeW keâe ueeYe neslee nw.
›eâsyme Ûe›eâ ( Kreb's Cycle)-Fme ÛejCe keâer meejer
DeefYeef›eâÙeeSB ÙetkewâefjÙeesšer peerJeeW ceb ceeFšeskeâe@eCf [^Ùee ceW leLee he6kewâefjÙeesšer
peerJeeW ceW keâesefMekeâe õJÙe ceW mechevve nesleer nw~ Fmekeâe helee Jew%eeefvekeâ
nwvme ›eâsyme (Hans Krebs) ves ueieeÙee Lee~ FmeueerF me hetjs Ûe›eâ
keâes ›eâsyme Ûe›eâ keânles nQ~
Fme ÛejCe ceW iueeFkeâesefuememe mes Øeehle heeF®efJekeâ Decue kesâ oesveeW DeDeCegDeeW keâe Dee@keämeerpeve keâer GheefmLeefle ceW hetCe&
Dee@keämeerkeâjCe neslee nw~ Fme ÛejCe ceW nesves Jeeues ØecegKe heefjJele&ve efvecve Øekeâej nQ –
 ›eâsyme Ûe›eâ ceW ØeJesMe keâjves mes henues heeF®efJekeâ Deceue mes CO2 keâkesâ Skeâ DeCeg keâe leLee oes neF[^espeve hejceeCegDeeW keâe
efJeceesÛeve neslee nw~ yeÛee ngDee DeCeg, keâesSvpeeFce Skeâ mes mebÙegkeäle neskeâj SmeeršeFue keâesSvpeeFce (Acetyl coenzyme
A) yeveelee nw~

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 SsmeeršeFue keâesSÑdpeeFce A Deye keâesefMekeâe ceW GheefmLele Dee@keäpewuees Smeerefškeâ Decue Je peue mes ef›eâÙee keâjkesâ meeFefš^keâ Decue
yeveelee nw~

 meeFefš^keâ Decue keâe ›eâsyme Ûe›eâ ceW Oeerjs-Oeerjs keâF& FefYeef›eâÙeeDeeW kesâ ceceeOÙece mes ›eâceyeæ efJeIešve neslee nw~ Fve
DeefYeef›eâÙeeDeeW kesâ HeâuemJe¤he keâF& ceOÙeJeleea Decue yeveles nQ (pewmes, Dee@keäpewueesmeefkeämeefvekeâ Decue, DeuHeâe-keâeršesiuetšsefjkeâ
Decue, meefkeämeefvekeâ Decue, HeäÙetcesefjkeâ Decue, cewefuekeâ Decue)~ Fve heefjJele&veeW kesâ oewjeve CO2 kesâ 2 DeCeg Je neF[^espeve
kesâ 8 hejceeCeg cegkeäle nesles nQ~
 Devle ceW ceewefuekeâ Decue keâe heefjJele&ve Dee@keäpewueesSsefmeefškeâ Decue (Oxiioacetic acid) ceW nes peelee nw~ Ùen hegve: otmejs
heeFj®efJekeâ Decue kesâ DeCeg kesâ meeLe mebÙegkeäle neskeâj ›eâsyme Ûe›eâ ceW hegve: ØeJesMe keâjlee nw~
 Dee@keämeerpeve keâer DevegheefmLeefle ceW ›eâsyme Ûe›eâ keâer DeefYeef›eâÙeeSB mecYeJe veneR nesleer leLee heeF®efJekeâ Decue mes SefLeue
Sukeâesne@ue (Ùee DevÙe keâesF& keâeye&efvekeâ heoeLe&) Je CO2 yeveles nQ~

iuetkeâespe

iueeFkeâesefueefmeme

heeF®efJekeâ Decue

Dee@keämeer MJemeve Devee@keämeer MJemeve

CO + H O + Tpee&
2 2 C H OH+CO + Tpee&
2 2 2

iueeFkeâesefueefmeme (Glycolysis) ›eâsyme Ûe›eâ (Krebs Cycle)

1. Deveekeämeer MJemeve Øe›eâFÙee 1. Deekeämeer MJemeve Øeef›eâÙee
2. keâesefMekeâeõJÙe (Cytoplasm) ceW neslee nw~ 2. ceeFšeskeâe@efv[^Ùe (Mitochondria) ceW neslee nw.
3. iueyetkeâespe keâes heeF®efJekeâ Decue (Pyruvic Acdid) 3. heeF®efJekeâ Decue (Pyruvic Acdi) keâes CO2 leLee peueJee<he
cebs heefjJee|lele keâjlee nw~
4. keâce Tpee& keâe Glheeove 4. GÛÛe Tpee& Glheeove~

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veesš–iueeFkeâesefueefmeme (Glycolysis) Deekeämeer Je Deveekeämeer MJemeve Øeef›eâÙee ceW meefcceefuele ÛejCe nQ~
 MJemeve ceW Tpee& Glheeove (Energy Production)
Tpee& Glheeove
iuetkeâespe (Glucose)  heeÙe®Jesš Decue (Pyruvate Acid) = 8 ATP
heeF®efJekeâ Decue  SefmešeFue - CoA = 6 ATP
24 ATP
›eâsyme Ûe›eâ = 38 ATP

MJemeve keâe efveÙeceve (Regulation Of Respiration)

 ceeveJe ceW Deheves Mejerj kesâ TlekeâeW keâer ceeb iekesâ Deveg¤he MJemeve keâer ueÙe keâes meblegefuele Deewj efmLej yeveeS jKeves keâer Skeâ
cenlJehetCe& #ecelee nw~ Ùen efveÙeceve lebef$ekeâe leb$e ÉHeâeje mebhevve neslee nw~
 ceefmle<keâ kesâ ces[dÙetuee #es$e ceW Skeâ efJeefMe<š MJemeve ueÙekeWâõ efJeÅeceeve neslee nw, pees cegKÙe ¤he mes MJemeve kesâ efveÙeceve kesâ
efueS GòejoeÙeer neslee nw~
 ceefmle<keâ kesâ heeWme #es$e ceW Skeâ DevÙe keWâõ efmLele neslee nw efpemes MJeemeØeYeeJeer (Pneumotaxic) keWâõ keânles nQ pees MJemeve
ueÙekeWâõ kesâ keâeÙeeX keâes mebÙele (megOeej) keâj mekeâlee nw~ Fme keWâõ kesâ lebef$ekeâe mebkesâle Deble:MJemeve keâer DeJeefOe keâes keâce keâj
mekeâles nQ Deewj Fme Øekeâej ßemeve oj (Respiratory rate) keâes heefjJee|lele keâj mekeâles nQ~
 ueÙekeWâõ kesâ heeme Skeâ jmeesmebJesoer (Chemosensitive) keWâõ ueÙekeWâõ kesâ efueS Deefle mebJesoer neslee nw, pees CO2 Deewj
neF[^espeve DeeÙeveeW kesâ efueS Deefle mebJesoer neslee nw~
- Fve heoeLeeX keâer Je=efæ mes Ùen keWâõ meef›eâÙee neskeâj ßemeve Øeef›eâÙee ceW DeeJeMÙekeâ meceeÙeespe[ve keâjlee nw, efpememes Ùes
heoeLe& efve<keâeefmele efkeâS pee mekeWâ~
 ceneOeceveer Ûeehe (Aortic arch) Deewj «eerJee Oeceveer (Carotid artery) mes pegÌ[er mebJesoer mebjÛeveeSb Yeer CO2 Deewj H+
meebõlee kesâ heefjJele&ve keâer henÛeeve mekeâles nQ leLee GheÛeejelcekeâ keâeÙe&Jeener nsleg ueÙekeWâõ keâes DeeJeMÙekeâ mebkesâle os mekeâles
nQ~ MJemeve ueÙe kesâ efveÙeceve ceW Dee@keämeerpeve keâer Yetefcekeâe yengle ner cenlJenerve nw~
MJemeve kesâ efJekeâej (Respiratory Disorders)
 ocee (Asthma)–ceW MJemeveer (Bronchi) Deewj MJemeefvekeâeDeeW (Branchioles) keâer MeesLe kesâ keâejCe MJemeve kesâ meceÙe
IejIejenš nesleer nw leLee MJeeme uesves ceW keâef"veeF& nesleer nw~
 MJemeveer MeesLe (Bronchitis)–Ùen MJemeveer keâer meesLe nw efpemekesâ efJeMes<e ue#eCe MJemeveer ceW metpeve leLee peueve nesvee nw
efpememes iewme efJeefveceÙe melen Ieš peeleer nw~ OetceÇheeve Fmekesâ cegKÙe keâejkeâeW ceW Skeâ nw~
 JÙeeJemeeefÙekeâ MJemeve jesie (Occupational Respiratory Disease)–kegâÚ GÅeesieeW ceW efJeMes<ekeâj peneB helLej keâer
efIemeeF& - efhemeeF& Ùee leesÌ[ves keâe keâeÙe& neslee nw, JeneB Flekeâves Oetue keâCe efvekeâueles nQ efkeâ Mejerj keâer megj#ee ØeCeeueer GvnW
hetjer lejn efve<ØeYeeJeer veneR keâj heeleer~ oerIe&keâeueerve ØeYeeJeve MeesLe Glhevve keâj mekeâlee nw efpevesme jsMeeceÙelee (jsMeerÙe
TlekeâeW keâer ØeÛegjlee) nesleer nw, efpemekesâ HeâuemJe¤he HesâHeâÌ[eW keâes iebYeerj vegkeâmeeve nes mekeâlee nw~ Fve GÅeesieoeW kesâ ßeefcekeâeW
keâes ceemkeâ keâe ØeÙeesie keâjvee ÛeeefnS.
mcejCeerÙe leLÙe–
 MJemeve Skeâ Ssmeer ef›eâÙee nw, efpemeceW Tpee& cegkeäle kesâ efueS KeeÅe keâe DeekeämeerkeâjCe neslee nw~
 MJemeve keâe ØeLece ÛejCe MJeeme uesvee nw, efpemeceW O2 «enCe efkeâÙee peelee nw, efpemekesâ efueS heeohe jbOeÇ SJeb cetuejesceeW
(Roothair) keâe Deewj ØeeCeer MJemeve DebieeW keâe ØeÙeesie keâjles nQ~
 MJemeve kesâ DevÙe ÛejCe nQ TlekeâeW (Tissue) ceW MJemeve iewmeeW keâe efJeefveceÙe SJeb keâesefMekeâerÙe MJemeve efpemeceW iuegkeâespe kesâ
DeekeämeerkeâjCe Éeje Tpee& Je CO2 cegkeäle nesleer nw~
 JeeÙeJeerve MJemeve (Aerobic Respiration) Dee@keämeerpeve keâer GheefmLeefle ceW nesleer nw~

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 O2 keâer DevegheefmLeefle cebs DeeJeeÙeJeerÙe MJemeve (Anaerobic Respiration) keâer Øeef›eâÙee nesleer nw~
 kesâÛegS (Earthworm) ceW MJemeve lJeÛee Éeje neslee nw, peyeefkeâ DeefOekeâlej keâMes®efkeâÙeeW ceW Ùen HegâhHegâme (Lung) Éeje
neslee nw~
 ceveg<ÙeeW kesâ MJemeve leb$e ceW veemee Éeje (Nostril), veemee iegne (nasal Cavity), MJeemeveueer (Trachea), MJemeveer
(Bronchi) SJeb kegâefhekeâeDeeW (Alveoli) ceW meceehle nesves Jeeueer MJemeefvekeâeSB nQ~
 MJeeme uesles meceÙe [eÙeøeâece( Diaphragm) SJeb hemeefueÙeeW mes pegÌ[er hesefMeÙeeb mebkegâefÛele Je efMeefLeefuele nesleer nw, efpememes
Je#e iegne kesâ Deekeâej ceW heefjJele&ve neslee nw~
 jkeäle HegâhHegâme mes TlekeâeW kesâ yeerÛe MJemeve iewmeeW keâe heefjJenve Dee@keämeerpeve SJeb keâeye&ve [eF& Dee@keämeeF[ efJeefveceÙe kesâ yeeo
keâjles nQ~
 MJemeve Øeef›eâÙee ceW Tpee& Glheeove iueeFkeâesefueefmeme (Glycloysis) leLee ›eâsyÙe Ûe›eâ (Krebs Cycle) Éeje neslee nw~
DeefOekeâlece Tpee& Glheeove ›eâsyme Ûe›eâ kesâ oewjeve neslee nw~


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„¦Ôã•ããê „¦¹ã㪠†Ìãâ ãä¶ãÓ‡ãŠãÔã¶ã (Excretory Products & its Excretion)

ØeeCeer GheeheÛeerÙe DeLeJee lÙeefOekeâ Deble:«enCe pewmeer ef›eâÙeeDeeW Éeje DeceesefveÙee, ÙetefjÙee, Ùetefjkeâ Decue, keâeye&ve[eF&Dee@keämeeF[,
peue Deewj DevÙe DeeÙeve pewmes meesef[Ùece, heesšwefmeÙece, keäueesjerve, Heâe@mHesâš, meuHesâš Deeefo keâe mebÛeÙe keâjles nQ~ ØeeefCeÙeeW Éeje Fve
heoeLeeX keâe hetCe&leÙee Ùee DeebefMekeâ ¤he mes efve<keâemeve DeeJeMÙekeâ nw~
 neefvekeâejkeâ DeheefMe<š heoeLe& keâer DeefOekeâ cee$ee keâes Mejerj mes efve<keâeefmele keâjves kesâ pewefJekeâ Øe›eâce keâes Glmepe&ve
(Exretion) keânles nQ~
 Mejerj cebs peue keâer efÛele cee$ee leLee GHeâheÙe&gkeäle DeeÙeveeW keâe meblegueve yeveeÙes jKevee hejemejCe efveÙeceve (Osmoregu-
lation) keânueelee nw~
 Glmepe&ve leLee hejemejCe efveÙeceve meeLe-meeLe Ûeueles jnles nQ, FvnW mebgheeefole keâjves Jeeues Debie leb$e keâes cet$e leb$e
(Urinary System) Ùee Glmepe&ve leb$e (Excretory System) keânles nQ~
 ØeeefCeÙeeW Éeje Glmee|pele nesves Jeeues veeFš^espevee DeheefMe<šeW ceW cegKÙe ¤he mes DeceesefveÙee, ÙetefjÙee Deewj Ùetefjkeâ nQ~
DeceesefveÙee (Ammonia) –
- FveceW DeceesefveÙee meJee&efOekeâ DeeefJe<e (Toxic) nw Deewj Fmekesâ efve<keâemeve kesâ efueS DelÙeefOekeâ peue keâer DeeJeMÙekeâlee
nesleer nw~
- Ùetefjkeâ Decue (Uric Acid) keâce DeeefJe<e nw Deewj peue keâer keâce cee$ee kesâ meeLe efve<keâeefmele efkeâÙee pee mekeâlee nw~
- DeceesefveÙee kesâ Glmepe&ve keâer Øeef›eâÙee keâes DeceesefveÙeeslmeie& Øeef›eâÙee keânles nQ~ Deveskeâ DeefmLeue ceÚefueÙeeB, GYeÙeÛej
Deewj peueerÙe keâerš DeceesefveÙee Glmepeea Øeke=âefle kesâ nQ~ DeceesefveÙee mejuelee mes IegueveMeerue nw, FmeefueS Deemeeveer mes
DeceesefveÙece DeeÙeveeW kesâ ¤he ceW Mejerj keâer melen Ùee ceÚefueÙeeW kesâ keäueesce (Gill) keâer melen mes efJemejCe Éeje
Glmee|pele nes peeles nQ~ Fme Glmepe&ve ceW Jee@òe keâer keâesF& Dence Yetecf ekeâe veneR nesleer nw~ Fve ØeeefCeÙeeW keâes DeceesefveÙeeGlmepeea
(Ammonatelic) keânles nQ~
ÙetefjÙee (Urea)
 mLeueerÙe DeeJeeme ceW Devegketâueve nsleg, peue keâer neefve mes yeÛeves kesâ efueS ØeeCeer keâce DeeefJe<e veeFš^espeveer DeheefMe<šeW pewmes
Ùetefjkeâ Decue keâe Glmepe&ve keâjles nQ~ mleveOeejer, keâF& mLeueer GYeÙeÛej Deewj mecegõer ceÚefueÙeeB cegKÙele: ÙetefjÙee keâe
Glmepe&ve keâjles nQ Deewj ÙetefjÙeeGlmepeea (Uriotelic) keânueeles nQ~ Fve ØeeefCeÙeeW ceW GheeheÛeÙeer ef›eâÙeeDeeW Éeje efvee|cele
DeceesefveÙee keâes Ùeke=âle Éeje ÙetefjÙee cebs heefjJee|lele keâj jkeäle ceW cegkeäle keâj efoÙe peelee nw, efpemes Je=keäkeâeW Éeje efvemÙebove
(Filtration) kesâ heMÛeeled Glmee|pe lekeâj efoÙee peelee nw~
Glmepeea Debie
pJeeuee keâesefMekeâeSB (Flame Cells) – huesšer nwuceerveLeerpe
jsvesš keâesefMekeâeSB (Renette Cells) – SmkesânsefuceveLeerpe
vesøeâeref[Ùee (nephridia) – Svesefue[e
kesâyej keâe Debie (Kebrer's Organ) – ceesuemkeâe (ÙetefveÙees)
cewuheerefIeÙeve veefuekeâeSB (malpighian tubules) – keâerš (DeeLjeshees[e)
keâeskeämeue «ebefLeÙeeB (Coxcal gland) – ›eâmšsefMeÙeve (Øee@ve)
keäueesjsieesieve keâesefMekeâe (Chloragogen Cell) – keWâÛegDee

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Ùetefjkeâ Decue (Uric acid)

 mejerme=heeW, heef#eÙeeW, mLeueerÙe IeeWIeeW leLee keâeršeW ceW veeFš^espeveer DeheefMe<š Ùetefjkeâ Decue keâe Glmepe&ve, peue keâer keâce cee$ee
kesâ meeLe ieesefuekeâeDeeW Ùee hesmš kesâ ¤he cebs neslee nw Deewj Ùes ÙetjkeâDecueGlemjpeer (Uricotelic) keânueeles nQ~ ØeeCeer peiele
cebs keâF& Øekeâej kesâ Glmepeea Debie heeS peeles nQ~ DeefOekeâebMe DekeâMes®efkeâÙeeW ceW Ùen mebjÛevee mejue efveuekeâekeâej ¤he cebs nesleer
nw, peyeefkeâ keâMes®efkeâÙeeW ceW peefšue veefuekeâekeâej Debie nesles nQ, efpevnW Je=keäkeâ keânles nQ~ Fve mebjÛeveeb kesâ ØecegKe ¤he veerÛes
efoS ieS nQ-
- DeeefoJe=keäkeâkeâ (Protonephridia) Ùee pJeeuee keâesefMekeâeSB huesefšnsefuceLe (Ûehešs ke=âefce pewmes huewvesefjÙee), je@F&Heâj kegâÚ
Svesefue[, efmeHesâueeskeâe@[xš efo ceW Glmepeea mebjÛevee kesâ ¤he cebs heeS peeles nQ~ DeeefoJe=keäkeäkeâ ØeeLeceWkeâ ¤he mes DeeÙeveeW Je
õJe kesâ DeeÙeleve-efveÙeceve pewmes hejemejCeefveÙeceve (Osmotic Regulation) mes mebyebefOele nQ~
- keWâÛegS Je DevÙe Svesefue[ ceW veefuekeâekeâej Glmepeea Debie Je=keäkeâkeâ (Nephridia) heeS peeles nQ~ Je=keäkeâkeâ veeFš^espeveer
DeheefMe<šeW keâes Glmee|pe keâjves leLee õJe Deesj DeeÙeveeW keâe meblegueve yeveeS jKeves ceW meneÙelee keâjles nQ~
- efleueÛešdšeW (Cockroach) meefnle DeefOekeâebMe keâeršeW ceW Glemepeea Debie kesâ ¤yehe cebs cewueheerieer veefuekeâeSb heeF& peeleer
nQ~ cewueheerieer veefuekeâeSb (malpighian Tubules) veeFš^espeveer
DeheefMe<šeW kesâ Glmepe&ve Deewj hejemejCeefveÙeceve (Osmotic
Regulation) ceW ceoo keâjleer nQ~ PeeRiee Prawn) pewm es
›eâmšsefMeÙeeF& ØeeefCeÙeeWceW ßeb=efie «ebefLeÙeeB (Antinolongoid) Ùee
nefjle «ebefLeÙeeB Glmepe&ve keâe keâeÙe& keâjleer nQ
ceeveJe Glmepe&ve leb$e (Human Excretory System)
 ceveg<ÙeeW ceW Glmepeea leb$e Skeâ peesÌ[er Je=keäkeâ (Kidney), Skeâ peesÌ[[er
cet$e veefuekeâe (Ureter), Skeâ cet$eeMeÙe, (Urinary Bladder) Deewj
Skeâ cet$e ceeie& (Urinary Tract) keâe yevee neslee nw~
 Je=keäkeâ Goj iegne cebs Deebleefjkeâ he=<" melen hej efmLele nesles nQ~ Je=keäkeâ
kesâ kesâvõerÙe Yeeie keâer Yeerlejer DeJeleue (Concave) melen kesâ ceOÙe
ceW Skeâ KeebÛe nesleer nw, efpemes neFuece (Hylum) keânles nQ~
- Fmes neskeâj cet$e-efveueekeâ, jkeäle JeeefnefveÙeeB Deewj lebef$ekeâeb ØeJesMe
keâjleer nQ~ neFuece kesâ Yeerlejer Deesj keâerhe kesâ Deekeâej keâe jÛevee
nesleer nw efpemes Je=keäkeâerÙe ßeesefCe (Pelvis) keânles nQ leLee memes
efvekeâueves Jeeues Øe#esheeW (Projection) keâes Ûe<ekeâ (Calyx) keânles
nQ~
- Je=keäkeâ keâer yeenjer melen hej oe@Ì{ mebhegš neslee nw~ Je=keäkeâ ceW oes
Yeeie nesles nQ - yeenjer Jeukegâš (Cortex) Deewj Yeerleerj ceOÙeebMe
(medulla)~ ceOÙeebMe kegâÚ Me<ebkeäJeekeâej efhejeefce[ (ceOÙeebMe
efhejeefce[) cebs yeBše neslee nw pees efkeâ Ûe<ekeâeW ceWve Hewâues jnles nQ~
Jeukegâš ceOÙeebMe efhejeefce[ (Mid cortex pyramid) kesâ yeerÛe Hewâuekeâj Je=keäkeâ keâe mlebYe yeveeles nQ, efpevnW yejleerveer
mlebYe (Columns of Bertini) keânles nQ~
 ØelÙeskeâ Je=keäkeâ ceW ueieYeie 10 ueeKe peefšue veefuekeâekeâej mebjveÛee Je=keäkeâeCeg (Nephron) heeF& peeleer nw pees ef›eâÙeelcekeâ
FkeâeFÙeeB nQ~

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- ØelÙeskeâ Jee@keäkeâeCeg kesâ oes Yeeie nesles nQ~ efpevnW iegÛÚ (Glomerulus) Deewj Je=keäkeâ veefuekeâe OeceefvekeâeDeeW (Afferent
arteiole) mes yeveer keâesefMekeâeDeeW (Capillaries) keâe Skeâ iegÛÚ nw~ iueesces¤ueme mes jkeäle DeheJeener Oeceefvekeâe
(Efferent arteriole) Éeje ues peeÙee peelee nw~
cet$e efvecee&Ce (Urnie Formation)
cet$e keâe yevevee –
 iegox kesâ ØekeâeÙe& keâe efvemhevove - hegvemJemees<Ce - m$eJeCe& (Fiteration - Reabsorption - Secretion) efmeæeble cet$e kesâ
yeveves keâer DeeOegefvekeâ OeejCee keâes mecePeelee nw~
 cet$e efvecee&Ce ceW 3 cegKÙe Øeef›eâÙeeSB meefcceefuele nQ - iegÛÚerÙe efvemÙebove (Glomerular Filtration), hegve: DeJemees<eCe
(Reabsorption), m$eJeCe (Secretion) pees Je=keäkeâeCeg kesâ efJeefYevve YeeieeW ceW neslee nw~
 cet$e efvecee&Ce kesâ ØeLece ÛejCe ceW keâesefMekeâeiegÛÚ Éeje jkeäle keâe efvemÙeboove neslee nw efpemes iegÛÚ Ùee iegÛÚerÙe efvemÙebove
keânles nQ~
veesš– Je=keäkeâeW Éeje Øeefle efceveš Deewmeleve 1100-1200 efceueer.jkeäle keâe efvemÙebove efkeâÙee peelee nw pees efkeâ ùoÙe Éeje Skeâ efceveš
ceW efvekeâeues ieS jkeäle keâes 1/5 JeW Yeeie kesâ yejeyej neslee nw~
 yeescesve mebhegš (Bowmans Capsule) keâer hekeâuee hees[esmeeFšdme keânueeleer nw,
pees efJeMes<e Øekeâej mes efJevÙeefmele nesleer nQ, efpememes kegâÚ Úesšs-Úesšs DeJekeâeMe yeerÛe
ceW jn peeles nQ~ FvnW KeebÛe efÚõ (Slitpore) keânles nQ~
- Fve efPeefuueÙeeW mes ®efOej Fleveer DeÛÚer lejn Úvelee nw efkeâ efpememes ¤efOej kesâ
hueepcee keâer Øeesšerve keâes ÚesÌ[keâj hueepcee keâe Mes<eYeeie Úve keâj mebhegš
(Capsule) keâer iegne ceW Fkeâªe nes peelee nw~ FmeefueS Fmes heeje -efvemÙebove
(Ultra Filtration) keânles nQ~
veesš– Je=keäkeâeW Éeje Øeefle efceveš efvemÙebefole keâer ieF& cee$ee iegÛÚerÙe efvemÙebove oj (Glomerular Fltration Rate–GFR)
keânueeleer nw~ Skeâ mJemLe JÙeefkeäle cebs Ùen oj 125 efceefue. Øeefle efcešve DeLee&led 180 ueeršj Øeefle efove nw~
 Øeefleefove yeveves Jeeues efvemÙebo kesâ DeeÙeleve (180 ueeršj Øeefle efove) keâer Glmee|pele cet$e (1.5 ueeršj) mes leguevee keâer peeS
lees Ùen mecePee pee mekeâlee nw efkeâ 99 ØeefleMele efvemÙebo (Flteration) keâes Je=keäkeâ veefuekeâeDeeW Éeje hegve: DeJeMeesef<ele efkeâÙee
peelee nw efpemes hegve:DeJeMees<eCe (Reabsorption) keânles nQ~ Ùen keâeÙe& Je=keäkeâ veefuekeâe meef›eâÙe DeLeJee efveef<›eâÙe ef›eâÙeeefJeefOe
Éeje keâjleer nw~
- GoenjCeeLe& efvemÙebo heoeLe& pewmes iuetkeâespe, Sceervees Decue, Na+ FlÙeeefo meef›eâÙe ¤he mes heefjJenve mes hegvejeJeMeesef<ele
keâj efueS peeles nQ; peyeefkeâ veeš^espeveer efveef<›eâÙe ¤he mes DeJemeesef<ele nesles nQ~ Je=keäkeâeCeg kesâ ØeejbefYekeâ Yeeie cebs peue keâe
hegvejeJeMees<eCe efveef<›eâÙe ef›eâÙeeefJeefOe efkeâÙee Éeje neslee nw~ cet$e efvecee&Ce kesâ oewjeve veefuekeâekeâej keâesefMekeâeSb efvemÙebo
ceW H+, K+ Deewj DeceesefveÙee pewmes heoeLeËes keâes ßeefJele keâjleer nQ~ veefuekeâekeâej ßeJeCe Yeer cet$e efvecee&Ce keâe Skeâ cegKÙe
ÛejCe nw; keäÙeeWefkeâ Jen Meejerefjkeâ lejue DeeÙeveer Je Decue-#eej meblegueve keâes yeveeS jKelee nw~
Je=keäkeâ ef›eâÙeeDeeW keâe efveÙeceve (Regulation of Kidney Functions)
 Je=keäkeâeW keâer ef›eâÙeeefJeefOe keâe efveÙeb$eCe Deewj efveÙeceve neFheeslewuesceme (Hypathalamus) kesâ neceexve keâer hegveYe&jCe ef›eâÙeeefJeefOe,
(meeefvveOÙe iegÛÚ GhekeâjCe), (pespeerS) Deewj kegâÚ meercee lekeâ ùoÙe Éeje neslee nw~
 Mejerj ceW GheefmLele hejemejCe «eeefnÙeeB jkeäle DeeÙeleve/Mejerj lejue DeeÙeleve Deewj DeeÙeveer meebõCe cebs yeoueeJe Éeje
meef›eâÙe nesleer nw~ Mejerj mes cet$e Éeje peue keâe DelÙeefOekeâ nÇeme, cet$euelee (Diuresis) Fve «eeefnÙeeW keâes meef›eâÙe keâjlee
nw, efpemesme neFheesL ewuesceme Øeefl ecet$eue neve& (Sbšer[ eFÙetjsefškeâ neceexve) ( ADH) Deewj vÙetjesn eheesH eâeFefmeme
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(Neurohyphophisis) keâes JewmeesØesefmeve (Vassopressin) kesâ m$eeJe nsleg Øesefjle keâjlee nw.
- ADH veefuekeâe kesâ Debeflece Yeeie cebs peue kesâ hegvejeJeMees<eCe keâes megiece yeveelee nw Deewj cet$euelee keâes jeskeâlee nw~ Mejerj
lejue kesâ DeeÙeleve ceW Je=efæ hejemeCe «eefnÙeeW keâes efveef<›eâÙe keâj osleer nw Deewj hegveYe&jCe keâes hetje keâjves kesâ efueS ADH
kesâ m$eJeCe keâe efvejesOe keâjleer nw~ ADH Je=keäkeâ kesâ keâeÙeeX keâes jkeäle JeeefnefveÙeeW hej mebkegâÛeveer ØeYeejeW Éeje Yeer
ØeYeeefJele keâjlee nw. Fmemes jkeäle oeye yeÌ{ peelee nw~ jkeäleoeye yeÌ{ peeves mes iegÛÚ ØeJeen yeÌ{ peelee nw Deewj Fmemes
GFR yeÌ{ peelee nw~
 JGA keâer peefšue efveÙecevekeâejer Yetefcekeâe nw~ JGA keâesefMekeâeSB meef›eâÙee neskeâj jsefveve keâes cegkeäle keâjleer nQ~ jsefveve
(Renin) jkeäle ceW GheefmLele SWefpeDeesšeW mf eveespeve (Angeogntecenogenin) keâes Sbepf eÙeesšWefmeve-I Deewj yeeo cebs Sbepf eÙeesšWefmeve-
II cebs yeoue osleer nw~
- SbpesÙeesšWefmeve-II Skeâ ØeYeeJekeâejer Jeeefnkeâe mebkeâerCe&keâ (Vasocanstrictor) nw pees iegÛÚerÙe ¤efOej oeye leLee GFR
keâes yeÌ{e oslee nw~ SbpeesÙeesšWefmeve efÉleerÙe DeefOeJe=keäkeâ Jeukegâš (Adrenal Cortex) keâes Su[esmšerjesve (Aldesterone)
neceexve m$eJeCe kesâ efueS Øesefjle keâjlee nw~
- Su[esmšerjesve kesâ keâejCe veefuekeâe kesâ otjmLe Yeeie cebs na+ leLee peue keâe hegvejeJeMees<eCe nesleen ~ Fmemes Yeer jkeäle
oeye leLee peerSHeâDeej ceW Je=efæ nesleer nw~ Ùen peefšue ef›eâÙeeefJeefOe jsefveve SbefpeÙeesšWefmeve ef›eâÙeeefJeefOe keânueeleer nw~
 ùoÙe kesâ DeeEueoeW ceW DeefOekeâ ¤efOej kesâ yeneJe mes DeeEueheoerÙe vesefš^Ùesjsefškeâ keâejkeâ (ANF) m$eefJele neslee nw~ SSveSHeâ mes
jkeäle JeeefnkeâeDeeW keâe HewâueeJe neslee nw efpememes jkeäle oeye keâce nes peelee nw~ Fme Øekeâej mes SSveSHeâ ef›eâÙeeefJeefOe hej
efveÙeb$ekeâ keâe keâece keâjlee nw~
cet$eCe (Urination)
 Skeâ JeÙemkeâ ceveg<Ùe Øeefleefove Deewmeleve 1-1.5 ueeršj cet$e Glmee|pele keâjlee nw~ cet$e Skeâ efJeMes<e iebOe Ùegkeäle peueerJe lejue
nw, pees jbie cebs nukeâe heeruee leLee LeesÌ[e DecueerÙe (ph-6) neslee nw~ Deewmeleve Øeefleefove 25-30 «eece ÙetefjÙee keâe Glmepe&ve
neslee nw~ efJeefYevve DeJemLeeSB cet$e keâer efJeMes<eleeDeeW keâes ØeYeeefJele keâjleer nQ~
 cet$e keâe efJeMues<eCe Je=keäkeâeW (Kidney) kesâ keâF& GheeheÛeÙeer efJekeâejeW Deewj Gvekesâ "erkeâ mes keâeÙe& ve keâjves keâes kegbâmeef›eâÙee pewmes
jesie efveoeve ceW ceoo keâjlee nw~ GoenjCe kesâ efueS cet$e ceW iuetkeâesme keâer GheefmLeefle (Glycosuria) leLee keâeršesve keâeÙe keâer
GheefmLeefle (Kytoneuria) ceOegcesn (Diabetes Melitus) kesâ ue#eCe nw~
hejemejCe efveÙeceve (Osmoregulation)
 hejemejCe efveÙeceve (Osmoregulation) Mejerj kesâ Deboj peue keâer cee$ee leLee DeeÙeve meebõCe (ion concentration) keâes
efveÙebef$ele keâjves keâe Øe›eâce nw~
 hejemejCe efveÙeceve peblegDeeW kesâ DeeJeeme (habitat) mes pegÌ[e ngDee nw~
(a) DeueJeCeerÙe peue kesâ pevleg (Freshwater Animals)–DeueJeCeerÙe peue ceW jnves Jeeues pevleg DelÙeefOekeâ cee$ee ceW
cegKe Deewj lJeÛee Éeje peue«enCe keâjles nQ~
- GvnW DeheefMe<š heoeLe& kesâ efve<keâemeve kesâ efueS heÙee&hle cee$ee ceW peue keâer DeeJeMÙekeâlee nesleer nw~
(b) mecegõer pevleg (Marine Animals)–mecegõer pevleg SJeb ceveg<Ùe meefnle DevÙe mLeueerÙe pevleg (tedrrestrial Animal)
ceW peue mebj#eCe keâer heÙee&hle DeeJeMÙekeâlee nesleer nw~
- Dele: Glmepe&ve leb$e peue keâe hegve: DeJemees<eCe keâjlee nw.
- Deefleefjkeäle peue keâe efve<keâemeve Ùee DeJemees<eCe (Reabsorption) neceexve kesâ efveÙeb$eCe ceW jnlee nw~
 Je=keäkeâ keâe keâeÙe& DeJeefMe<š heoeLeËes kesâ efve<keâemeve kesâ DeueeJee Mejerj kesâ Deboj peue leLee Keefvepe DeeÙeve kesâ mlej keâes Yeer
efveÙebef$ele keâjvee nw~
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[eÙeefueefmeme (Dialysis) [Deheesnve]] keâe efveÙece

[eÙeefueefmeme kesâ GhekeâjCe ceW mesuÙetueespe keâer uebyeer keâb[efuele veeefueÙeeb Deheesnve efJeueÙe (dialysis Solution) mes Yejer uebyeer
šbkeâer ceW ueieer nesleer nw~ peye ®efOej Fve veefueÙeeW mes ØeJeeefnle neslee nw, leye DeheefMe<š heoeLe& efJemeefjle neskeâj šbkeâer kesâ efJeueÙe
ceW Dee peeles nQ~ mJeÛÚ ®efOej jesieer kesâ Mejerj ceW hegve: Øeefj<š keâje efoÙee peelee nw~

Glmepe&ve ceW DevÙe DebieeW keâer Yetefcekeâe

 Je=keäkeâeW kesâ DeueeJee HegâhHegâme (Lungs), Ùeke=âle (Liver) Deewj lJeÛee Skin Yeer Glmepeea GheefMe<šeW keâes yeenj efvekeâeueves ceW
ceoo keâjles nQ~
 nceejs HesâHeâÌ[s Øeefleefove Yeejer cee$ee ceW CO2 (18L/Day) Deewj peue keâer heÙee&hle cee$ee keâe efve<keâemeve keâjles nQ~
 nceejs Mejerj keâer meyemes yeÌ[er «enefLe Ùeke=âle (Liver) `efheòe' (bile) keâe m$eeJe keâjleer nQ efpemeceW efyeefue¤efyeve, efyeueerefJejef[ve,
keâe@uesmš^e@ue, efvecveerke=âle mšerje@Ùe[ neceexve, efJešeefceve leLee Deew<eOe Deeefo nesles nQ~ Fve DeefOekeâebMe heoeLeeX keâes Deblele: ceue
kesâ meeLe yeenj efvekeâeue efoÙe peelee nw~
 lJeÛee ceW GheefmLele mJeso «ebefLeÙeeB (Sweat glands) leLee-«ebefLeÙeeB (Oil Glands) Yeer m$eeJe Éeje kegâÚ heoeLeËes keâe
efve<keâemeve keâjleer nQ~ mJeso «ebefLe Éeje efvekeâueves Jeeuee hemeervee Skeâ peueerÙe õJe nw, efpemeceW vecekeâ, kegâÚ cee$ee ceW
ceÙetefjÙee, uewefkeäškeâ Decue FlÙeeefo nesles nQ~ neueebefkeâ hemeerves keâe cegKÙe keâeÙe& Jee<heerkeâjCe Éeje Mejerj melen keâes "b[e
jKevee nw; uesefkeâve kegâÚ heoeLeËes kesâ Glmepe&ve cebs Yeer meneÙelee keâjlee nw~
- lesue-«ebefLeÙeeW meeryece (Sebum) Éeje kegâÚ mšsjesue, neF[^eskeâeye&ve SJeb ceesce (Wax) pewmes heoeLeeX keâe efve<keâemeve
keâjleer nQ~ Ùes m$eeJe lJeÛee keâes megj#eelcekeâ lewueerÙe keâJeÛe Øeoeve keâjles nQ~
Je=keäkeâ-efJeke=âefleÙeeB (Kidney Disorders)
 Je=keäkeâeW keâer kegbâmeef›eâÙee kesâ HeâuemJe¤he jkeäle cebs ÙetefjÙee Skeâef$ele nes peelee nw~ efpemes ÙetefjefceÙee keânles nQ pees efkeâ DelÙeble
neefvekeâejkeâ nw~ Ùen Je=keäkeâ-heele (Kidney Failure) kesâ efueS cegKeIÙe¤he mes GòejoeÙeer nw~ Fmekesâ cejerpeeW ceW ÙetefjÙee keâe
efve<keâemeve jkeäle Deheesnve (Haemodialysis) Éeje neslee nw~ jesieer keâer Oeceveer mes jkeäle efvekeâeuekeâj GmeceW efnhesefjve pewmee
keâesF& Lekeäkeâe jesOeer efceueekeâj Deheesnvekeâejer FkeâeF& (Dialytic Unit) ceW Yespee peelee n~ Fme FkeâeF& cebs kegâ[efuele mesueesHesâve
veueer nesleer nw Deewj Ùen Skeâ õJe mes efIejer jnleer nw, efpemekeâe mebie"ve veeš^espeveer DeheefMe<šeW keâes ÚesÌ[keâj hueepcee kesâ
meceeve neslee nw~ efÚõÙegkeäle mesueesHesâve efPeuueer mes Deheesnveer õJe ceW DeCegDeeW keâe DeeJeeieceve meebõ ØeJeCelee (Cocentration
Gradient) kesâ Devegmeej neslee nw. Deheesnveer õJe ceW veeFš^espeveer DeheefMe<š DevegheefmLele nesles nQ, Dele: Ùes heoeLe& yeenj keâer
Deesj ieceve keâjles nQ Deewj jkeäle keâes Megæ keâjles nQ~ Megæ jkeäle ceW nerhesefjve efJejesOeer [euekeâj, Gmes jesieer keâer efMejeDeeW Éeje
hegve: Mejerj cebs Yespe efoÙee peelee nw~ Ùen efjefOe mebmeej cebs Ùetjsefcekeâ JÙeeefOe mes npeejeW heerefÌ[leeW kesâ efueS Skeâ Jejoeve nw~
efJeefYevve pevleg SJeb GvceW Glmepe&ve
pevleg Glmepe&ve efJeefOe
Skeâ keâesefMekeâerÙe pevleg efJemejCe Éeje
heesjerHesâje mebIe kesâ pevleg efJeefMe<š veefuekeâe lev$e (Canal System) Éeje
meeruesvš^sšdme meerOes keâesefMekeâeDeeW Éeje
Ûehešs ke=âefce pJeeuee keâesefMekeâeDeeW (Flame Cells) Éeje
Sveerefue[e mebIe kesâ pevleg Je=keäkeâkeâ (Nephridia) Éeje
DeeLeexhees[me cewuheerefIeÙeve veefuekeâeDeeW Éeje

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ceesuemkeâe pevleg cet$e Debie (renal organ) Éeje

keâMes®keâer pevleg cegKÙele: Je=keäkeâ Éeje
 Je=keäkeâ keâer ef›eâÙeenervelee–keâes otj keâjves keâe Debeflece GheeÙe Je=keäkeâ ØelÙeejesheCe (Kidney Transplantation) nw~ ØelÙeejesheCe
ceW cegKÙeleÙee efvekeâš mebyebOeer oelee kesâ ef›eâÙeeMeerue Je=keäkeâ keâe GheesÙeie efkeâÙee peelee nw, efpemesme Øeehlekeâlee& keâe Øeeflej#ee
leb$e Gmes DemJeerkeâej veneR keâjs. DeeOegefvekeâ keäueerefvekeâue efJeefOeÙeeB Fme Øekeâej keâer peefšue lekeâveerkeâ meHeâuelee keâer oj keâes
yeÌ{eleer nw~
 jerveue kesâuekeâueeF&–Je=keäkeâ ceW yeveer heLejer Ùee DeIegueveMeerue ef›eâmšefuele ueJeCe kesâ eEhe[ (pewmes Dee@keämeuesš Deeefo)~
 iegÛÚ MeesLe (Glomelonephraitis)–Je=keäkeâ kesâ iegÛÚ-MeesLe keâer Øeoenkeâlee~
mcejCeerÙe leLÙe–
 Glmepe&ve (Excretion) veeFš^espeve Oeejer DeheefMe<š heoeLeeX kesâ efve<keâemeve kesâ DeueeJee Mejerj kesâ Deboj peue leLee Keefvepe
DeeÙeve kesâ mlej keâes Yeer efveÙebef$ele keâjlee nw~
 Je=keäkeâ (Kidney) Glmepe&ve Debie nw~ Ùen hejemejve efveÙeceve (Osmoregulation) kesâ efueS Yeer GòejoeÙeer nw~
 Deceeryee ceW mebkegâÛeveMeerueele efjefkeäle (Contractile Vacuole) Glmepe&ve keâe keâeÙe& keâjleer nw~
 kesâÛegS (earthworm) ceW Glmepe&ve Je=keäkeâkeâeW (Nephridia) Éeje mebhevve efkeâÙee peelee nw~
 ceveg<Ùe kesâ Glmjpeve leb$e cebs Sjkeâ Ùegice Je=keäkeâ leLee cet$e JenefveÙeeb, Skeâ cet$eeMeÙe, cet$ecee3ie&, cet$eÉej meefcceefuele neslee
nw~
 Je=keäkeâ, Je=keäkeâveefuekeâeDeeW (Nephron) keâe yevee neslee nw~ Je=keäkeâveefuekeâkeâe Glmepe&ve mebjÛeveelce Je ef›eâÙeelcekeâ FkeâeF& nw~
 ®efOej mes Je&pÙe heoeLe& (Waste) kesâ efvemhebove (Filteration) SJeb GheÙeesieer heoeLeeX kesâ hegve: DeJeMees<eCe (Reabsorp-
tion) kesâ HeâuemJe¤he yeÛes efvemhebo mes Glmepe&ve neslee nw~
 hejemejCe efveÙeceve (Osmoregulation) keâer Øeef›eâÙee Mejerj cebs peue keâer GefÛele cee$ee yeveeÙes jKeleer nw~
 Je=keäkeâ efveef<›eâÙelee keâer efmLeefle cebs [eÙeefueefmeme (Dialysis) kesâ efmeæeble hej DeeOeeefjle ke=âef$ece Je=keäkeâ (Artificial Kidney)
keâe GheÙeesie efkeâÙee peelee nw~
 jesieer kesâ Mejerj ceW efkeâmeer DevÙe mJemLe JÙeefkeäle kesâ megcesue Je=keäkeâ (matching Kidney) keâes Yeer Øeeflejesefhele efkeâÙee pee
mekeâlee nw~


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¦ãâ¨ããè‡ãŠãè¾ã ãä¶ã¾ãâ¨ã¥ã †Ìãâ Ôã½ã¶Ìã¾ã¶ã (Nervous Control & Coordination)

 mepeerJe Deheves heÙee&JejCe kesâ Øeefle Devegef›eâÙee keâjles nQ leLee ef›eâÙeeMeerue yeves jnles nQ~ heÙee&JejCeerÙe keâejkeâeWhe (GöerheveeW),
pewmes - ØeeMe T<cee, "b[ leLee oeye kesâ Øeleefo efJeefYevve peerJeeW cebs Deueie-Deueie Devegef›eâÙee nesleer nw~
 heeheo ØekeâeMe keâer Deesj cegÌ[ peeles nQ~ Deceeryee (Ameoba) Yeespeve keâer Deesj yeÌ{lee nw, nukesâ iece& peue ceW Skeâef$ele nes
peelee nw~
 Deceeryee (Ameoba) leLee ØeesšespeesDee Ùeebef$ekeâ DeJejesOe mes otj nšles nQ~
 ØeeefCeÙeeW keâer lejn DeefOekeâebMe heeoheeW cebs yee¢e Göerheve (Stimulus) keâes «enCe keâjves nsleg keâF& efJeefMe<š mebjÛeveeDeeW veneR
nesleer nw~
 yengkeâesefMekeâerÙe peerJeeW cebs Fme keâeÙe& kesâ efueS efJeefMe<ške=âle keâesefMekeâeSB heeF& peeleer nQ, efpevnW leb$ekeâesefMekeâe (Neurons)
keânles nQ~
- lebef$ekeâe leb$e keâer jÛeveelcekeâ leLee keâeÙee&lcekeâ FkeâeF& leb$e keâesefMekeâeSB (Neuron or Nerve Cells) nesleer nw.
- Ùen Deheves ÛeejeW lejHeâ mes metÛeveeSB Skeâ$e keâj Gvekeâes ØeJee|Oele (Process) SJeb efJeMuesef<ele (Interprets) keâjleer nw~
leoevegmeej Devegef›eâÙee keâjleer nw~
- lebef$ekeâe leb$e Skeâ Deebef$ekeâ leb$e mes otmejs Deebleefjkeâ leb$e lekeâ metÛeveeSb hengbÛeelee nw.
- GoenjCe: Yeespeve keâer iebOe DeLeJee mJeeo kesâ keâejCe ueej (Saliva) keâe efvekeâuevee~
 lebef$ekeâe leb$e Mejerj ceW efJeefYevve keâeÙeeX keâes efveÙebef$ele leLee meceefvJele keâjlee nw~
 neceexve leb$e (Harmone System) efJeefYevve pewefJekeâ ef›eâÙeeDeeW kesâ efveÙeb$eCe SJeb mecevJeÙe keâe keâeÙe& Deble:m$eeJeer (Endo-
crine) Ùee neceexve (Harmone) Éeje mebheeefole neslee nw~

heeoheeW ceW mecevJeÙe:

 heeoeshe cebs Je=efæ leLee ieefle keâe efveÙeefceve yeeOÙe SJeb Deebleefjkeâ oesvebes ner keâejkeâeW Éeje mebhevve neslee nw~
 heeoheeW ceW efveÙeb$eCe SJeb mecevJeÙe keâe keâeÙe& jmeeÙeefvekeâ heoeLeËes Éeje efve<heeefole neslee nw, efpevnW heeohe neceexve (Plant
Hormone) Ùee HeâeFšesneceexve (Phytoharmones) keâne peelee nw~

- heeohe neceexve kesâ efJeefYevve Øekeâej kesâ nesles nQn- Dee@efkeämeve (Auxin) efpeyejsueve (Gibberllin), meeFšeskeâeFveve
(Cytokinin), Ssefymeefmekeâ Decue (Abscisic Acid), SefLeueerve (Ethylene)~
 DevegJele&ve (Tropism)–heeoheeW DeLeJee Gvekesâ DebieeW keâe Göerheve efkeâ efoMee cebs ieefle keâjvee `DevegJele&ve' keânueelee nw.
 ØekeâeMeevegJele&ve (Phototropism)–peye keâesF& heeohe Je=efæ keâeue ceW SkeâefoMeerÙe ØekeâeMe mes Øeoerefhlele neslee nw, leye Jen
ØekeâeMe keâer efoMee ceW Pegkeâves keâer Devegef›eâÙee keâjlee nw~
 ieg®lJeevegJele&ve (Geotropism)–ieg®lJe yeue keâer ef›eâÙee mes veerÛes keâer Deesj mebÛeeueve Øeef›eâÙee keâes ieg®lJeevegJele&ve keânles
nQ~
 jmeeÙeveevegJele&ve (Chemotropism)–jmeeÙeveeW kesâ keâejCe nesves Jeeuee mebÛeeueve, pewmee efkeâ hejeieveefuekeâe (Pollen
Tube0 keâer Je=efæ kesâ meceÙe osKee pee mekeâlee nw~

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 DevegkeâbÛeve ieefleÙeeb (Nastic Movements)–kegâÚ heeoheeW ceceW

mebÛeeueve ve lees Göerheve keâer Deesj Deewj ve ner Gmesme otj neslee nw.
- GoenjCe: ÚgF&-cegF& heewOes keâer heefòeÙeeB Útves hej Pegkeâleer nQ leLee
cegÌ[keâj yebo nes peeleer nw~
 heeohe neceexve keâe mebMues<eCe leLee Fmekeâer ef›eâÙee yee¢e GöerheveeW
memes pÙeeoe ØeYeeefJele nesleer nw~
 heeoheeW kesâ efJeefYevvekeâeÙe& pewmes- peÌ[, levee, heefòeÙeeW keâer Je=efæ heg<heve,
ØekeâeMeevegJele&ve, jbOeÇerÙe ieefleÙeeW keâe efveÙeceve heeohe neceexve kesâ
meneÙelee mes neslee nw~
 oerefhlekeâeefuelee (Photoperio periodism)–heeoheeW ceW heg<heve
leLee yeerpeeW keâe Debkegâjce oerhleekeâeefuekeâ Göerheve (oerefhlekeâeue) Éeje
efveÙebef$ele neslee nw.
- oerhlekeâeefuekeâ (Photoperiodic) Göerheve kesâ Øeefle heeoheeW keâer
Devegef›eâÙee efJeefMe<š JeCe&keâ (Pigments) Éeje nesleer nw~ Fmes
heeohe JeCe&keâ (Phytochrome) keânles nQ~

heeoheeW Devegef›eâÙeeDeeW kesâ yeerÛe efveÙeb$eCe SJeb mecevJeÙe kesâ keâeÙe& cebs heeoohe
neceexve (Phytoharmone) leLee heeohe JeCe&keâ (Phytochrome)
meefcceefuele nesles nQ~

ØeeefCeÙeeW ceW mecevJeÙe

 kegâÚ ØeeefCeÙeeW ceW lebef$ekeâe peeue lebef$ekeâe hegbpe Ùee iegefÛÚkeâe (Ganglion) leLee lebef$ekeâe jppet cebs mebieef"le neskeâj Skeâ
lebef$ekeâe leb$e keâe efvecee&Ce keâjlee nw~
 GÛÛe ßesCeer DekeâMes®keâerÙeeW pewmes keâšeR ceW efÉheeefuele (Bilobed) lebef$ekeâe hegbpe (Brain) lebef$ekeâe jppet leLee lebef$ekeâe iegÛÚ
heeÙes peeles nQ~
 efJeefYevve Øekeâej keâer yee¢e metÛeveeDeeW keâes ØeeCeer efJeefMe<š mebjÛeveeDeeW Éeje «enCe keâjles nQ, efpevnW mebJesoer Debie (Receptor)
keânles nQ~
- ØekeâeMe«eener (Photoreceptor) - ØekeâeMe kesâ efueS
- ßeJeCe«eener (Phonoreceptor) - OJeefve kesâ efueS
 «eener mes efJeefMe<š Øekeâej keâes lebef$ekeâe keâesefMekeâeSb (nerve Cells) metÛeveeb keâes ceefmle<keâ lekeâ hengbÛeeleer nw, efpevnW mebJesoer
leb$e keâesefMekeâe (Sensory Neurons) keânles nQ~
 Øesjkeâ leb$e keâesefMekeâeSb (Motor Neurons) ceefmle<keâ mes metÛeveeDeeW keâes keâeÙe&keâj DebieeW lekeâ hengbÛeeleer nw~
- keâeÙe&keâejer Debie (effector organs) cegKÙele: hesefMeÙeeb leLee «ebefLeÙeeB nesleer nQ~
 ßeJeCe, Âef<š, iebOe, mJeeo, ieefle GÌ[eve leLee DeveÙed hesmeerÙe ef›eâÙeeDeeW mebyebOeer metÛeveeb keâe efJeMues<eCe ceefmle<keâ (Brain) ceW
neslee nw.
 ØeeefCeÙeeW ceW lebef$ekeâe leb$e kesâ Deefleefjkeäle efveÙeb$eCe Je mecevJeÙe ceW neceexve keâer menYeeefielee nesleer nw~ Deble: m$eeJeer
(Endocrine) «ebefLeÙeeW mes neceexve keâe m$eeJe neslee nw~

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ceeveJe Mejerj cebs yengle mes Debie SJeb Debie leb$e heeS peeles nQ pees efkeâ mJeleb$e ¤he mes keâeÙe& keâjves cebs DemeceLe& nesles nQ~ pewJe
efmLejlee yeveves nsleg Fve DebieeW kesâ keâeÙeeX ceW mecevJeÙe DelÙeefOekeâ DeeJeMÙekeâ nw. mecevJeÙelee Skeâ Ssmeer ef›eâÙeeefJeefOe nw, efpemekesâ Éeje
oes Ùee DeefOekeâ DebieeW ceW ef›eâÙeeMeeruelee yeÌ{leer nw Je Skeâ-otmejs DebieeW kesâ keâeÙeeX ceW ceoo efceueleer nw~ GoenjCeeLe&, peye nce
Meejerefjkeâ JÙeeÙeece keâjles nQ lees hesefMeÙeeW kesâ mebÛeeueve nsleg Tpee& keâer DeeJeMÙekeâlee Yeer yeÌ{ peeleer nw~ Dee@keämeerpeve keâer
DeeJeMÙekeâlee ceW Yeer Je=efæ nes peeleer nw~ Dee@keämeerpeve keâer DeefOekeâ Deehete|le kesâ efueS MJemeve oj, ùoÙe mhebove oj SJeb Je=keäkeâ
JeeefnefveÙeeW ceW jkeäle ØeJeen keâer oj yeÌ{vee mJeeYeeefJekeâ nes peelee nw. peye Meejerefjkeâ JÙeeÙeece yebo keâj osles nQ lees lebef$ekeâerÙe ef›eâÙeeSb,
HegâhHegâme (Lungs), ùoÙe ¤efOej JeeefnefveÙeeW (Blood Vessels), Je=keäkeâ (Kidney) Je DevÙe DebieeW kesâ keâeÙeeX ceW mecevJeÙe mLeeefhele
nes peelee nw~ nceejs Mejerj cebs lebef$ekeâe leb$e (Nervous System) SJeb Deble: m$eeJeer leb$e (Endocrine System) meefcceefuele ¤he
mes DevÙe DebieeW keâer ef›eâÙeeDeeW ceW mecevJeÙe keâjles nQ leLee GvnW Skeâerke=âle keâjles nQ, efpemesme meYeer ef›eâÙeeSb Skeâ meeLe mebÛeeefuele nesleer
jnleer nQ~
lebef$ekeâerÙe leb$e Ssmes JÙeJeefmLele peeue leb$e ieef"le keâjlee nw, pees lJeefjle mecevJeÙe nsleg eEyeog oj eEyeog pegÌ[e jnlee nw~ Deble:
m$eeJeer leb$e neceexve Éeje jemeeÙeefvekeâ mecevJeÙe yeveelee nw~
lebef$ekeâerÙe leb$e (Nedrvous System)
meYeer ØeeefCeÙeeW keâe lebef$ekeâe leb$e Deefle efJeefMe<š Øekeâej keâer keâesefMekeâeDeeW mes yevelee nw, efpevnW lebef$ekeâe keâesefMekeâe keânles nQ~
Ùes efJeefYevve GöerheveeW keâes henÛeeve keâj «enCe keâjleer nQ leLee Fvekeâe efvecve DekeâMes¤keâer ØeeefCeÙeeW ceW lebef$ekeâerÙe mebie"ve yengle ner
mejue Øekeâej keâe neslee nw~ GoenjCeeLe& neF[^e ceW Ùen lebef$ekeâerÙe peeue kesâ ¤he ceW neslee nw~ keâeršeW keâe leebef$ekeâe leb$e DeefOekeâ
JÙeJeefmLele neslee nw~ Ùen ceefmle<keâ Deveskeâ iegefÛÚkeâeDeeW Sjb lebef$ekeâerÙe TlekeâeW keâe yevee neslee nw~ keâMes¤keâer ØeeefCeÙeeW ceW DeefOekeâ
efJekeâefmele lebef$ekeâe leb$e heeÙee peelee nw~
ceeveJe keâe lebef$ekeâerÙe leb$e (Human Nervous System)

ceeveJe lebef$ekeâe leb$e kesâvõerÙe leLee heefjOeerÙe lebef$ekeâe kesâ Ùeesie mes yeveele nw~ lebef$ekeâe leb$e (Nervous System) keâer
jÛeveelcekeâ Je keâeÙee&lcekeâ FkeâeF& leb$e keâesefMekeâe (Neuron) nesleer nw~

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leb$e keâesefMekeâe (Neuron) Mejerj ceW heeF& peeves Jeeueer meyemes uebyeer keâesefMekeâe nw~

 leb$e keâesefMekeâe (Neuron) kesâ leerve Ieškeâ nesles nQ-

(a) keâesefMekeâerÙe (Cell Body)–Ùen Skeâ Øee¤efhekeâ keâesefMekeâe pewmeer nw, efpemeceW kesâvõkeâ (Nucleus) leLee keâefCekeâeceÙe
keâesefMekeâeõJÙe (Granular Cytoplasm) efJeÅeceeve neslee nw~
(b) õgefcekeâe (Dendrite)–Úesšs leLee ØeMeeefKele ØeJeOe& nesles nQ~
(c) lebef$ekeâe#e (Axon)–Skeâue uebyee jsMes meceeve mebjÛevee nw.
- Deble«ebLeve (Synapse)–oes leb$e keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ yeerÛe ef›eâÙeelcekeâ mebefOemLeue~
veesš: lebef$ekeâe#e (Axon) Deewj õgefcekeâe oesveeW keâesefMekeâekeâeÙe (Cell Body) mes efvekeâueleer nw~
 leb$ekeâe DeeJesie (Nerve Impulse)–lebef$ekeâesefMekeâe (Neuron) mes jmeeÙeefvekeâ leLee efJeÅegle mebÙeb$eeW kesâ ¤he ceW efvekeâueves
Jeeueer metÛeveeSB~
- lebef$ekeâe DeeJesie õgefcekeâe (dendrite) Éeje keâesefMekeâekeâeÙe keâer Deesj peelee nw~
 lebef$ekeâe#e (Axon)–Skeâ DeefleefJeefMe<š lebef$ekeâe jsMee, pees lebef$ekeâe DeeJesiees (nerve Impulse) keâes Deble«e&Leve (Syn-
apse) Éeje Skeâ keâesefMekeâekeâeÙe mes otmejer leb$e keâesefMekeâe (neuron) DeLeJee lekeâ DebieeW lekeâ ues peelee nw~

yeveeJeš–
 ceeveJe keâe lebef$ekeâe leb$e oes YeeieeW ceW efJeYeeefpele neslee nw- (A) keWâõerÙe lebef$ekeâe leb$e (Central Nervous System) leLee
(b) heefjOeerÙe lebef$ekeâe leb$e (Peripheral Nervous System)~
(A) keWâõerÙe lebef$ekeâe leb$e ceW ceefmle<keâ (Brain) leLee ces¤jppet (Spinal Cord) meefcceefuele nw, peneb metÛeveeb keâe
mebmeeOeve SJeb efveÙeb$eCe neslee nw~ ceefmle<keâ SJeb heefjOeerÙe lebef$ekeâe leb$e meYeer lebef$ekeâeb mes efceuekeâj yevelee nw, pees
keWâõerÙe lebef$ekeâe leB$e (ceefmle<keâ Je ces¤jppet) mes pegÌ[er nesleer nw~
(B) heefjOeerÙe leb$ekeâe leb$e ceW oes Øekeâej keâer lebef$ekeâeb nesleer bnw-
(i) mebJesoer 9Sensory) Ùee DeefYeJeener–mebJesoer Ùee DeefYeJeener lebef$ekeâeb GöerheveeW keâes TlekeâeW/DebieeW mes keWâõerÙe
lebef$ekeâe leb$e lekeâ leLee
(ii) Ûeeuekeâ/Øesjkeâ (Motor) Ùee DeheJeener–Ûeeuekeâ/DeefYeJeener lebef$ekeâeb efveÙeecekeâ GöerheveeW keâes keWâõerÙe lebef$ekeâe
leb$e mes mebyebefOele heefjOeerÙe Tlekeâ/DebieeW lekeâ hengBÛeeleer nw.
 heefjOeerÙe lebef$ekeâe leb$e oes YeeieeW ceW efJeYeeefpele neslee nw keâeefÙekeâ lebef$ekeâe leb$e (Somatic Neural System) leLee mJeeÙeòe
lebe$f ekeâe-leb$e (Automatic Neural System)~ keâeefÙekeâ lebe$f ekeâe leb$e GöerheveeW keâes keWâõerÙe lebe$f ekeâe leb$e mes Mejerj kesâ DeveweÛf Úkeâ
DebieeW Je efÛekeâveer hesefMeÙeeW ceW hengBÛeelee nw~ mJeeÙeòe lebef$ekeâe leb$e (Autonomic) hegve: oes YeeieeW- (De) Devegkeâbheer lebef$ekeâe
(Sympathetic) leb$e Je (ye) hejevegkeâbheer lebef$ekeâe (Parasympathetic) leb$e ceW Jeieeake=âle efkeâÙee ieÙee nw~

DeeJesieeW keâe mebÛejCe (Conduction of Impulse)

 lebef$ekeâe DeeJesieeW (Nerve Impulse) keâe Skeâ vÙetje@ve (Neuron) mes otmejs vÙetje@ve lekeâ mebÛejCe efmevesefhme (Synapse)
Éeje neslee nw~ Skeâ efmeveshme keâe efvecee&Ce hetJe& efmevesefhškeâ vÙetje@ve leLee heMÛe efmevesefhškeâ vÙetje@ve keâer efPeuueer Éeje neslee
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nw, pees efkeâ efmevesefhškeâ ojej Éeje efJeYekeäle nes Yeer mekeâleer nw Ùee veneR Yeer~
 efmeveshme oes Øekeâej kesâ nesles nQ, efJeÅegle efmeveshme SJeb jemeeÙeefvekeâ efmeveshme~ efJeÅegle efmevesefhmeme hej, hetJe& Deewjhe heMÛe
efmevesefhškeâ vÙetje@ve keâer efPeefuueÙeeB Skeâ otmejs kesâ meceerhe nesleer nQ~ Skeâ vÙetje@ve mes otmejs vÙetje@ve lekeâ efJeÅegle Oeeje ØeJeen
keâe efmevesefhmeme mes neslee nw~
(A) jemeeÙeefvekeâ efmeveshme hej, hetJe& SJeb heMÛe efmevesefhškeâ vÙetjeWme keâer efPeefuueÙeeB õJe mes Yejs DeJekeâeMe Éeje he=keäkeâ nesleer
nQ efpemes efmevesefhškeâ ojej (Synaptic Cleft) keânles nQ~
(B) efJeÅegleerÙe efmevesefhmeme mes DeeJesie keâe mebÛejCe, Skeâ lebef$ekeâe#e (Dendrite) mes DeeJesie kesâ mebÛejCe kesâ meceeve neslee
nw~ efJeÅeleerÙe-efmevesefhmeme mes DeeJesie keâe mebÛejCe, jemeeÙeefvekeâ efmevesefhmeme mes mebÛejCe keâer leguevee ceW DeefOekeâ leerJeÇ
neslee nw~ nceejs leb$e ceW efJeÅegleerÙe efmevesefhmeme yengle keâce nesles nQ~
 efmevesefhmeme Éeje DeeJesieeW kesâ mebÛejCe ceW lebef$ekeâe mebÛeejer (Neurotrosmeter) keânueeves Jeeues jmeeÙeve Smeerefšuekeâewefueve
(Acetylcoelen) meefcceefuele nesles nQ~ lebef$ekeâe#e kesâ Úesj hej efmLele DeeßeÙe hegefškeâeSW (Synaptic Vesicles) lebef$ekeâe
mebÛeejer DeCegDeeW mes Yejer nesleer nw~ peye lekeâ Deejsie lebef$ekeâe#e (Axon Terminals) kesâ Úesj lekeâ hengBÛelee nw~
- Ùen efmevesefhškeâ hegefškeâe keâer ieefle keâes efPeuueer keâer Deesj Gòesefpele keâjlee nw, peneB Jes hueepcee efPeuueer kesâ meeLe pegÌ[keâj
lebef$ekeâe mebÛeejer DeCegDeeW keâes efmevesefhškeâ ojej cebs cegkeäle keâj osles nQ~ cegkeäle efkeâS ieS lebef$ekeâe mebÛeejer DeCeg heMÛe
efmevesefhškeâ efPeuueer hej efmLele efJeefMe<š «eeefnÙeeW (Receptors) mes pegÌ[ peeles nQ~ Fme pegÌ[eJe kesâ HeâuemJe¤he DeeÙeve
Ûewveue Kegue peeles nQ Deewj GmeceW DeeÙeveeW kesâ Deeieceve mes heMÛe efmevesefhškeâ efPeuueer hej veÙee efJeYeJe Glhevve nes peelee
nw~ Glhevve ngDee veÙee efJeYeJe Gòespekeâ Ùee DeJejesOekeâ nes mekeâlee nw~

kesâvõerÙe lebef$ekeâe leb$e (Central Nervous System)–

 ceeveJe ceW keWâõerÙe lebef$ekeâe leb$e DelÙeefOekeâ efJekeâefmele neslee nw~ Ùen ceefmle<keâ (Brain) leLee ces®jppet (Spinal Cord) keâe
yevee neslee nw~
- keâheeue (Cranium)–ceefmle<keâ keâheeue Éeje megjef#ele neslee nw pees KeesheÌ[er ceW DeefmLe keâJeÛe kesâ ¤he cebs ceewpeto neslee
nw~
- ceefmle<keâ leerve efPeefuueÙeeW mes {keâe jnlee nw, efpevnW ceefmle<keâeJejce (meninges) keânles nQ~
- Fve efPeefuueÙeeW kesâ yeerÛe keâe mLeeve Øeceefmle<keâ ces®õJe (Cerebro Spinal Fluid) mes Yeje neslee nw, pees ceefmle<keâ
keâes Ùeebef$ekeâ DeeIeeleeW mes j#ee keâjlee nw~
veesš– Skeâ JeÙemkeâ keâe ceefmle<keâ 1000 efyeefueÙeve leb$e keâesefMekeâeDeeW mes yevee neslee nw~ Fmekeâe Jepeve 1300 «eece kesâ Deemeheeme
neslee nw~

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ceeveJe ceefmle<keâ (Human Brain)

ceefmle<keâ keâes 3 cegKÙe YeeieeW ceW efJeYekeäle efkeâÙee
pee mekeâlee nw–
1. De«e ceefmle<keâ (Forebrain)–De«e ceefmle<keâ
mesjeryeÇce, Lesuesceme Deewj neFheesLesuesceme keâe
yevee neslee nw~
 Øeceefmle<keâ (Cerebrum) ceeveJe ceefmle<keâ
keâe Skeâ yeÌ[e Yeeie yeveelee nw~ Skeâ ienjer
uebyeJele efJeoj Øeceefmle<keâ keâes oes YeeieeW, oeSb
Je yeeSb Øeceefmle<keâ ieesueeæeX (Cerebral
Hemisphrer) ceW efJeYekeäle keâjleer nQ~ Ùes
ieesuee&æ lebef$ekeâe leblegDeeW keâer hešdšer keâehe&me
kewâueesmece (Carpus Calosum) Éeje pegÌ[s
nesles nQ~
 Øeceefmle<keâ Lesuesceme (Thalamus) veecekeâ
mebjveÛeekesâ ÛeejeW Deesj efueheše neslee nw, pees
efkeâ mebJesoer Deewj Øesjkeâ mebkesâleeW keâe cegKÙe
mebheke&â mLeue nw~
- Leuesceme kesâ DeeOeej hej efmLele ceefmle<keâ keâe otmeje cegKÙe Yeeie neFheesLesuesceme (Hypothalamus) efmLele neslee
nw~ neFheesLesuesceme ceW keâF& keWâõ nesles nQ, pees Mejerj kesâ leeheceeve, Keeves Deewj heerves keâe efveÙeb$eCe keâjles nQ~ FmeceW keâF&
lebef$ekeâe m$eeJeer keâesefMekeâeSb Yeer nesleer nQ pees neFheesLesuesefcekeâ neceexve keâe m$eeJeCe keâjleer nQ~
2. ceOÙe ceefmle<keâ Deewj (Midbrain)–
 Dee@efhškeâ heeefue (Optic Lobe)–Ùen Âef<š keâes efveÙebef$ele keâjlee nw~
 Ùen SbefšefjÙej #es$e (Anterior Region) keâes heesmšerefjÙej #es$e mes peesÌ[lee nw~
 Ùen mesjeryeÇce ›eâesšwkeäme (Cortex) mes heeWme (Pons) leLee ces¤jppet (Spinal Cord) kesâ yeerÛe Øesjkeâ DeeJesie (Motor
Impluse) kesâ ieceve ceW meneÙelee keâjlee nw~
 mebJesoer DeeJesie (Sensory Impulse) keâes ces¤jppet mes Lesueeceme (Thalamus) lekeâ ieceve keâjves cebs meneÙelee keâjlee
nw~
 ceOÙe ceefmle<keâ De«e ceefmle<keâ kesâ Lesuesceme/neFheesLesuesceme leLee heMÛe ceefmle<keâ kesâ heeWme kesâ yeerÛe efmLele neslee nw~ Skeâ
veeue Øeceefmle<keâ lejue veefuekeâe ceOÙe ceefmle<keâ mes iegpejleer nw.
- ceOÙe ceefmle<keâ keâe Thejer Yeeie Ûeej ueesyevegcee GYeejeW keâe yevee neslee nw efpevnW keâe@heexje keäJee[^erpesceerve (Corpora
Qasidrejemin) keânles nQ~
- ceOÙe ceefmle<keâ Deewj heMÛe ceefmel<keâ, ceefmle<keâ mlebYe yeveeles nQ~
3. heMÛe ceefmle<keâ (Hind Brain)–heMÛe ceefmle<keâ heeWme (Pons), Devegceefmle<keâ (Cerebellum) Deewj ceOÙeebMe (Medulle
Oblongata) keâe yevee neslee nw~ heeWme jsMesvegcee heLe keâe yevee neslee nw pees efkeâ ceefmle<keâ kesâ efJeefYevve YeeieeW keâes Deeheme
ceW peesÌ[les nQ~ Devegceefmle<keâ keâer melen efJeueefiele nesleer nw pees vÙetjeWme keâes Deefleefjkeäle mLeeve Øeoeve keâjleer nw~
- ceefmle<keâ keâe ceOÙeebMe ces¤jppet (Spiral Cord) mes pegÌ[e neslee nw~

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- ceOÙeebMe ceW MJemeve, heefjmebÛejCe Deewj heeÛekeâ jmeeW kesâ m$eeJe kesâ efveÙeb$eCe kesâvõ nesles nQ~
Øeceefmle<keâ (Cerebram) keâer heeefueÙeeb (Lobes)
1. De«eueueeš heeefue (Frontal Lobe)–ef›eâÙeeSB~
2. Devegkeâheeue heeefue (Occipital Lobe)–Âef<š DeefYe«enCe~
3. MebKe heeefue (Temporal Lobe)–ßeJeCe DeefYe«enCe~
4. efYeòeerÙe heeefue (Parietal Lobe)–mheMe&, iebOe, leehe leLee Ûeslevee mebÙeespeve nsleg~

ØeefleJeleea ef›eâÙee Deewj ØeefleJeleea Ûeehe (Reflex Action

and Reflex Arch)
 peye Mejerj keâe keâesF& Debie DelÙeefOekeâ ieceea, "b[er, vegkeâerueer
Jemleg Ùee penjerues DeLeJee [jeJeves peeveJej mes mebheke&â ceW
Deelee nw lees Jen Debie DeÛeevekeâ nš peelee nw. DevegYeJe keâer
mebhetCe& ef›eâÙeeefJeefOe Skeâ DevewefÛÚkeâ ef›eâÙee (Involuntary) nw
pees efkeâ heefjOeerÙe leebef$ekeâerÙe Göerheve kesâ HeâuemJe¤he keWâõerÙe
lebef$ekeâe leb$e kesâ Yeeie efJemes<e keâer DevegheefmLeefle ceW nesleer nw,
ØeefleJeleea ef›eâÙee keânueeleer nw ~
 DeefYeJeener vÙetje@ve (Sensory Neuron) mebJesoer DebieeW mes
mebkesâle «enCe keâjkesâ keWâõerÙe lebef$ekeâe leb$e ceW DeeJesieeW keâe
mebØes<eCe keâjlee nw.
 ØeYeeJekeâ/Øesjkeâ vÙetje@ve (Motor Neuron) leye mebkesâleeW keâes ØeYeeJeer DebieeW lekeâ hengBÛeeleer nQ~ Fme
Øekeâej Göerheve SJeb ØeefleJeleea ef›eâÙee efceuekeâj ØeefleJeleea Ûeehe keâe efvecee&Ce keâjles nQ~
mebJesefokeâ DeefYe«enCe SJeb mebmeeOeve (Sensory Reception & Processing)
 mebJesoer Debie meYeer Øekeâej keâer JeeleeJejCeerÙe yeoueeJeeW keâe helee ueieekeâj mecegefÛele mebosMeeW keâes keWâõerÙe lebef$ekeâe leb$e keâes Yespeles

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nQ peneb meYeer Deblej ef›eâÙeeSb mebÛeeefuele Je efJeMuesef<ele keâer peeleer nQ~

 Fmekesâ yeeo mebosMebes keâes ceefmle<keâ kesâ efJeefYevve YeeieeW Ùee keWâõeW lekeâ Yespee peelee nw~ Fme Øekeâej nce JeeleeJejCeerÙe yeoueejeW
keâes DevegYeJe keâjles nQ~
jemeeÙeefvekeâ mecevJeÙe leLee SkeâerkeâjCe
(Chemical Coodination)
 ne@ceexve (Harmone) Meyo meJe&ØeLece yesefueme (Byliss) SJeb mšejeEueie (Starling) ves efoÙee Lee~
 ne@ceexve Skeâ jemeeÙeefvekeâ heoeLe& nw, pees Deuhe cee$ee ceW efJeefMe<š TlekeâeW (Specialised Tissue) Éeje m$eeefJele nesles nQ,
efpevnW Deble:m$eeJeer «ebefLeÙeeB (Endocrine Gland) keâne peelee nw~
- Fve «ebefLeÙeeW cebs m$eeefJele neceexve keâies Jenve kesâ efueS veefuekeâeSb veneR nesleer nQ, Dele: Fmes veeefuekeâeefJenerve «ebefLeÙeeB
(Ductless Gland) Yeer keânles nQ~
 ne@ceexve kesâ ue#eCe–
(i) Ùes efJeefMe<š jmeeÙeefvekeâ mebJeenkeâ (Chemical Messengers) nesles nQ~
(ii) Ùes Deble:m$eeJeer «ebefLeÙeeW (Encocrine Gland) Éeje m$eeefJele nesles nQ~
(iii) Ùes meerOes jkeäle ceW ØeJesMe keâjles nQ leLee jkeäle heefjJenve Éeje ues peeÙes peeles nQ~
(iv) Ùes efJeefMe<š/ue#Ùe DebieeW leLee TlekeâeW hej keâeÙe& keâjlee nw~
Deble: m$eeJeer «ebefLeÙeeb Deewj neceexve (Endocrine Glands & Hormones)
 Deble: m$eeJeer «ebefLeÙeeW ceW veefuekeâeSB veneR nesleer nQ Dele: Jes veefuekeâeefJenerve «ebefLeÙeeB (Ductless Gland) keânueeleer nQ~ Fvekesâ
m$eeJe neve& keânueeles nQ~ `neceexve met#ce cee$ee ceW Glhevve nesves Jeeues Dehees<ekeâ jmeeÙeve nQ pees DeblejkeâesefMekeâerÙe mebosMeJeenkeâ
(Intercellular Messenger) kesâ ¤he ceW keâeÙe& keâjles nQ'~ DekesâMes®efkeâÙeeW ceW keâce neceexve kesâ meeLe Skeâ mejue Deble:
m$eeJeer leb$e neslee nw peyeefkeâ keâMes¤efkeâÙeeW ceW keâF& jmeeÙeve
neceexve keâer lejn keâeÙe& keâj Gvecebs mecevJeÙe mLeeefhele keâjles
nQ~
ceeveJe Deble: m$eeJeer leb$e (Human Endocrine System)
 Deble:m$eeJeer «ebefLeÙeeB Deewj Mejerj kesâ efJeefYevve YeeieeW ceW efmLele
neceexve m$eefJeve keâjves Jeeues Tlekeâ-keâesefMekeâeSb efceuekeâj
Deble:m$eeJeer leb$e keâe efvecee&Ce keâjles nQ~
 heerÙet<e «ebefLe (Pituitary Gland), efheefveÙeue «ebefLe (Pinneal
Gland), LeeFje@Ùe[ (Thyroid), S[^erveue (Adrenal),
DeiveeMeÙe (Pancreas), hewjeLeeÙeje@F[ (Parathyroid),
LeeFceme (Thymus) Deewj peveve «ebeLf eÙeeb [vej ceW Je=<eCe (Tes-
tis) Deewj ceeoe ceW Deb[eMeÙe (Ovary)] Mejerj kesâ megevf eÙeesefpele
Deble: m$eeJeer Debie nQ~ Fvekesâ Deefleefjkeäle kegâÚ DevÙe Debie pewmes efkeâ
pe"j-Deeb$eerÙe ceeie&, Ùeke=âle, Je=keäkeâ, ùoÙe Deeefo Yeer neceexve keâe
Glheeove keâjles nQ~
neFheesLewuesceme (Hypothalamus)
 neFheesLewuesceme, [eFveefmeHesâuee@ve (Diencephalon) keâe DeeOeej
Yeeie nw Deewj Ùen Mejerj kesâ efJeefJeOe Øekeâej kesâ keâeÙeeX keâe
efveÙeb$eCe keâjlee nw~ Fmecebs neceexvekeâ Glheeove keâjves Jeeueer
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keâF& leebef$ekeâem$eeJeer keâesefMekeâeSB nesleer nQ~

 Ùes neceexve heerÙet<e «ebefLe mes m$eefJele nesves Jeeues neceexve kesâ mebMues<eCe Deewj m$eeJe keâe efveÙeb$eCe keâjles nQ~
 neFheesLewuesceme mes m$eeefJele nesves Jeeues neceexve oes Øekeâej kesâ nesles nQ-
(i) ceesÛekeâ neceexve (Releasing Hormone) (pees heerÙet<e «ebefLe mes neceexve kesâ m$eeJe keâes Øesefjle keâjles nQ) Deewj
(ii) efvejesOeer neceexve (Inhibitary Hormone) (pees heerÙet<e «ebefLe mes neceexve keâes jeskeâles nQ)~
heerÙet<e «ebefLe (Pituitary Gland)
 heerÙet<e «ebefLe Skeâ Je=ble Éeje neFheesLewuesceme mes pegÌ[er nesleer nw~
 heerÙet<e «ebefLe Sef[veesneFheesHeâeFefmeme (Adinohypophesis) Deewj vÙetjesneFheesHeâeFefmeme (Neurohypophesis) veecekeâ
oes YeeieeW ceW efJeYeeefpele nesleer nw~
(a) Sef[veesneFheesHeâeFmeme (Adinohypophesis)–efpememes Je=efæ neceexve Ùee meescesšesš^ees fheve (GH), Øeesuewefkeäšve (PRL)
Ùee cesmeesš^esefheve, LeeFje@F[ Øesjkeâ neceexve (TSH) Sef[veeskeâee|škeâesš^e@efHeâkeâ neceexve (ACTH) Ùee keâe@e|škeâesš^esefHeâve,
uÙetšerveeFeEpeie neceexve (LH) Deewj hegefškeâe Øesjkeâ neceexve (FSh) keâe m$eeJe keâjlee nw~
(b) vÙetjesneFheesHeâeFefmeme (Neurohypophesis)–vÙetjesneFheesHeâeFmeefme «ebefLe, neFheesLewuesceme Éeje Glheeefole efkeâS
peeves Jeeues neceexve Dee@keämeerše@efmeve (Oxytocin) Deewj JesmeesØesefmeve (Vasopressin) keâe meb«en Deewj m$eeJe keâjleer nw~
Ùes neceexve JeemleJe cebs neFheesLewuesceme Éeje mebMuesef<ele nesles nQ Deewj lebef$ekeâe#e nesles ngS heMÛe heerÙet<e «ebefLe cebs hengBÛee
efoS peeles nQ~
 Je=efækeâeefj neceexve (GH)–Fmekesâ Deefle m$eeJe mes Mejerj keâer DemeeceevÙe Je=efæ nesleer nw efpemes DeeflekeâeÙekeâlee (Gigan-
tism ) keânles nQ~
- Fmekesâ Deuhe m$eeJe mes Je=efæ DeJe®æ nes peeleer nw efpemes efhešdÙetšjer [dJeee|Heâpce yeewveeheve Ùee Jeeceveele (Dwarfism)
keânles nQ~
 Øeesuewefkeäšve neceexve (PRL)–mleve «ebefLeÙeeW keâer Je=efæ Deewj GveceW ogiOe efvecee&Ce keâe efveÙeb$eCe keâjlee nw~
 LeeFje@F[ Øesjkeâ neceexve (TSH)–LeeFjeF[ «ebefLeÙeeW hej keâeÙe& keâj Gvemes LeeFje@F[ neceexveb kesâ mebMues<eCe Deewj m$eeJe keâes
Øesefjle keâjlee nw~
 Sef[^veeskeâee|škeâkeâesš^e@eHf eâkeâ neceexve (ACTH)–S[^evr eue Jeukegâš (Cortex) hej keâeÙe& keâjlee nw Deewj Fmes iuetkeâeskeâe@e|škeâe@F[dme
(Glucocorticoids) veecekeâ, mšerje@F[ neceexve kesâ mebMues<eCe Deewj m$eeJeCe kesâ efueS Øesefjle keâjlee nw~
 uÙetefšveeFeEpeie (LH) Deewj hegefškeâe Øesjkeâ neceexve (FSH) peveveebieeW keâer ef›eâÙee keâes Øesefjle keâjles nQ Deewj eEueieer neceexve keâe
Glheeove keâjles nQ Dele: ieesves[esefš^efheve (Gonadotropin) keânueeles nQ~
- vejeW ceW uÙetefšveeFeEpeie neceexve (lh), Sb[^espesve (Androgen) veecekeâ neceexve kesâ mebMues<eCe Deewj m$eeJe kesâ efueS Øesefjle
keâjlee nw~
- Fmeer lejn vejeW ceW hegefškeâe Øesjkeâ neceexve Deewj Sb[^espesve Meg›eâpeveve (Spermatogenesis) keâes efveÙebef$eleo keâjlee nw.
- ceeoeDeeW ceW uÙetefšveeFeEpeie neceexve (Lh) hetCe& efJekeâefmele hegefškeâeDeeW («eeefHeâÙeve hegefškeâe) mes Deb[eslmeie& (Ovulation)
keâes Øesefjle keâjlee nw~ Deewj «eeefHeâÙeve hegefškeâe kesâ yeÛes Yeeie mes keâe@heme& uÙetefšÙeve (Corpus Leutium) yeveelee nw~
- hegefškeâe neceexve, ceeoeDeeW ceW Deb[eMeÙeer hegefškeâeDeeW (Ovarian Follicle) keâer Je=efæ Deewj heefjJeOe&ve keâes Øesefjle keâjlee
nw~
 cesueeveesmeeFš Øesjkeâ neceexve (MSH)–cesueeveesmeeFšdme (cesueeveerve Ùegkeäle keâesefMekeâeDeeW) hej ef›eâÙeeMeerue neslee nw leLee lJeeÛe
keâer JeCe&keâlee (Pigmentation) keâe efveÙeceve keâjlee nw~
 Dee@keämeerše@efmeve (oxytocin) nceejs Mejerj keâer efÛekeâveer hesefMeÙeeW hej keâeÙe& keâjlee nw Deewj Gvekesâ mebkegâÛeve keâes Øesefjle keâjlee
nw~
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- ceoeDeeW ceW Ùen ØemeJe kesâ meceÙe ieYee&MeÙeer hesefMeÙeeW kesâ mebkegâÛeve 9Contraction of Uterine muscles) Deewj ogiOe
«ebefleÙeeW mes otOe kesâ m$eeJe keâes Øesefjle keâjlee nw.
 JesmeesØesefmeve (Vasopressin) cegKÙele: Je=keäkeâ keâer otjmLe mebJeefuele veefuekeâe (Distal Convoluted Tubule) mes peue SJeb
DeeÙeveeW kesâ hegvejeJeMees<eCe keâes Øesefjle keâjlee nw, efpememes cet$e kesâ meeLe peue keâe nÇeme (Diuresis) keâce nes~ Dele: Fmes
Øeeflecet$eue neceexve Ùee Sbšer[eFÙesefjškeâ neceexve (ADH) Yeer keânles nQ~
 efheefveÙeue «ebefle (Pi9nneal Gland) Deie ceefmle<keâ kesâ he=<"erÙe (Thejer) Yeeie ceW mLeefle nesleer nw~
- efheefveÙeue «ebefle cesuesšesefveve (melotonin) neceexve m$eeefJele keâjleer nw~ cesuesšesefveve nceejs Mejerj keâer owefvekeâ ueÙe (24
Iebšs) kesâ efveÙeceve keâe Skeâ cenlJehetCe& keâeÙe& keâjlee nw~
- GoenjCe kesâ efueS Ùen meesves-peieeves kesâ Ûe›eâ SJeb Mejerj kesâ leehe›eâce keâes efveÙebef$ele keâjlee nw~ Fve meyekesâ Deefleefjkeäle
cesuesšesefveve GheeheÛeÙe, JeCe&keâlee, ceeefmekeâ (Deele&Je) Ûe›eâ Øeeflej#ee #ecelee keâes Yeer ØeYeeefJele keâjlee nw~
heerÙet<e «ebefLe keâer neceexve efJeefYevve owefnkeâ ef›eâÙeeSb leLee DevÙe Deble:m$eeJeer «ebefLeÙeeWve kesâ ef›eâÙeeDeeW keâes efveÙebef$ele keâjleer nw,
FmeefueÙes Fmes `ceemšj iueeb[' (master Gland) keânles nQ~
LeeFje@F[ «ebefLe (Thyroid Gland)
 LeeFje@F[ «ebefLe MJeeme veueer kesâ oesvebes Deesj efmLeue oes heeefueÙeeW mes yeveer nesleer nw~ oesvebes kesâ oes neceexve, šsš^eDeeÙe[esleeFjesveerve
(T4) DeLeJee LeeÙejeskeämeerve (Thyroxin) leLee š^eF&DeeF[esLeeÙejesveerve (T3) keâe mebMues<eCe keâjleer nw~
 LeeFje@F[ neceexve kesâ meeceevÙe oj mes mebMues<eCe kesâ efueS DeeÙees[erve DeeJeMÙekeâ nw~ nceejs Yeespeve ceW DeeÙees[erve keâer keâceer
mes DeJeLeeFje@F[lee SJeb LeeFje@F[ «ebefLe keâer Je=efæ nes peeleer nw, efpemes meeOeejCeleÙe: ieueieb[ (Goitre) keânles nQ~
- ieYee&JemLee kesâ meceÙe DeJeLeeFje@F[lee kesâ keâejCe ieYe& cebs efJekeâmeefmele nes jns yeeuekeâ keâer Je=efæ efJeke=âle nes peeleer nw~
Fmemes yeÛÛes keâer DeJejesefOele Je=efæ (Cretenism) Ùee Jeecevelee leLee ceboyegefæ, lJeÛee DemeeceevÙelee, cetkeâ yeefOejlee
efo nes peeleer nw.
- JeÙemkeâ efm$eÙeeW ceW DeJeLeeFjeF[lee ceeefmekeâ Ûe›eâ keâes DeefveÙeefcele keâj oslee nw~
 LeeFje@F[ «ebefLe kesâ keQâmej DeLeJee Fmecebs ieeB"eW keâer Je=efæ mes LeeFje@F[ nejceexve kesâ mebMues<ece keâer oj DemeeceevÙe ¤he mes
DeefOekeâ peeleer nw~ Fme efmLeefle keâes LeeFje@F[ Deefleef›eâÙelee keânles nQ, pees Mejerj keâer keâee|Ùekeâer hej Øeefleketâue ØeYeeJe [eueerle
n~
keâeÙe&–
(i) LeeFje@F[ neceexve heeheÛeÙeer oj (metabolic Rate) kesâ efveÙeceve ceW cegKÙe Yetefcekeâe efveYeeles nQ~
(ii) neceexve ueeue jkeäle keâefCekeâeb kesâ efvecee&Ce keâer Øe›eâÙee& ceW Yeer meneÙelee keâjles nQ~
(iii) LeeFje@F[ neceexve keâeyeexneF[^sš, Øeesšerve Deewj Jemee kesâ GheeheÛeÙe (mebMues<ece Deewj efJeKeb[ve) keâes Yeer efveÙebef$ele keâjles
nQ~
(iv) peue Deewj efJeÅegle DeheIešdÙeeW keâe efveÙeceve Yeer LeeFje@F[ neceexve ØeYeeefJele keâjles nQ~
(v) LeeFje@F[ «ebefLe mes Skeâ Øeesšerve neceexve, LeeFjeskewâefumešesefveve (TCT) keâe Yeer m$eeJe neslee nw pees jkeäle ceW kewâefumeÙece
mlej keâes efveÙeb$eCe keâjlee nw~
hewjeLeeFje@F[ «ebefLe (Parathyroid Gland)
 ceeveJe ceW Ûeej hewjeLeeFje@F[ «ebefLeÙeeB, LeeFje@F[ «ebefLe keâer heMÛe melen hej efmLele nesleer nw~
 LeeFje@F[ «ebefLe keâes oes heeefueÙeeW hegj ØelÙeskeâ cebs Skeâ peesÌ[er hewjeLeeFje@F&[ «ebefLeÙeeB heeF& peeleer nQ, pees hewjeLeeFje@F&[ neceexve
(PTH) veecekeâ Skeâ heshšeF[ neceexve keâe m$eeJe keâjleer nQ~
- PTH keâe m$eeJe jkeäle kesâ meeLe heefjmebÛeeefjle kewâefumeÙece DeeÙeve kesâ Éeje efveÙeefcele neslee nw~
 hewjeLeeFje@F[ neceexve jkeäle ceW Ca2+ kesâ mlej kesâ yeÌ{elee nw~

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 PTH DeefmLeÙeeW hej keâeÙe& keâj DeefmLe DeJeMees<eCe (efJeIešve/efjKeefvepeve) Øe›eâce ceW meneÙelee keâjlee nw~
- PTH Je=keäkeâ veefuekeâeDeeW mes Ca2+ kesâ hegvejeJeMees<eCe leLee heefÛele Yeespeve mes Ca2+ kesâ DeJemees<eCe keâes Yeer Øesefjle
keâjlee nw~
- Dele: Ùen mhe<š nw efkeâ PTH keâ DeeflekewâefumeÙece jkeälelee neceexve (hytpercalemic hormone) nw, keäÙeeWefkeâ Ùen
jkeäle ceW Ca2+ mlej keâes yeÌ{elee nw~ TCT kesâ meeLe efceuekeâj, Ùen Mejerj ceW Ca2+ keâe meblegueve yeveeS jKeves ceW
cenlJehetCe& Yetefcekeâe efveYeelee nw~
veesš– kewâefumešesefve (Calcitonin) leLee heeršerSÛe (PTh) kewâefumeÙece GheeheÛeÙe keâes efveÙebef$ele keâjles nQ, hejbleg Fvekesâ keâeÙe& Skeâ
otmejs kesâ efJehejerle nQ-
(i) peye jkeäle ceW Ca2+ keâer cee$ee yeÌ{leer nw, leye keâce heeršerSÛe (PTH) leLee DeefOekeâ kewâefumešesefveve keâe m$eeJe neslee nw~
(ii) peye jkeäle ceW Ca2+ keâer cee$ee efiejleer nw, leye pÙeeoe PTH leLee keâce kewâefumešesefveve keâe Glheeove neslee nw~
LeeFceme «ebefLe (Thymus Gland)
 LeeFceme ùoÙe leLee ceneOece veer kesâ Thejer Yeeie ceW mLeefle «ebefLe Skeâ heeueerÙegkeäle jÛevee nw~
- LeeFceme «ebefLe Øeeflej#ee leb$e kesâ efJekeâeme ceW cenlJehetCe& Yetefcekeâe efveYeeleer nw~
- Ùen «ebefLe Leeceesefmeve (Thymosin) veecekeâ heshšeF[ neceexve keâe m$eeJe keâjleer nw~
- LeeFceesefmeve šer-eEueHeâesmeeFšdme (T-Lymphocytes) kesâ efJeYesoerkeâjCe ceW cegKÙe Yetefcekeâe efveYeeles nQ pees keâesefMekeâe
ceeOÙece Øeeflej#ee kesâ efueS cenlJehetCe& ØeeflepewefJekeâ kesâ Glheeove keâer Yeer Øesefjle keâjles nQ~
veesš– yeÌ{leer GceÇ kesâ meeLe LeeFceme keâe DeheIešve nesves ueielee nw, HeâuemJe¤he LeeFceesefmeve keâe Glheeove Ieš peelee nw~ Fmeer kesâ
heefjCeecemJe¤he Je=æeW ceW Øeeflej#ee Øeefleef›eâÙee keâcepeesj heÌ[ peeleer nw~
neceexvme leLee SvpeeFceme ceW Devlej
neceexvme SvpeeFcme
1. Fvekeâe DeeCeefJekeâ Yeej keâce neslee nw~ 1. Fvekeâe DeeCeefjkeâ Yeejj yengle DeefOekeâ neslee nw~
2. Fvekeâe Glheeove leLee m$eeJeCe Devle: m$eeJeer 2. Fvekeâe Glheeove leLee m$eeJeCe yee¢e m$eeJeer «eefvLeÙeeW Éeje
«eefvLeÙeeW Éeje neslee nw~ Ùes ®efOej kesâ ceeOÙece neslee nw leLee ØeeÙe: veefuekeâeDeeW Éeje keâeÙe& mLeue hej hengbÛeeÙes
mes Deheves keâeÙe&keâejer Debie ceW hengBÛeles nQ~ peeles nQ DevÙeLee Gmeer mLeeve hej keâeÙe& keâjles nQ~
3. jemeeÙeefvekeâ mJeYeeJe ceW Ùes Øeesšervme, heshšesvme, 3. jemeeÙeefvekeâ mJeYeeJe mes Ùes keâesueeÙe[er Øeesšervme ner nesles nQ~
heshšeF[dme, DeceerveeW Decue mšerjeÙe[ DeLeJee
Fveskeâ JÙeglhevve nesles nQ~
4. Ùes GheeheÛeeÙeer ef›eâÙee ceW meerOes Yeeie veneR uesles~ 4. Ùes jemeeÙeefvekeâ ef›eâÙeeDeeW ceW meerOes Yeeie lees veneR uesles yeefukeâ
GvnW GlØesefjle keâjles nQ~
5. Ùes jemeeÙeefvekeâ ef›eâÙeeDeeW kesâ yeeo efJeIeefšle nes 5. Ùes jemeeÙeefvekeâ ef›eâÙeeDeeW kesâ heMÛeeled hetJe&Jele (as before)
peeles nQ leLee Fvekeâe hegve: GhegÙeesie veneR efkeâÙee yeÛes jnles nQ~ Dele: Fvekeâe hegve: ØeÙeesie efkeâÙee peelee nw~
pee mekeâlee~
DeefOeJe=keäkeâ «ebefLe (Adrenal Gland)
 nceejs Mejerj ceW ØelÙeskeâ Je=keäkeâ kesâ De«e Yeeie ceW Skeâ efmLele Skeâ peesÌ[er DeefOeJe=keäkeâ «ebefLeÙeeB nesleer nQ~
 DeefOeJe=keäkeâ ceOÙeebMe oes Øekeâej kesâ neceexve keâe m$eeJe keâjlee nw.
- efpevnW Sef[^veueerve Ùee Sefhevesøeâerve (Adrenaline or Epinephrine) Deewj vee@jSbef[^veueerve (Noradernaline) Ùee
veejSefhevesøeâerve keânles nQ~ FvnW meefcceefuele ¤he ceW kewâšskeâe@ueceeRme (Catcolamins) keânles nQ~

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- Sef[^veueerve Deewj vee@jSbef[^veueerve efkeâmeer Yeer Øekeâej kesâ oyeeJe Ùee Deeheelekeâeueerve efmLeefle cebs DeefOekeâele ceW lespeer mes
m$eeefJele nesles nQ, Fmeer keâejCe Ùes Deeheelekeâeueerve neceexve Ùee Ùegæ neceexve Ùee HeäueeFš neceexve (Flight Harmone)
keânueeles nQ~
- Ùes neceexve meef›eâÙelee (lespeer), DeeBKeeW keâer hegleefueÙeeW kesâ HewâueeJe, jeWšs KeÌ[s nesvee, hemeervee Deeefo keâes yeÌ{eles nQ~
- oesveeW neceexve ùoÙe keâer OeÌ[keâve, ùoÙe mebkegâÛeve keâer #ecelee Deewj MJemeve oj keâes yeÌ{e3les nQ~
- kewâšskeâesueSceerve, iueeFkeâespeve (Glycogen) kesâ efJeKeb[ve keâes Yeer Øesefjle keâjles nQ, efpemekesâ heefjCeecemJe¤he jkeäle ceW
iuetkeâespe keâe mlej yeÌ{ peelee nw~
- meeLe ner Ùes efueefhe[ Deewj Øeesšerve kesâ efJeKeb[ve keâes Yeer Øesefjle keâjles nQ~
 DeefOeJe=keäkeâ Jeukegâš keâF& neceexve keâe m$eeJe keâjlee nw - efpevnW meefcceefuele ¤he mes keâese|škeâesmšerje@F[ (Corticosteroid)
neceexve Ùee keâese|škeâe@F[ keânles nQ~
- pees keâe@e|škeâesmšerje@F[ keâeyeexneF[^sš kesâ DeeheheÛeÙe cebs mebuieve nesles nQ iuetkeâeskeâee|škeâe@F[ keânueeles nQ~ nceejs Mejerjcebs,
keâe@e|šmee@ue cegKÙe iuetkeâeskeâe@e|škeâe@F[ nw~
- peue Deewj efJeÅegle DeheIešdÙeeW keâe meblegueve keâjves Jeeues keâe@e|škeâmšerjeF[, efcevejueeskeâe@e|škeâe@F[dme (Mineralo Cor-
ticoid) keânueeles nQ~ nceejs Mejerj cebs Su[esmšerje@ve cegKÙe efcevejueeskeâe@e|škeâeF[ nw~
 iuetkeâeskeâe@e|škeâesF[ iueeFkeâespeve mebMues<eCe, iuetkeâesefveÙeesefpevesefmeme, Jemee DeheIešve Deewj Øeesšerve DeheIešve Deewj Øeesšerve
DeheIešve keâes Øesefjle keâjles nQ leLee Sceervees DecueeW kesâ keâesefMekeâerÙe «enCe Deewj GheÙeesie keâes DeJejesefOele keâjles nQ~
- keâe@e|šmee@ue (Cortisol), ùoÙe mebJenveer leb$e kesâ jKejKeeJe leLee Je=keäkeâ keâer ef›eâÙeeDeeW ceW Yeer mebueive neslee nw~
keâe@e|šmeeue ueeue ®efOej keâefCekeâeDeeW kesâ Glheeove keâes Øesefjle keâjlee nw~
 Su[esmšerje@ve cegKÙele: Je=keäkeâ veefuekeâeDeeW hej keâeÙe& keâjlee nw Deewj Na2+ SJeb peue kesâ hegvejeJeMees<eCe leLee K+ J Heâe@mHesâš
DeeÙeve kesâ Glmepe&ve keâes Øesefjle keâjlee nw~
- Fme Øekeâej Su[esmšerje@ve, JewÅegle DeheIešdÙeeW (Electrolytes), Mejerj õJe kesâ DeeÙeleve (Body Fluid Volume),
hejemejCeer oeye (Osmotic Pressure) Deewj jkeäle oeye (Blood Pressure) keâes yeveeS jKeves ceW meneÙekeâ neslee
nw~
DeiveeMeÙe (Pancreas)
 DeiveeMeÙe Skeâ mebÙegkeäle «ebefLe nw pees Deble:m$eeJeer Deewj yeefn:m$eeJeer oesveeW kesâ ¤he ceW keâeÙe& keâjleer nw~
- Deble:m$eeJeer DeiveeMeÙe `ueQiejnQme ÉerheeW' (Islets of Langerhans) mes efvee|cele neslee nw~
- ØelÙeskeâ ueQiejnQme Éerhe ceW cegKÙe ¤he mes oes Øeekeâj keâer keâesefMekeâeSB nesleer nQ efpevnW a Deewj b keâesefMekeâeSB keânles nQ~
(a) keâesefMekeâeSB iuetkeâiee@ve (Glucon) leLee
(b) keâesefMekeâeSB Fbmegefueve (Insulin) neceexve keâe m$eeJe keâjleer nQ~
DeiveeMeÙe
iueeFkeâespesve iuetkeâespe
iuekgeâeieev@e
 
(Glycogen) (Glucose)
iuegkeâespe iueeFkeâespesve
Fmbegeufeve

(Glucose) (Glycogen)
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keâeÙe&–
 iuetkeâeiee@ve Skeâ heshšeF[ neceexve nw pees meeceevÙe jkeäle Meke&âje mlej kesâ efveÙeceve ceW cegKÙe yetefcekeâe efveYeelee nw~
- iuetkeâeiee@ve (Glucon) cegKÙe ¤he mes Ùeke=âle keâesefMekeâeDeeW hej keâeÙe& keâj iueeFkeâespesve (Glycogen) DeheIešve keâes
Øesefjle keâjlee nw efpemekesâ HeâuemJe¤he jkeäle Meke&âje keâe mlej yeÌ{ peelee nw~
- Fmekesâ Deefleefjkeäle hesš iuegkeâesefveÙeesefpevesefmeme (Gluconeogenesis) efkeâ Øeef›eâÙee keâes Yeer Øesefjle keâjlee nw efpememes
efkeâ neFhejiueeFefmeefceÙee (Deefle iuetkeâespe jkeälelee) nesleer nw~
- iuetkeâesiee@ve keâesefMekeâerÙe Meke&âje kesâ GheÙeesie keâes keâce keâjlee nw~ Dele: iuetkeâeiee@ve neFhejiueeFefmeefcekeâ neceexve nw~
 Fbmegefueve (Insulin) Yeer Skeâ Øeesšerve neceexve nw pees iuetkeâespe memecemLeeheve kesâ efveÙeceve ceW cegKÙe Yetefcekeâe efveYeelee nw~
- Fbmegefueve cegKÙele keâesefMekeâerÙe iuetkeâespe DeefYe«enCe Deewj GheÙeesie keâes yeÌ{elee nw Je jkeäle Meke&âje keâe mlej keâce
(Hypoglacemia) nes peelee nw~
- Fbmegefueve ue#Ùe keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW iuetkeâespe mes iueeFkeâespesve yeveves keâer Øeef›eâÙee keâes Yeer Øesefjle keâjlee nw~
 jkeäle ceW iuetkeâespe mecemLeeheve keâe efveÙeceve meefcceefuele ¤he mes oes neceexve Fbmegefueve Deewj iuetkeâeiee@ve Éeje neslee nw.
 uebyeer DeJeefOe lekeâ neFhejiueemeerefceÙee (Hyperglycemia) (Deefle iuetkeâespe jkeälelee) nesves hej [eÙeefyešerpe cesueeršme
(Diabetes Melitus) (ceOegcesn) yeerceejer nes peeleer nw pees cet$e kesâ meeLe Meke&âje keâe nÇeme Deewj neefvekeâejkeâ heoeLeeX pewmes
keâeršvees yee@[erpe kesâ efvecee&Ce mes pegÌ[er nw~

ceOegcesn kesâ cejerpeeW keâe Fbmegefueve Éeje meHeâueleehetJe&keâ GheÛeej efkeâÙee pee mekeâlee nw~

Je=<eCe (Testis)
 vej ceW Goj iegne kesâ yeenj Je=<eCe keâes<e (Testis Sac) ceW Skeâ peesÌ[er Je=<eCe (Tests) efmLele neslee nw~
- Je=<eCe ØeeLeefcekeâ ueQefiekeâ Debie kesâ meeLe ner Deble:m$eeJeer «ebefLe kesâ ¤he ceW Yeer keâeÙe& keâjlee nw Deewj
(a) Sb[^espesve Ùee vej neceexve leLee
(b) šsmšesmšsje@ve ØecegKe neceexve keâe m$eeJe keâjlee nw~
 Sb[^espesve vej kesâ meneÙekeâ peveve DebieeW pewmes efkeâ Sheeref[[eF&ceme (Epididymis), Meg›eâJeeefnkeâe (Vas Deferens),
mesefceveue Jesmeerkeâue (Seminal Vesicle), Øeesmšsš «ebefLe (Prostate Gland), ÙetjLje (Urethra) Deeefo kesâ heefjJeo&ve,
heefjhekeäJeve Deewj ef›eâÙeeDeeW keâe efveÙeceve keâjles nQ~
- Ùes neceexve hesMeerÙe Je=efæ, cegKe Deewj De#eerÙe jesce keâer Je=efæ, ›eâesOeelcekeâlee, efvecve mJejceeve Ùee DeeJeepe FlÙeeefo keâes
Gòesefpele keâjsle nQ~
- Sb[^espesve Meg›eâeCeg efvecee&Ce keâer Øeef›eâÙee ceW Øesjkeâ Yetefcekeâe efveYeeles nQ~ Sb[^espeve keWâõerÙe lebef$ekeâe leb$e hej keâeÙe& keâj vej
ueQefiekeâ JÙeJenej (efueefye[es) keâes ØeYeeefJele keâjlee nw~
- Ùes neceexve Øeesšerve Deewj keâeyeexneF[^sš GheeheÛeÙe hej ØeYeeJe [eueles nQ~
Deb[eMeÙe (Ovary)
 ceeoeDeeW kesâ Goj ceW Deb[eMeÙe (Overy) keâe Skeâ Ùegice (peesÌ[e) neslee nw~ Deb[eMeÙe Skeâ ØeeLeefcekeâ ceeoe ueQefiekeâ Debie nw
pees ØelÙeskeâ ceeefmekeâ Ûe›eâ ceW Skeâ Deb[s keâes Glheeefole keâjles nQ~
- Fmekesâ Deefleefjkeäle Deb[eMeÙe oes Øekeâej kesâ mšerje@F[ neceexve mecetneW keâe Yeer Glheeove keâjles nQ, efpevnW Smš^espesve
(Estrogen) Deewj Øeespesmšsje@ve (Prgesterone) keânles nQ~

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- Smš^espesve keâe mebMues<eCe SJeb m$eeJe Deb[eMeÙeer hegškeâeW (Ovarlan Follicle) Éeje neslee nw~ Deb[eslmeie& (Ovulation)
kesâ heMÛeeled efJeKebef[le hegefškeâe, keâe@he&meuÙetefšÙece (Corpus Leuteum) ceW yeoue peelee nw pees efkeâ cegKÙeleÙee
Øeespesmšsje@ve neceexve keâe m$eeJe keâjlee nw~
ceeveJe Mejerj keâer Devle:m$eeJeer «eefvLeÙeeB, Gvemes Glhevve necee&veeW kesâ keâeÙe& Je ØeYeeJe
«eefvLe keâe veece
LeeFje@F[ (Thyroid)
hewjeLeeFje@F[
(Parathyroid)
Leeceme (Thymus)
efhešÙetšjer Ùee heerÙet<e
Pituitary)
1. Sef[veesneFheHeâeFefmeme
(Adenohypophesis)
2. vÙetjesneFhees-
HeâFmeefme (Neuro
Hypophesis)
S[^erveue (adrenal)
1. keâe@šxkeäme (Cortex)
SCIECNE
neceexve keâe veece ne@ceexve kesâ cegKÙe keâeÙe& Deuhem$eeJeCe keâe ØeYeeJe Deeflem$eeJeCe keâe ØeYeeJe
LeeFje@efkeämeve (Thyroxine) Mejerj ceW nesves Jeeueer mecemle Mejerj yeewvee Je ceefmle<keâ Dee@keämeerkeâjCe cesšeyeesefuepce keâer
GheeheÛeÙeer ef›eâÙeeDeeW hej efveÙeb$eCe, keâcepeesj oj, jkeäle oeye, iuetkeâesme Je
Je=efæ~ O2 keâer Kehele Deeefo keâe yeÌ{vee,
LekeâeJeš, GÛÛe leehe,
Iejyeejnš, keâcheve Deeefo~
1. hewjeLee@jceesve (PTH) ®efOej ceW Ca, P keâer cee$ee keâe hesefMeÙeeW leLee lebef$ekeâeDeeW ceW DeefmLeÙeeW keâe ieuekeâj keâcepeesj
2. kewâumeeršesveve efveÙeb$eCe ECF ceW Ca++ keâer DeveeJeMÙekeâ Gòespevee, nesvee, yengcet$e, hesefMeÙeeb,
(Calcitonin) cee$ee Ieševee~ keâYeer-keâYeer hesefMeÙeeW ceW mLeeÙeer keâcepeesj, Je=keäkeâeW ceW heLejer keâer
mebkegâveÛe (tetanus) mes ce=lÙeg~ mebYeeJevee~
LeeFceesefmeve Je=efæ SJeb ueQefiekeâ heefjhekeäJelee hej
(Thymocin) ØeYeeJe, efuecheesmeeFšdme keâe
Glheeove keâjkesâ GvnW Øeeflej#eer
heoeLeeX kesâ mebMues<ece keâer ØesjCee
osvee~
1. meescewšesš^e@efhekeâ ne@ceexve Mejerj kesâ Deekeâej (Je=efæ) keâe yeÛeheve ceW Deevegheeefuekeâ
(sTH) Ùee Je=efæ efveÙeb$eCe keâjlee nw~ YeercekeâeÙe Mejerj (Gigntism)
ne@ceexve~
2. LeeFjesš^e@efhekeâ LeeFje@F[ «ebefLe keâe efveÙeb$eCe~
ne@ceexve (TSH)
3. Ss[^ervees- keâe@e|škeâesš^e@efhekeâ Ss[^efveue keâe@šxkeäme kesâ m$eeJeCe
ne@ceexve (ACTH) keâe efveÙeb$eCe~
4. ieesvew[esš^eefhekeâ ne@ceexve
- Heâe@efueefkeâue Gòespekeâ Meg›eâkeâerš efvecee&Ce keâer ef›eâÙee
ne@ceexve (FSH) ØeYeeJe~
- uÙetšveeFeEpeie ne@ceexve keâe@he&me uÙetefšÙece keâer Je=efæ kesâ
(LH) efueS Øesefjle keâjlee nw~ Smš^espeve,
Øeespewmšerjesve leLee šsmšesmšerjesve
ne@ceexve keâer m$eJeCe kesâ efueS
Gòesefpele keâjlee nw~
- uewkeäšespewefvekeâ ne@ceexve ieefYe&le ceeoeDeeW ceW ogiOe efvecee&Ce
(LH) leLee Gmekesâ m$eJeCe keâes Øesefjle
keâjlee nw~
1. JesmesØesefmeve ®efOej ceW peue keâer cee$ee cet$e heleuee Je ®efOej ieeÌ[e nes cet$e ieeÌ{e, ®efOej heleuee~
(SefCš[dÙetjsefškeâ efveÙeb$eCe~ peelee nw~ cet$e keâer cee$ee yeÌ{
ne@ceexve) ADH peeleer nw~
2. heeFšesefmeve Ùee ieYee&MeÙe keâer DevewefÛÚkeâ
Dee@efkeämešesefmeve ceebmehesefMeÙeeW kesâ mebkegâÛeve
keâe efveÙeb$eCe~
1. eEueie neceexve yee¢e peveve DebieeW cebs efYevvelee,
efÉleerÙekeâ ueQefiekeâ ue#eCeeW hej
efveÙeb$eCe~
2. iuetkeâeskeâe@e|škeäJee Ùe[dme Jemee, Øeesšerve leLee iuetkeâespe kesâ hesefMeÙeeb keâcepeesj, ce=lÙeg DeefmLeÙeeW keâe ieuevee~
keâee|šmeesve Ùee GheeheÛeÙe keâe efveÙeb$eCe~
keâee|škeâesmšerjesve
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ne@ceexve~
3. efcevejwueer keâe@e|š keäJeeF[ Mejerj cebs Keefvepe ueJeCeeW keâer S[ermeve keâe jesie, peue
Ssu[esmšerjesve cee$ee keâes efveÙebef$ele keâjlee nw~ leLee Na keâe Glmepe&ve,
Mejerj keâe efvepe&ueerkeâjCe~
2. ces[Ùetuee (Medulla) 1. S[^ervesefueve jkeäle Ûeehe Je=efæ, ®efOej Meke&âje, ®efOej oeye keâce, efKevve neFhejiueeFmeerefceÙee mes
(Adrenaline) Je=efæ, ùoÙe mhevove Je=efæ keâe DeJemLee ceOegcesn, peue cee$ee Je ®efOej
efveÙeb$eCe (Devegkeâcheer leb$e keâer Yeebefle) oeye kesâ yeÌ{ves mes peien-peien
Mejerj keâe Hetâuevee, GÛÛe
®efOej-oeye SJeb leveeJe~
2. veewj-Ss[^ervesefueve
(Nolradrenaline)
peveve «ebefLe 1. Smš^espeve ceeoe veW peveve DebieeW keâe heefjJele&ve,
1. Deb[eMeÙe (Ovary) (Oestregen) ieewCe ueQefiekeâ ue#eCeeW keâe efveÙeb$eCe~
2. Øeespewmšerjesve ieewCe ueQefiekeâ ieYee&JemLee kesâ efueS
(Progesterone) lewÙeej keâjvee~
3. efjuesefkeämeve (Relaxin) ieYee&MeÙe keâer ceebmehesefMeÙeeW keâes
{eruee keâjvee~
2. Je=<eCe (Testis) šsmšesmšerjesve Øeesšerve GheeheÛeÙe ceW meneÙeÛekeâ,
(Testosterone) vej ceW ueQefiekeâ ue#eCe, Ùeewve
mJeYeeJe keâe efveÙeb$eCe~
DeiveeMeÙe (ueQiejnwvme 1. Fvmegefueve (Insulin) iuetkeâesme GheeheÛeÙe keâe efveÙeb$eCe~
keâer ÉerefhekeâeÙeW) 2. iuetkeâeieve Ùeke=âle cebs iueeFkeâespesve efvecveerkeâjCe
(Glucagon) keâe efveÙeb$eCe~
DeeceeMeÙe, 1. iewefmš^ve pe"j jme m$eeJeCe keâj efveÙeb$eCe~
Deeb$eerÙe Muesef<cekeâe 2. efme›eâsefšve DeiveeMeÙe Éeje, Dekeâeye&efvekeâ
ueJeCeeW kesâ m$eeJe keâe efveÙeb$eCe~
DeeceeMeÙe, 3. heQef›eâÙeespeeFefceve DeiveeMeÙe jme kesâ m$eeJe keâe
efveÙeb$eCe~
«enCeer~ 4. keâe@efueefmemšeskeâeFefveve efheòeeMeÙe keâe efheòejme kesâ
m$eJeCe kesâ efueS Göerheve~
5. SCšerjskeâeFefveve Deeble keâer keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâes
heeÛeve jme
6. SCšerjesiewmš^esve m$eeefJele keâjves kesâ efueS Göerhle
keâjlee nw~
pe"j jme kesâ m$eeJe keâes yebo
keâjlee nw~

 Smš^espesve efm$eÙeeW ceW efÉleerÙekeâ ueQefiekeâ DebieeW keâer Je=efæ leLee ef›eâÙeeb keâe ØesjCe, Deb[eMeerÙe hegefškeâeDeeW keâe heefjJeOe&ve,
efÉleerÙekeâ ueQefiekeâ ue#eCeeW keâe Øekeâšve (pewmes GÛÛe DeeJeepe keâer mJejceeve) mleve «ebefLeÙeeW keâe heefjJeOe&ve FlÙeeefo Deveskeâ
ef›eâÙeeSB keâjles nQ~
- Smš^espesve efm$eÙeeW kesâ ueQefiekeâ JÙeJenej keâe efveÙeecekeâ Yeer nw~
 Øeespesmšsje@ve ØemeJelee ceW meneÙekeâ nesles nQ~ Øeespesmšsje@ve ogiOe «ebefLeÙeeW hej Yeer keâeÙe& keâj kesâ ogiOe meb«en ketâefhekeâeDeeW kesâ
efvecee&Ce Deewj ogiOe kesâ m$eeJe ceW meneÙelee keâjles nQ~
ùoÙe (Heart), Je=keäkeâ (Kidney) Deewj pe"j Deeb$eerÙe heLe (Gastro Intestinal Path) kesâ neceexve
 neceexve keâe m$eeJe kegâÚ DevÙe DebieeW Éeje Yeer neslee nw pees Deble:m$eeJeer «ebefLeÙeeB veneR nw~
- oenjCe kesâ efueS ùoÙe Éeje keâ heshšeF&[ neceexve keâe m$eeJe neslee nw, efpemes Sefš^Ùeue vesefš^Ùegjsefškeâ keâejkeâ (ANF)
keânles nQ~
- Ùen jkeäle oeye (Blood Pressure) keâes keâce keâjlee nw, peye jkeäle oeye yeÌ{ peelee nw, lees ANF kesâ m$eeJe Deewj Fmekeâer
ef›eâÙee kesâ HeâuemJe¤he jkeäle JeeefnkeâeSB efJemHeâeefjle nes (Relaxed) peeleer nQ leLee jkeäle oeye keâce nes peelee nw~

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 Je=keäkeâ keâer pekeämšeiueesces¤uej (Xestaglomerular) keâesefMekeâeSB, FefjLjesheesF&efšve (Erythropytin) veecekeâ neceexve keâe
Glheeove keâjleer nQ pees jkeäleeCeg Glheefòe ()Deejyeermeer kesâ efvecee&Ce) keâes Øesefjle keâjlee nw~
 pe"j Deeb$eerÙe heLe kesâ efJeefYevve YeeieeW ceW GheefmLele Deble:m$eeJeer keâesefMekeâeSb Ûeej cegKÙe heshšeF[ neceexve keâe m$eeJe keâjleer
nQ;
(a) iewefmš^ve (Gastrin)–iewefmš^ve, pe"j «ebefLeÙeeW hej keâeÙe& keâj neF[^eskeäueesefjkeâ Decue (HCL) Deewj hesefhmeveespesve
(Pepsinogen) kesâ m$eeJe keâes Øesefjle keâjlee nw~
(b) mes›eâsefšve (Secritin)–mes›eâsefšve yeefn:m$eeJeer DeiveeMeÙe hej keâeÙe& keâjlee nw Deewj peue leLee yeeFkeâeyeexvesš DeeÙeveeW
kesâ m$eeJe keâes Øesefjle keâjlee nw.
(c) keâesefueefmemšeskeâeFefveve (Colisystokinin)–keâesefueefmemšeskeâeFefveve DeiveeMeÙe Deewj efheòeeMeÙe oesveeW hej keâeÙe& keâj
›eâceMe: DeiveeMeÙeer SbpeeFce Deewj efheòe jme kesâ m$eeJe keâes Øesefjle keânlee nw~
(d) pe"j DeJejesOeer heshšeF[ (Gastro Inhibitory Peptide or GIP)–GOP pe"j m$eeJe Deewj Gmekeâer ieefleMeeruelee
keâes DeJe®æ keâjlee nw~
 Deveskeâ DevÙe Tlekeâ, pees Deble: m$eeJeer veneR nw, keâF& neceexve keâe m$eeJe keâjles nQ efpevnW Je=efækeâejkeâ keânles nQ~ Ùes
Je=efækeâejkeâ, TlekeâeW keâer meeceevÙe Je=efæ Deewj Gvekeâer cejccele Deewj hegvepe&veve kesâ efueS DeeJeMÙekeâ nw~
mcejCeerÙe leLÙe–
 mepeerJebes ceW Deheves Deemeheeme kesâ JeeleeJejCe kesâ Devegmeej ef›eâÙee Je Devegef›eâÙee keâjves keâer #ecelee nesleer nw~
 heeoheeW keâer Devegef›eâÙee jmeeÙeefvekeâ heoeLeeX Éeje efveÙebef$ele nesleer nw~ FvnQ hegheo neceexve keâne peelee nw~
 ØeeefCeÙeeWceW efJeefYevve keâeÙeeX kesâ efveÙeb$eCe Je mecevJeÙe kesâ efueS lebef$ekeâe leb$e (Nervous System) leLee neceexve (harmone)
heeÙes peeles nQ~
 lebef$ekeâe leb$e keâer mebjÛeveelcekeâ Skeâ keâee|Ùekeâer FkeâeF& keâes leb$e keâesefMekeâe (Neuron) keânles nQ~
 leb$e keâesefMekeâe kesâ leerve Yeeie nQ- keâesefMekeâeÙe, õgefcekeâe, lebef$ekeâe<"e~
 lebef$ekeâe#e Dee#ejsie (Impulse) keâes Deble«e&Leve (Synapse) Éeje Skeâ keâesefMekeâeÙe mes otmejer leb$ekeâesefMekeâe lekeâ ues peelee
nw.
 lebef$ekeâe leb$e kesâvõerÙe Je heefjOeerÙe lebef$ekeâe leb$e keâe yevee neslee nw.
 kesâvõerÙe lebef$ekeâe leb$e (CNS) kesâ Debleie&le ceefmle<keâ Je ces¤jppet meefcceefuele nw~
 ceefmle<keâ leerve Yeeie ceW efJeYeeefpele nw- De«eYeeie, ceOÙe ceefmle<keâ leLee heMÛe ceefmle<keâ~
 mJeeÙeòe lebef$ekeâe leb$e (ANS) Deebleefjkeâ DebieeW kesâ keâeÙe& keâes efveÙebef$ele keâjlee nw~
 mJeeÙeòee lebef$ekeâe leb$e (i) Devegkeâmebheer Deewj (ii) hejevegkeâbheer leb$e ceW efJeYeeefpele nw~
 neceexve keâe m$eeJe Deble: m$eeJeer «ebefLeÙeeW Éeje neslee nw~
 neceexve nceejs Mejerj ceW Je=efæ, GheeheÛeÙe Deewj Øepeveve pewmeer keâF& keâeÙeeX keâes efveÙebef$ele keâjleer nw~
 Mejerj ceW neceexve SJeb lebef$ekeâe leb$e Mejerj ceW efveÙeb$eCe leLee mecevJeÙe keâe keâeÙe& keâjlee nw~


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•ããèÌã •ã¶ã¶ã (Reproduction)

peveve GòejpeerefJelee kesâ efueS DeeJeMÙekeâ veneR nw leLeeefhe Jen peeefleÙeeW keâes MeeMJele yeveeves kesâ efueS DeeJeMÙekeâ nw~ peveve
(Reproduction) Jele&ceeve peerJeeW (pevekeâeW) mes Gmeer peeefle keâer veF& JÙeef<šDeeW kesâ efueS Glhevve nesves kesâ Øeef›eâÙee nw~
efJeefYevve peerJeeW keâer DeefYekeâuhe, Deekeâej SJeb Deeke=âefle meceeve nesves kesâ keâejCe ner Jes meÂMe Øeleerle nesles nQ~ Mejerj keâe
DeefYekeâuheg meceeve nesves kesâ efueS Gvekeâe yueteEØeš Yeer meceeve nesvee ÛeeefnS Dele: Deheves DeeOeejyetle mlej hej peveve peerJe kesâ
DeefYekeâuhe keâe yueteEØeš lewÙeej keâjlee nw~
 keâesefMekeâe kesâ keWâõkeâ, ceW heeS peeves Jeeues iegCemet$eeW kesâ [er.Sve.S. (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) kesâ DeCegDeeW ceW DeevegJebefMekeâ
iegCeeW keâe mebosMe neslee nw pees pevekeâ kesâ mebleefle heerÌ{er ceW peelee nw~
 keâesefMekeâe kesâ keWâõkeâ kesâ [er.Sve.S. ceW Øeesšerve mebmues<eCe nsleg metÛevee efveefnle nesleer nw~ Fme mebosMe kesâ efYevve nesves keâer DeJemLee
ceW yeveves Jeeueer Øeesšerve Yeer efYevve nesieer~
veesš– efJeefYevve Øeesšerve kesâ keâejCe Deblele: Meejerefjkeâ DeefYekeâuhe ceW Yeer efJeefJeOelee nesieer~
 Dele: peveve keâer cetue Iešvee [er.Sve.S. (DNA) keâer Øeefleke=âefle yeveevee nw~ [er.Sve.S. keâer Øeefleke=âefle yeveeves kesâ efueS
keâesefMekeâeSB efJeefYevve jemeeÙeefvekeâ ef›eâÙeeDeeW keâe GheÙeesie keâjleer nQ~
 peveve keâesefMekeâe (Reproductive Cells) ceW Fme Øekeâej [er.Sve.S. keâer oes Øeefleke=âefleÙeeW yeveleer nQ leLee Gvekeâe Skeâ-otmejs
mes Deueie nesvee DeeJeMÙekeâ nw~ hejbleg [er.Sve.S. keâer Skeâ Øeefleke=âefle keâes cetue keâesefMekeâe ceW jKekeâj otmejer Øeefleke=âefle keâes
Tmemes yeenj efvekeâeue osves mes keâece veneR Ûeuesiee keäÙeeWefkeâ otmejer Øeefleke=âefle kesâ heeme pewJe-Øe›eâceeW kesâ Devegj#eCe nsleg mebieef"le
keâesefMekeâerÙe mebjÛevee lees veneR nesieer~ FmeefueS [er.Sve.S. keâer Øeefleke=âefle yeveves kesâ meeLe-meeLe otmejer keâesefMekeâerÙe mebjÛeveeDeeW
keâe me=peve Yeer neslee jnlee nw, Fmekesâ yeeo [er.Sve.S. keâer Øeefleef›eâÙeeB efJeueie nes peeleer nQ~
 heefjCeecele: Skeâ keâesefMekeâe efJeYeeefpele neskeâj oes keâesefMekeâeSB yeveeleer nQ~
 keâesF& Yeer pewJe-jemeeÙeefvekeâ Øeef›eâÙee hetCe&¤hesCe efJeMJemeveerÙe veneR nesleer~ Dele: Ùen Dehesef#ele nw efkeâ [er.Sve.S. Øeefleke=âefle keâer
Øeef›eâÙee cebs kegâÚ efJeefYevvelee DeeSieer~
- heefjCeecele: yeveves Jeeueer [er.Sve.S. Øeefleke=âefleÙeeB Skeâmeceeve lees neWieer, hejblet ceewefuekeâ [er.Sve.S. keâe mece¤he veneR
neWieer~
 kegâÚ efJeefYevveleeSB Fleveer G«e neW efkeâ [er.Sve.S keâer veÙeer Øeefleke=âefle Deheves keâesefMekeâerÙe mebie"ve kesâ meeLe meceeÙeesefpele veneR
nes heeS~ Fme Øekeâej keâer mebeflele keâesefMekeâe cej peeleer nw~
 otmejer Deesj [er.Sve.S. Øeefleke=âefle keâer Deveskeâ efJeefYevveleeSB Fleveer G«e veneR nesleer~ Dele: mebleefle keâesefMekeâeSB meceeve nesles ngS
Yeer efkeâmeer ve efkeâmeer ¤he ceW Skeâ otmejs mes efYevve nesleer nQ~ peveve ceW nesves Jeeueer Ùen efJeefYevveleeSB pewJe-efjkeâeme keâe DeeOeej
nQ~
efJeefYevlee keâe cenlJe
Deheveer peveve #ecelee keâe GheÙeesie keâj peerJeeW keâer meceef<š heeefjleb$e (Ecosystem) ceW mLeeve DeLeJee efvekesâle (Niche)
«enCe keâjles nQ~ peveveskeâ oewjeve DNA Øeefleke=âefle keâe DeefJejesOe peerJe keâer Meejerefjkeâ mebjÛevee SJeb ef[peeFve kesâ efueS DevleÙeble
cenlJehetCe& nw pees mLeeefÙelJe keâe mebyebOe peveve mes nw~
 efvekesâle cebs Deveskeâ heefjJele&ve Dee mekeâles nQ pees peerJeeW kesâ efveÙeb$eCe mes yeenj nQ~ he=LJeer keâe leehe keâce Ùee DeefOekeâ nes mekeâlee
nw, peue mlej ceW heefjJele&ve DeLeJee efkeâmeer Gukeâe eEhe[ keâe škeâjevee Fmekesâ kegâÚ GoenjCe nQ~
- Ùeefo keâ meceef<š Deheves efvekesâle kesâ Devegketâue nw leLee efvekesâle ceW kegâÚ G«e heefjJele&ve Deeles nQ lees Ssmeer DeJemLee ceW meceef<š
keâe mecetue efJeveeMe Yeer mebYeJe nw~

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- hejbleg, Ùeefo meceef<š kesâ peerJeeW ceW kegâÚ efJeefYevvelee nesieer lees Gvekesâ peerefJele jnves keâer kegâÚ mebYeeJevee nw~
 Dele: Ùeefo Meerlees<Ce peue ceW heeS peeves Jeeues peerJeeCegDeeW keâer keâesF& meceef<š nw lelee jwefMJekeâ T<ceerkeâjCe (global
Warming) kesâ keâejCe peue keâe leehe yeÌ{ peelee nw lees DeefOekeâlej peerJeeCeg JÙeef<š cej peeSbies, hejbleg G<Ce ØeeflejesOeer
#ecelee Jeeues kegâÚ heefjJele& ner peerefJele jnles nQ~
peveve kesâ Øekeâej
 mepeerJe cebs peveve cegKÙele: oes efjefOeÙeeW mes neslee nw- (i) DeueQefiekeâ peveve (Asexual Reproduction) (ii) ueQefiekeâ peveve
(Sexual Reproduction)
 DeueQefie peveve ceW mebleefle (Offspring) Skeâ nmeer pevekeâ JÙeef<š mes hewoe nesleer nw~
 ueQefiekeâ peveve ceW oes efYevve-efYevve eEueie Jeeues peerJeeW Skeâ vej Deewj Skeâ ceeoe keâer menYeeefielee keâer DeeJeMÙekeâlee nesleer nw.
 GoenjCele: DeueQefiekeâ peveve SkeâkeâesefMekeâ peerJebes, kegâÚ heeoheeW leLee efJeefMe<š yengkeâesefMekeâ peblegDeeW pewmes- mhebpees (Sponge)
neF[^e (Hydra) ceW heeÙee peelee nw~
Skeâue peerJeeW ceW Øepeveve keâer efJeefOe
DeueQefiekeâ peveve (Asexual Reproduction)
efJeKeb[ve (Division)–
 SkeâkeâesefMekeâ peerJeeW ceW keâesefMekeâe efJeYeepeve DeLeJee efJeKeb[ve Éeje veS peerJeeW keâer Glheefòe nesleer nw.
 efJeKeb[ve kesâ Deveskeâ lejerkesâ Øesef#ele efkeâS ieS~ Deveskeâ peerJeeCeg leLee ØeesšespeesDee keâer keâesefMekeâe efJeYeepeve Éeje meeceevÙele:
oes yejeyej YeeieeW cebs efJeYekeäle nes peeleer nw~
 Deceeryee (Ameoba) pewmes peerJeeW ceW keâesefMekeâe efJeYeepeve efkeâmeer Yeer leue mes nes mekeâlee nw.
 kegâÚ SkeâkeâesefMekeâ peerJeeW ceW Meejerefjkeâ mebjÛevee DeefOekeâ mebieef"le nesleer nw~
- GoenjCele: keâeueepeej kesâ jesieeCeg, uesmceeefveÙee ceW keâesefMekeâe kesâ Skeâ efmejs hej keâesF& kesâ meceeve met#ce mebjÛevee nesleer
nw~
- Ssmes peerJeeW ceW efÉKeb[ve (Binary Fission) Skeâ efveOee&efjle leue mes neslee nw~
 ceuesefjÙee hejpeerJeer, huewpceesef[Ùece pewmes DevÙe SkeâkeâesefMekeâ peerJe Skeâ meeLe Deveskeâ keâesefMekeâeDeeW cebs efJeYeeefpele nes peeles nQ,
efpeme yengKeb[ve keânles nQ~
 otmejer Deesj Ùeermš (Yeast) keâesefMekeâe mes Úsš cegkegâue (Bud) GYej keâj keâesefMekeâe mes Deueie nes peeles nQ leLee mJeleb$e ¤he
mes Je=efæ keâjles nQ~
Keb[ve (Fragmentation) –
 mejue mebjÛevee Jeeues yengkeâesefMekeâ peerJeeW ceW peveve keâer mejue efJeefOe keâeÙe& keâjleer nw~
- GoenjCele: mheeFjesieeFje (Spyrogyra) meeceevÙele: efJekeâefmele neskeâj Úesšs-Úesšs šgkeâÌ[eW ceW Kebef[le nes peelee nw~
Ùen šgkeâÌ[s DeLeJee Keb[ Je=efæ keâj veS peerJe (JÙeef<š) ceW efJekeâefmele nes peeles nQ~
 hejbleg Ùen meYeer yengkeâesefMekeâ peerJeeW kesâ efueS melÙe veneR nw~ Jes mejue ¤he mes keâesefMekeâeoj-keâesefMekeâe efJeYeeefpele veneR nesles~
Fmekeâe keâejCe nw efkeâ DeefOekeâlej yengkeâesefMekeâ peerJe efJeefYevve keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâe mecetn cee$e ner veneR nw~
- efJeMes<e keâeÙe& nsleg efJeefme<š keâesefMekeâeSB mebieef"le neskeâj Tlekeâ keâe efvecee&Ce keâjleer nQ leLee Tlekeâ mebieef"le neskeâj Debie
yeveeles nQ, Mejerj cebs Fvekeâer efmLeefle Yeer efveefMÛele nesleer nw~ Ssmeer mepeie JÙeJeefmLeefle heefjefmLeefle cebs keâesefMekeâ-oj-
keâesefMekeâe efJeYeepeve DeJÙeeJeneefjkeâ nw~ Dele: yengkeâesefMekeâ peerJeeW keâes peveve kesâ efueS Dehes#eeke=âle DeefOekeâ peefšue efJeefOe
keâer DeeJeMÙekeâlee nesleer nw~
 yengkeâesefMekeâ peerJeeW Éeje ØeÙegkeäle Skeâ meeceevÙe Ùegefkeäle Ùen nw efkeâ efJeefYevve Øekeâej keâer keâesefMekeâeSB efJeefMe<š keâeÙe& kesâ efueS
o#e nesleer nQ~

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- Fme meeceevÙe JÙeJemLee keâe heefjheeueve keâjles ngS Fme Øekeâej kesâ peerJeeW ceW peveve kesâ efueS efJeefMe<š Øekeâej keâer
keâesefMekeâeSB nesleer nQ~ peerJe ceW kegâÚ Ssmeer keâesefMekeâeSB nesveer ÛeeefnS efpeveceW Je=efæ, ØemejCe leLee GefÛele heefjefmLeefle cebs
efJeMes<e Øekeâej keâer keâesefMekeâe yeveeves keâer #ecelee nes~
hegve®odYeJeve (Regeneration) –
 hetCe&¤hesCe efjYesefole peerJeeW ceW Deheves keâeefÙekeâ Yeeie mes veS peerJe kesâ efvecee&Ce keâer #ecelee nesleer nw, DeLee&led Ùeefo efkeâmeer
keâejCeJeMe peerJe #ele-efJe#ele nes peelee nw DeLeJee kegâÚ šgkeâÌ[eW ceW štš peelee nw lees Fmekesâ Deveskeâ šgkeâÌ[s Je=efæ keâj veS peerJe
ceW efJekeâefmele nes peeles nQ~
- GoenjCele: neF[^e leLee huesvesefjÙee pewmes mejue ØeeefCeÙeeW keâes Ùeefo keâF& šgkeâÌ[eW ceW keâeš efoÙee peeS lees ØelÙeskeâ šgkeâÌ[e
efJekeâefmele neskeâj hetCe&peerJe keâe efvecee&Ce keâj oslee nw~ Ùen hegvejodYeJeve keânueelee nw~
 hegve¤odYeJeve (hegvepe&veve) efJeefMe<š keâesefMekeâeDeeW Éeje mebheeefole neslee nw~ Fve keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ ›eâceØemejCe mes Deveskeâ
keâesefMekeâeSB yeve peeleer nQ~
 keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ Fme mecetn mes heefjJele&ve kesâ oewjeve efJeefYevve Øekeâej keâer keâesefMekeâeSB SJeb Tlekeâ yeveles nQ~ Ùen heefjJele&ve
yengle JÙeJeefmLele ¤he SJeb ›eâce mes neslee nw efpemes heefjJeo&ve keânles nQ~
veesš– hegve¤odYeJeve peveve kesâ meceeve veneR nw Fmekeâe cegKÙe keâejCe Ùen nw efkeâ ØelÙeskeâ peerJe kesâ efkeâmeer Yeer Yeeie keâes keâeš keâj
meeceevÙele: veÙee peerJe Glhevve veneR neslee~
cegkegâueve (Budding)–
 neF[^e pewmes kegâÚ ØeeCeer hegvepe&veve keâer #ecelee Jeeueer keâesefMekeâeb keâe GheÙeesie cegkegâueve kesâ efueS keâjles nQ~
- neF[^e cebs keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ efveÙeefcele efJeYeepeve kesâ keâejCe Skeâ mLeeve hej GYeej (Bud) efJekeâefmele nes peelee nw. Ùen
GYeej (cegkegâue) Je=efæ keâjlee ngDee vevns peerJe ceW yeoue peelee nw leLee hetCe& efJekeâefmele neskeâj pevekeâ mes Deueie neskeâj
mJeleb$e peerJe yeve peelee nw~
keâeefÙekeâ ØeJeOe&ve (Vegetative Propagation)–
 Ssmes yengle mes heewOes nQ efpeveceW kegâÚ Yeeie pewmes peÌ[, levee leLee heefòeÙeeB GheÙegkeäle heefjefmLeefleÙeeW ceW efJekeâefmele neskeâj veÙes
heewOes Glhevve keâjles nQ~ DeefOekeâlej peblegDeeW kesâ efJehejerle, Skeâue heewOes Fme #ecelee keâe GheÙeesie peveve keâer efJeefOe kesâ ¤he ceW
keâjles nQ~
- hejlevej, keâuece DeLeJee jesheCe pewmeer keâeefÙekeâ ØeJeOe&ve keâer lekeâveerkeâ keâe GheÙeesie ke=âef<e ceW Yeer efkeâÙee peelee nw~
- ievvee, iegueeye DeLeJee Debietj Fmekesâ kegâÚ GoenjCe nQ~
 keâeefÙekeâ ØeJeOe&ve Éeje ieeS ieS heewOeeW cebs yeerpe Éeje GieeS heewOeeW keâer Dehes#ee heg<he SJeb Heâue keâce meceÙe ceW ueieves ueieles nQ~
- Ùen heæefle kesâuee, mebleje, iegueeye SJeb Ûecesueer pewmes Gve heewOeeW keâes Gieeves kesâ efueS GheÙeesieer nQ pees yeerpe Glhevve keâjves
keâer #ecelee Kees Ûegkesâ nQ~
- keâeefÙekeâ ØeJeOe&ve keâe otmeje ueeYe Ùen Yeer nw efkeâ Fme Øekeâej Glhevve meYeer heewOes DeevegJeebefMekeâ ¤he mes pevekeâ heewOes
kesâ meceeve nesles nQ~
 keâeefÙekeâ ØeOe&ve GÛÛe Jeie& kesâ kegâÚ heeoheeW ceW peveve efJeefOe nQ~
 heeohe kesâ JeOeea Yeeie (Vegetative Party) pewmes- peÌ[, levee DeLeJee heòeer mes Skeâ veeÙe heeohe heefjJeOe&efPele neslee nw~
 GoenjCe: Dece¤o keâer peÌ[ kesâ Thej keâer keâefueÙeeB leLee heOej Ûešdše (Bryophylum) keâer heòeer kesâ Thej keâer keâefueÙeeb veÙes
heeohe cebs heefjJee|Oele nesleer nQ~
 ke=âef$ece keâeefÙekeâ ØeOe&ve keâer efJeefOeÙeeb nQ-
(a) keâòe&ve (Cutting)–efkeâmeer leves, peÌ[, heòeer Ùee keâbo Meukeâ keâe šgkeâÌ[e keâle&leve nes mekeâlee nw.
- keâle&leve keâe kegâÚ Yeeie peye vece efcešdšer cebs ueieeÙee peelee nw lees FveceW peÌ[s efvekeâueleer nQ~ leye pevekeâ heeohe
pewmee veÙee heeohe heefjJee|Oele neslee nw~
- GoenjCe: Debietj, Heâuemee (Phalsa), iegueeye (Rose)~
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(b) oeye ueieevee (Layering)–oeye ueieeves ceW heeohe kesâ leves keâer keâ šnveer keâes KeeRÛekeâj efcešdšer ceW oyee efoÙee peelee
nw pees pevekeâ heeohe mes pegÌ[e jnlee nw leLee me hej DeJeuebefyele neslee nw~
- yengle heewOes pewmes- jmeYejer (Rasberry) Ùee mš^eyesjer (Strawberry) ceW oeye Øeeke=âeflekeâ ¤he mes yeveles nQ efpemes
pevekeâ heeohe mes Deueie efkeâÙee peelee nw~ veÙes heewOes GieeÙes pee mekeâles nQ~
- oeye ueieeveW ceW efkeâmeer ueÛeerueer MeeKee keâer hee&MJe MeeKeeSB leLee heefòeÙeeB Úebš oer peeleer nQ~
- oeye ueieeves keâe GheÙeesie- Decejketâo, iegÌ[nue (Hibiscus), yeesiesveefJeefueÙee (Bousgainvillea), Ûecesueer
(jasmine), ceesieje (Mogra), keâF& ke=âMe MeesYeveerÙe heeoheeW kesâ efueS efkeâÙee peelee nw~
(c) keâuece ueieevee (Grafting)–keâuece ueieeves keâer efJeefOe cebs efYevve-
efYevve heeoheeW kesâ oes YeeieeW keâes Deeheme cebs Fme Øekeâej peelee nw efkeâ Jes
mebÙegkeäle neskeâj Skeâ heeohe kesâ ¤he cebs efJekeâefmele nesles nQ~
- keâuece (Sction)–pees Yeeie otmejs heewOes kesâ Thej Deejesefhele
neslee nw~
- mkeâbOe (Stock)–efpeme heewOes hej keâuece yeebOee peelee nw.
- GoenjCe: veeRyet kesâ mkeâbOe hej mebleje, veeRyet, Debietj keâes Deejesefhele
efkeâÙee pee mekeâlee nw~
veesš– keâuece ueieeves ceW mkeâbOe leLee keâuece keâes Deeheme ceW Fme Øekeâej yeebOee peelee nw, efpememes oesveeW keâe SOee (Cambium) Skeâ
otmejs kesâ mebheke&â ceW jnles nQ~
Fmeer Øekeâej yeÇeÙeesefHeâuece keâer heefòeÙeeW keâer Deesj hej kegâÚ keâefuekeâeSB efJekeâefmele neskeâj ce=oe ceW efiej peeleer nQ leLee veS heewos
ceW efJekeâefmele nes peeleer nQ~
Tlekeâ mebJeOe&ve (Tissue Culture)
Tlekeâ mebJeOe&ve lekeâveerkeâ ceW heewOes kesâ Tlekeâ DeLeJee keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâes heewOes keâes Meer<e& kesâ JeOe&ceele Yeeie mes he=Lekedâ keâj veS heewOes
GieeS peeles nQ~ Fve keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâes keâe@ef$ece hees<ekeâ ceeOÙece ceW jKee peelee nw efpememes keâesefMekeâeSB efJeYeeefpele neskeâj Deveskeâ
keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâe Úesše mecetn yeveeleer nQ pewmes kewâueme keânles nQ~ kewâueme keâes Je=efæ SJeb efJeYesove kesâ neceexve Ùegkeäle Skeâ DevÙe
ceeOÙece ceW mLeeveebleefjle keâjles nQ~ heewOes keâes efHeâj efcešdšer ceW jeshe osles nQ efpememes efkeâ Jes Je=efæ keâj efJekeâefmele heewOes yeve peeles
nQ~ Tlekeâ mebJeOe&ve lekeâveerkeâ Éeje efkeâmeer Skeâue heewOes mes Deveskeâ heewOes meb›eâceCe-cegkeäle heefjefmLeefleÙeeW cebs Glhevve nes efkeâS pee
mekeâles nQ~ Fme lekeâveerkeâ keâe GheÙeesie meeceevÙele: mepeeJešer heewOeeW kesâ mebJeOe&ve cebs efkeâÙee peelee nw~
 yeerpeeCeg meceemebIe (Spore)–Deveskeâ mejue yengkeâesefMekeâ peerJeeW ceW Yeer efJeefMe<š peveve mebjÛeveeSB heeF& peeleer nQ~ T&É
leblegDeeW hej met#ce iegÛÚ (ieesue) mebjÛeveeSB peveve cebs Yeeie uesleer nQ~ Ùes iegÛÚ yeerpeeCegOeeveer nQ (Sporogonium) efpeveceW
efJeMes, keâesefMekeâeSB DeLeJee yeerpeeCeg heeS peeles nQ~ Ùen yeerpeeCeg Je=efæ keâjkesâ veS peerJe Glhevve keâjles nQ~ yeerpeeCeg kesâ ÛeejeW
Deesj Skeâ ceesšer efYeefòe nesleer nw pees Øeefleketâue heefjefmLeefleÙeeW ceW Gmekeâer j#ee keâjleer nw, vece melen kesâ mebheke&â ceW Deeves hej
Je=efæ keâjves ueieles nQ~
Deefve<eskeâ peveve (Parthenogenesis)–Ùen Deefve<esefÛele Deb[s mes Skeâ peerJe kesâ efJekeâeme keâer ef›eâÙee nw~
ueQefiekeâ peveve (Sexual Reproduction)
 ueQefiekeâ peveve kesâ efueS oes eEueie (Sexes)- vej Je ceeoe keâe nesvee DeeJeMÙekeâ nesles nQ~
- DeefOekeâlej ØeeefCeÙeeW ceW ceveg<Ùe keâer Yeebefle vej Je ceeoe peveve Debie Deueie-Deueie peerJe ceW nesles nQ~ Ssmes peerJeeW keâes
SkeâeEueieer (Unisexual) keânles nQ~
 efÉeEueieer (Bisexual) Ùee njceesøeâes[eFš (Hermaphrodite)–vej leLee ceeoe ueQefiekeâ Debie Skeâ peerJe ceW ner heeÙee
peelee nw~
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- GoenjCe: Heâerleeke=âefce (Tapeworm), keWâÛegDee (Earthworm), leejeceerve (Starfish)~

 peveo (Gonads) ØeeLeefcekeâ ueQefiekeâ Debie nesles nQ~
- peveo DeOe&met$eer efJeYeepeve (Meiosis) Éeje Ùegicekeâ (Gamete) yeveeles nQ~
- Je=<eCe (Testis)–vej peveo (male gonad) Meg›eâeCegb keâes Glhevve keâjlee nw~
- Deb[eMeÙe (Ovary)–ceeoe peven (Female Gonad) pees Deb[s Ùee Deb[eCegDeeW (OVA) keâes Glhevve keâjlee nw~
 ueQefiekeâ peveve keâe ØeejbYe oes efJeefYevve ÙegicekeâeW kesâ meefcceueve mes neslee nw, Fmes efve<esÛeve (Fertilisation) keâne peelee nw~
- Meg›eâeCeg (Sperms) vej Ùegicekeâ leLee Deb[eCeg (OVA) ceeoe Ùegice nesles nQ~
- oesveeW ÙegiceeW kesâ mebueÙeve (Fusion) ef›eâÙee keâes efve<esÛeve (Fertillisation) keânles nQ~ efve<esÛeve kesâ heMÛeeled Ùegicevepe
(Zygote) yevelee nw, pees veÙes peerJe ceW efJekeâefmele neslee nw~
- efve<esÛeve kesâ oewjeve Skeâ peerJe keâe Meg›eâeCeg Gmeer peeefle kesâ Deb[eCeg mes mebÙeefuele neslee nw~
 ceÚefueÙeeW leLee GYeÙeÛejeW (Fishes and Amphibians)–FveceW efve<esÛeve meeceevÙele: Mejerj kesâ yeenj neslee nw~ Fmes
yee¢e efve<esÛeve (External Fertilisation) keânles nQ~
 mejerme=heeW, heef#eÙeeW leLee mleveOeeefjÙeeW (ceeveJe mecesle) ceW Deebleefjkeâ efve<esÛeve (Internal Fertilisation) Øeef›eâÙee neslee nw~
- Ssmeer DeJemLee ceW Je=<eCe vej Ùegicekeâ (Sperm) ceeoe kesâ Mejer jceW mLeeveebleefjkeâ neslee nw~ peneb efve<esÛeve hetCe& neslee
nw~
- Ùen mLeeveeblejCe mebiece Ùee cewLegveebie (Couplation organ) Ùee meneÙekeâ ueQefiekeâ Debie (Acessory Sex Organ)
keânles nQ~
 ueQefiekeâ peveve Skeâ GÛÛe efJekeâefmele Øeef›eâÙee nw, Fmekesâ ueeYe efvecveefueefKele nQ-
(a) ueWefiekeâ peveve meblegefleÙeDeeW ceW iegCeeW keâer efJeefYevveleeDeeW keâes yeÌ{eJee oslee nw~
(b) ueQefiekeâ peveve ceW JeCeeW (Species) kesâ veÙes mebÙeespeve keâe DeJemej yeÌ{lee nw~
(c) Ùen efYevveleeDeeW keâes yeÌ{eJee oslee nw, pees efkeâ efJekeâeme kesâ efueS DeeJeMÙekeâ nw.
heg<heer heewOeeW ceW ueQefie peveve (Sexual Reproduction in flowering Plants)
 heeoheeW keâe peveve Yeeie heg<he neslee nw~ heg<he kesâ efJeefYevve Yeeie nQ- yee¢eoue
(Sepals), oue Ùee hebKegefÌ[Ùee (Petals), hegbkesâmej (Stamen), Deb[he
(Carpel)~
 yee¢eoue meeceevÙele: nje leLee oue jbieerve leLee MeesYeveerÙe nesles nQ~
 Skeâ heg<he ceW hegkeWâmej leLee Deb[he peveve Yeeie nesles nQ~
 ØelÙeskeâ hegbkesâmej (Stamen) ceW Skeâ Je=òe efpemes lebleg (Filament) keânles
nQ~ Ûeheše Yeeie efpemes hejeiekeâes<e (Anther) keânles nQ~
- hejeiekeâCeeW (Pollengrains) keâer Glheefòe hejeiekeâes<e ceW nesleer nw~
- ØelÙeskeâ hejeiekeâCe mes oes vejÙegicekeâ (Male Gamete) yeveles nQ~
 Deb[he (Carpel) kesâ leerve ØecegKe Yeeie nQ-
(i) Deb[eMeÙe (Overy)–veerÛes keâe Hetâuee ngDee Yeeie~
(ii) Jeefle›eâeie (Stigma)–Thej Jeeuee Ûeheše Yeeie~
(iii) Jee|lekeâe (Style)–ceOÙe Yeeie~
- Deb[eMeÙe ceW yeerpeeb[ nesles nQ~ ØelÙeskeâ yeerpeeb[ (Ovule) ceW Skeâ Deb[e neslee nw~ Ùen Deb[e ceeoe Ùegicekeâ (Female
Gamete) nw~
 hejeieCe (Pollination)–hejeiekeâCeeW (Pollen Grains)) keâe hejeiekeâes<e (Anther) mes Jeefle›eâeie (Stigma) lekeâ kesâ
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mLeeveeblejCe keâes hejeieCe keânles nQ~

- mLeeveeblejCe keâes hejeieCe keânles nQ~
- hejeiekeâes<e mes hejeieCe PeÌ[keâj Ùee lees Gmeer heg<he Ùee efkeâmeer DevÙe heg<he lekeâ hengbÛeles nQ~
- hejeieCe oes Øekeâej keâe neslee nw~
(a) mJe-hejeieCe (Slef-Pollination)–efkeâmeer heg<he kesâ hejeiekeâes<e mes Gmeer heg<he kesâ DeLeJee Gme heewOes kesâ DevÙe heg<he kesâ
efJele›eâeie lekeâ, hejeiekeâCeeW keâe mLeeveeblejCe mJe-hejeieCe keânueelee nw~
(b) hej-hejeieCe (Cross-Pollination)–Skeâ heg<he kesâ hejeiekeâes<e mes Gme peeefle kesâ otmejs heewOes kesâ heg<he kesâ Jeefle›eâeie
lekeâ hejeiekeâCeeW keâe mLeeveeblejCe hej-hejeieCe keânueelee nw~
 heewOeeW ceW efve<esÛeve–heewOeeW ceW hejeieCe kesâ yeeo efve<esÛeve neslee nw~ peye hejeiekeâCe
(Pollegrain) Jeefle›eâeie hej Skeâef$ele nes peeles nnQ~
- Fmekesâ heMÛeele Fvekeâe DebkegâjCe neslee nw Deewj GveceW mes Skeâ veueer
(tubes) keâes pees Jee|lekeâe ceW ØeJesMe keâjleer nw, Gmes hejeieveefuekeâe
(Pollen Tubes) keânles nQ~
- Ùen veefuekeâe Jee|lekeâe mes nesles ngS yeÌ{keâj Deb[eMeÙe lekeâ hengbÛelee nw,
peneb yeerpeeb[ (Ovule) mLeefle neslee nw~
- yeerpeeb[Éej (Micropyle)–hejeieveefuekeâe yeerpeeb[ ceW keâ met#ce efÚõ
Éeje ØeJesMe keâjleer nw~
- yeerpeeb[ kesâ Deboj hejeieveefuekeâe mes oes hegbÙegicekeâ (male gamete)
YeÇtCe keâes<e (Embryo Sac) ceW ØeJesMe keâjles nQ~
- Skeâ hegÙegbicekeâ keâe Deb[ mes mebueÙeve neslee nw~ vej leLee ceeoe ÙegicekeâeW
keâe Ùen mebueÙeve Ùegicekeâ-mebueÙeve (Syngamy) keânueelee nw leLee
Fmemes Ùegicepe (Zygote) yevelee nw~
- DevÙe hegÙegbicekeâ keâe oes OeÇgJeerÙe kesâvõkeâeW mes mebueÙeve neslee nw~ Fme
Øeef›eâÙee keâes ef$emebueÙeve (Triple Fusion) keânles nQ~
oesnje efve<esÛeve (Double Fertilization)–ØelÙeskeâ YeÇtCekeâes<e ceW oes mebueÙeve, Ùegicekeâ- mebueÙeve leLee ef$emebÙeueve keâes
oesnje efve<esÛeve keânles nQ~
 efve<esÛeve kesâ yeeo Deb[eMeÙe (Ovary) Heâue ceb leLee yeerpeeb[ (Ovule) yeerpeeW ceW efJekeâefmele nesles nQ~
ceeveJe ceb ueQefiekeâ peveve
 ceeveJe peveve leb$e DelÙeefOekeâ efJekeâefmele neslee nw~ heg®<e leLee m$eer ceW peveve mes mebyeæ jÛeveeSb Deueie-Deueie nesleer nQ, pees
Skeâ efJeefMe<ške=âle vej leLee ceeoe keâe peveve leb$e yeveeleer nQ~
 ceveg<ÙeeW kesâ peerJeve ceW peveve leb$e efveefMÛele DeeÙeg hej ef›eâÙeeMeerue neslee nw, Gmes ÙeewJeveejbYe (Puberty) keânles nQ~
- meeceevÙele: ueÌ[keâeW ceW ÙeewJeveejbYe 13 mes 14 Je<e& keâer GceÇ lekeâ peyeefkeâ ueÌ[efkeâÙeeW ceW Ùen 10 mes 12 Je<e& keâer GceÇ ceW
neslee nw~
- ÙeewJeveejbYe hej vej peveo (male Gonad), Meg›eâeCeg, (Sperm) leLee veejer peveo (Famale Gonad), Deb[eCeg
(Ovum) Glhevve keâjles nQ~
 Je=<eCe (Testis) leLee Deb[eMeÙe ceW neceexve (Hormones) keâe Yeer m$eeJe neslee nw-
(i) šsmšesmšsje@ve (Testosterone)–vej ceW~

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(ii) Fmš^espesve (Estrogen)–ceeoe ceW~

- peveve ef›eâÙee ceW neceexve DelÙeble cenlJehetCe& Yetefcekeâe efveYeeles nQ-
(a) Ùegicekeâpeveve (Gametogenesis) keâer ef›eâÙee keâes efveÙebef$ele keâjvee~
(b) meneÙekeâ ueQieefkeâ (Accessory Sexual) DebieeW keâer mebjÛevee leLee keâeÙeeX keâes yeveeÙes jKevee~
(c) efÉleerÙe ueQefiekeâ ue#eCeeW keâes heefjJee|Oele keâjvee; pewmes-Ûesnjs,
De#eerÙe SJeb peIeveeW kesâ yeeue, Jeekeâd OJeefve ceW leejlJe leLee
mLeve «ebefLeÙeeW (Mammary Glands) keâe efJekeâeme~
vej peveve leb$e (Male Reproductive Organ)
 peveve keâeseMf ekeâe Glheeefole keâjves Jeeues Debie SJeb peveve keâesefMekeâeDeeW
keâes efve<esÛeve kesâ mLeeve lekeâ hengBÛeeves Jeeues Debie, mebÙegkeäle ¤he mes,
vej peveve leb$e yeveeles nQ~
 vej peveve-keâesefMekeâe (Reproductive Cell) DeLeJee Meg›eâeCeg
(Sperm) keâe efvecee&Ce Je=<eCe (Testis) ceW neslee nw~
- Ùen Goj iegne kesâ yeenj Je=<eCe keâes<e (Testis sac) cebs
efmLele nesles nQ~ Fmekeâe keâejCe Ùen nw efkeâ Meg›eâeCeg (Sperm) Glheeove kesâ efueS DeeJeMÙekeâ leehe Mejerj kesâ leehe mes keâce
neslee nw~ Ùen leeheceeve Mejerj kesâ leeheceeve mes 1-3º C keâce neslee nw~
 šsmšesmšsje@ve (Testosterone) neceexve kesâ Glheeove SJeb m$eJeCe ceW Je=<eCe keâer Yetefcekeâe cenlJehetCe& nesleer nw~
- Meg›eâeCeg Glheeove kesâ efveÙeb$eCe kesâ Deefleefjkeäle šsmšesmšsje@ve ueÌ[keâeW ceW ÙeewJeveeJemLee kesâ ue3CeeW keâes Yeer efveÙeb$eCe keâjlee
nw~
 Glheeefole Meg›eâeCegDeeW keâe ceesÛeve Meg›eâJeeefnkeâeDeeW (Vas Deferens) Éeje neslee nw~
- Ùes Meg›eâJeeefnkeâeSB cet$eeMeÙe (Urinary Bladder) mes Deeves Jeeueer veueer mes pegÌ[ keâj Skeâ mebÙegkeäle veueer yeveeleer nw~ Dele:
cet$eceeie& (Urethra) Meg›eâeCegDeeW SJeb cet$e oesveeW kesâ Øejen kesâ GYeÙe ceeie& nQ~
 Øeesmš^sš (Prostate) leLee Meg›eâeMeÙe (Seminal Vasicle) Deheves m$eeJe Meg›eâJeeefnkeâe ceW [eueles nQ efpememes Meg›eâeCeg Skeâ
lejue ceeOÙece ceW Dee peeles nQ~ Fmekesâ keâejCe Fvekeâe mLeeveeblejCe mejuelee mes neslee nw meeLe ner Ùen m$eeJe GvnW hees<eCe Yeer
Øeoeve keâjlee nw~
 Meg›eâeCeg met#ce mebvejÛeveeSB nQ efpemeceW cegKÙele: DeevegJeebefMekeâ heoeLe& nesles nQ leLee Skeâ uebyeer hetBÛe nesleer nw pees GvnW ceeoe
peveve-keâesefMekeâe keâer Deesj lewjves ceW meneÙelee keâjleer nw~
ceeoe peveve leb$e (Female Reproductive System)
 ceeoe peveve-keâeseMf ekeâeb DeLeJee Deb[-keâesefMekeâe (Egg Cell) keâe efvecee&Ce
Deb[eMeÙe (Ovary) ceW neslee nw~
- Jes kegâÚ neceexve Yeer Glheeefole keâjleer nw~ ueÌ[keâer kesâ pevce kesâ
meceÙe ner Deb[eMeÙe ceW npeejeW DeheefjhekeäJe Deb[ nesles nQ~
 ieYee&MeÙe Ùeesefve (Vagina) ceW Keguelee nw, Ùeesefvekeâ Skeâ veueekeâej
mebjÛevee nw, Fmes pevce veeue' (Birth Canal) Yeer keânles nQ~
- ieYee&MeÙe (Uterus) ceW efJekeâeme hetCe& nesves kesâ heMÛeeled efmeMeg
Fmeer veeue mes pevce ueslee nw~
m$eer ceW cet$e ceeie& (Urethra) leLee Ùeesefve (Vaginal) efÚõ Deueie nesles nQ~

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m$eer ceW ueQefiekeâ Ûe›eâ (Sexual Cycle in Female)

 Deb[eMeÙe (Overy) ceW efveefMÛele DeeÙeg (11 mes 12 Je<e&) hej Deb[eCeg (Female Gamete) Glheeove ØeejbYe nesles nQ~ Fme
DeJemLee keâes ÙeewJeveejbYe (Puberty) keânles nQ~
- Fme GceÇ kesâ heMÛeeled Deb[eMeÙe ceW IešveeDeeW keâe Ûe›eâ Skeâ efveefMÛele Deblejeue hej nesles jnlee nw~
- Deb[eMeÙeer hegefškeâeSb (Ovarian Follicle) Je=efæ keâjkesâ heefjhekeäJe hegefškeâe yeveeleer nw leLee keâ heefjhekeäJe hegefškeâe
efJekeâefmele neskeâj Skeâ Deb[eCeg keâes Iesjleer nw~
 Deb[eslmeie& (Ovulation)–Fme ef›eâÙee Éeje Deb[eMeÙe mes Deb[eCeg cegkeäle neslee nw~
- meeceevÙele: Ùen Øeef›eâÙee Skeâ meceÙe ceW efkeâmeer Skeâ Deb[eMeÙe ceW ner efve<heeefole nesleer nw~
 $e+legm$eeJe jpeesOece& (Menstruation)–efve<esÛeve (Fertilisation) ve nesves keâer DeJemLee ceW ieYee&<eÙe keâer Deebleefjkeâ ceesšer
efYeefòe jkeäle JenefveÙeeW kesâ meeLe štškeâj jkeälem$eeJe kesâ ¤he cebs Ùeesefve mes yeenj Deeleer nw~
- Fmekeâer DeJeefOe 4 mes 7 efove nesleer nw~
veesš– ØelÙeskeâ 28 efove yeeo Deb[eMeÙe leLee ieYee&MeÙe ceW nesves Jeeueer Iešvee $e+legm$eeJe Éeje efÛeefvnle nesleer nw~ leLee Delee&Je Ûe›eâ
(Menstrual Cycle) Ùee efm$eÙeeW keâer ueQefiekeâ (Sexual Cycle of Female) keânueeleer nw~
 Skeâ meeceevÙe mJemLe m$eer ceW Delee&Je Ûe›eâ kesâ ceOÙe ueieYeie 14JeW efove Deb[eslmeie& (Ovulation) neslee nw~
 ÙeewJeveejbYe kesâ meceÙe jpeesOece& kesâ ØeejbYe keâes jpeesoMe&ve (Menarche) keânles nQ, Ùen m$eer kesâ peveve keâe DeejbYe nesves keâe
mebkesâlekeâ nw~
 jpeesJe=efòe (Manopause)–efm$eÙeeW ceW Deb[eMeÙe leLee ieYee&MeÙe ceW IešveeDeeW keâe Ûe›eâ ueieYeie 50 keâer DeeÙeg hej yebo nes
peelee nw~ Fmekeâe mebkesâle $e+legm$eeJe kesâ yebo nesves mes neslee nw~
veesš– 1. jpeesoMe&ve leLee jpeesJe=efòe kesâ yeerÛe keâe meceÙe (12-50 Je<e&) efm$eÙeeW ceW meeceevÙe peveve keâeue neslee nw~
2. meieYe&lee kesâ oewjeve Deb[eMeÙe leLee ieYee&MeÙe kesâ keâeÙeeX ceW heefjJele&ve Dee peelee nw~
3. efMeMeg kesâ pevce uesves lekeâ Deb[eslmeie& leLee jespe Oece& yebo jnles nQ~
efve<esÛeve –
 ceeveJe ceW Deebleefjkeâ efve<esÛeve neslee nw, cewLegve (Couplation) Éeje vej Ùegicekeâ (male gamete) Meg›eâeCeg (Sperm) m$eer
peveveebie ceW ØeJesMe keâjles nQ~
- Meg›eâeCeg DelÙeefOekeâ meef›eâÙe Je ÛeueÙeceeve nesles nQ~ keâjesÌ[eW Meg›eâeCeg Ùeesefve ceW Øeefj<š neskeâj ieYee&MeÙe «eerJee (Cervix)
Ùes ieYee&MeÙe keâer Deesj ieceve keâjles nQ~
- Deble ceW efmeHe&â Skeâ Meg›eâeCeg ef[cyeJeeefnveer (Fallopian Tube) ceW Deb[eCeg keâes efve<esefÛele keâjles nQ~
Ùeefo Deb[eslmeie& keâeue ceW cewLegve ngDee lees Meg›eâeCeg leLee Deb[eCeg kesâ meefcceefuele mes Ùegicepe (Zygole) yevelee nw~
 efve<esÛeve keâer henÛeeve $e+legm$eeJe (Menstruation) kesâ DevegheefmLeefle mes neslee nw~
 Ùegicepe keâe YeÇtCeerÙe efJekeâeme ef[cyeJeeefnveer (Fallopian Tube) veueer ceW DeefJeuebye Meg¤ neslee nw~
- YeÇtCe veerÛes keâer Deesj efKemekeâkeâj ieYee&MeÙe keâer Deebleefjkeâ mLetue efYeefòe (Thickered Inner Wall) mes pegÌ[ peelee nw~
- YeÇtCe leLee ieYee&MeÙe kesâ efvekeâš mebueivelee keâes jesheCe (Implantation) keânles nQ~
 Deheje (Placenta)–jesheCe kesâ heMÛeele ieYee&MeÙe keâer oerJeej leLee YeÇtCe kesâ yeerÛe Glhevve nesves Jeeuee efJeMes, Tlekeâ~
- YeÇtCe kesâ efJekeâeme kesâ efueS hees<eCe, MJemeve SJeb Glmjpeve pewmeer DeeJeMÙekeâleeDeeW keâer hete|le ceele= Mejerj mes Deheje Éeje
nesleer nw.
 ieYee&JeefOe (Gestation)–ieYee&MeÙe ceW pevce uesves lekeâ ieYe& keâkeâer efJekeâeme Øeef›eâÙee~
 ØemeJe (Parturition)–ieYee&JeefOe hetCe& nesves hej hetCe&leÙee efJekeâefmele ieYe& kesâ pevce keâer Øeef›eâÙee~
veesš – 1. ceeveJe meieYe&lee keâer Deewmele DeJeefOe 280 efove Ùee 40 mehleen nesleer nw, Fmekeâer ieCeÑe DeleerJe Ûe›eâ (Menstrual
Cycle) kesâ ØeLece efoJeme mes keâer peeleer nw~

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2. ieYee&JeefOe kesâ heMÛeele veJepeele efMeMeg keâe Jepeve ueieYeie 35 efkeâ.«ee. neslee nw~
ueQefiekeâ mebÛeeefjle jesie (Sexually Transmitted Disease/STD)–
 Skeâ Øekeâej keâe meb›eâecekeâ jesie ueQefieie mebmeie& Éeje Skeâ meb›eâefcele JÙeefkeäle mes mJemLe JÙeefkeäle lekeâ Hewâuelee nw~
- GoenjCe: megpeekeâ (Gonorrhoea), DeeleMekeâ (Syphills), š^eÙekeâesceesvemelee (Trichomoniasis)
- Fve jesieeW keâe ue#eCe
(a) cet$e lÙeeie ceW peueve keâe DevegYeJe,
(b) cet$e ceeie& cebs m$eeJe
- Ùes jesie mee Ùe (Curable) nw.
 Gheee|pele Øeeflej#ee DeYeeJe mebue#eCe (AIDS)–Skeâ ueQefiekeâ mebÛeeefjle jesie nw, efpememes ce=lÙeg Yeer nes mekeâleer nw~
- DeYeer lekeâ Fme jesie keâe efveefMÛele GheeÛej veneR nw~
- Fme jesie keâe Glheeokeâ keâejkeâ ceeveJeÙeer Øeeflej#ee nervelee efJe<eeCeg (Human Immuno Defeciency Virus-HIV)
nw~
mcejCeerÙe leLÙe –
 peveve Skeâ DeefÉleerÙe pewefJekeâ ef›eâÙee nw pees peeefleÙeeW keâer efvejblejlee kesâ efueS DeeJeMÙekeâ nw~
 Ùen Skeâ Ssmeer DeefYeef›eâÙee nw, efpemekesâ Éeje pevekeâ Deheveer ner peeefle keâer veF& JÙeef<"ÙeeB Glhevve keâjlee nw~
 peveve oes Øekeâej keâe neslee nw-ueQefiekeâ SJeb DeueQefiekeâ~
 DeueQefiekeâ peveve keâer efJeefOeÙeeb- (1) efJekeâb[ve, (2) cegkegâueve, (3) hegvepe&veve, (4) yeerpeeCeg peveve, (5) keâeefÙekeâ ØeJeOe&ve~
 ueQefiekeâ peveve GÛÛeßesCeer kesâ heewOes leLee ØeeefCeÙeeW (ceeveJe mecesle) ceW heeÙes peeles nQ~
 heeoheeW kesâ peveveebie heg<he cebs heeÙes peeles nQ, FveceW vej peveveebie hejeiekeâCe Glhevve keâjles nQ, efpemeceW hegbÙegicekeâ yeveles nQ~
 hejeiekeâCe Gmeer heeohe Ùee Gme peeefle kesâ efkeâmeer DevÙe heeohe kesâ ceeoe peveveebieeW hej mLeeveebleefjle nes peeles nQ, Fme Øeef›eâÙee
keâes hejeieCe keânles nQ~
 heg®<eeW ceW Je=<eCe (Testis) leLee efm$eÙeeW ceW Deb[eMeÙe (Ovary) ØeeLeefcekeâ ueQefiekeâ Debie nesles nQ~
 Ùes Meg›eâeCeg (vej Ùegicekeâ) leLee Deb[eCeg (m$eer Ùegicekeâ) Deewj eEueie neceexve keâe Glheeove keâjles nQ~
 efm$eÙees bceW ÙeewJeveejbYe (jpeesoMe&ve) keâe nesvee Deb[eCegDeeW kesâ Glheeove leLee ØelÙeskeâ 28JeW efove $e+legm$eeJe (jpesJeece&) Éeje
efÛeefvnle neslee nw~ Fme Ûe›eâerÙe Iešvee keâes DeleerJe Ûe›eâ keânles nQ~
 ceeveJe ceW Meg›eâeCeg leLee De[eCeg keâe mebueÙeve (efve<esÛeve) ef[cyeJeeefnveer veueer (Fallopian Tube) ceW neslee nw~
 Ùegicepe efKemekeâkeâj ieYee&MeÙe cebs efmLej nes peelee nw, meieYe&lee DeejbYe nes peelee nw~
 ueQefiekeâ mebmeie& mes nesves Jeeues mebÛeeefjle jesie keâes ueQefiekeâ mebÛeeefjle (STD) keânles nQ~



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ÌãâÍãØããä¦ã ‚ããõÀ ãäÌããäÌã£ã¦ãã ‡ãñŠ ãäÔã®ãâ¦ã (Principles of Inheritance & Variation)

 peerJe efJe%eeve keâer Skeâ MeeKee [DeevegJebefMekeâ (Genetics) efJe%eeve] ceW JebMeeieefle (inheritance) Deewj efJeefJeOelee (Varia-
tion) oesveeW keâe DeOÙeÙeve neslee nw, DeLee&led Ùen efJeÛeej efkeâÙee peelee nw, efkeâ pevekeâ Deewj mebleefle kesâ ue#eCeeW ceW meceevelee
Ùee Demeceevelee keäÙeeW nesleer nw~
 JebMeeieefle DeevegJebefMekeâer keâe DeeOeej nw~ JebMeeieefle Jen Øe›eâce nw efpememes ue#eCe pevekeâ mes mebleefle ceW peeles nQ leLee efJeefJeOelee
pevekeâ Deewj mebleefle kesâ ue#eCeeW keâer Demeceevelee keâer DeJemLee nw~
 ceeveJe keâes 800-1000 Je<e& F&mee hetJe& Ùen %eele nes Ûegkeâe Lee efkeâ efJeefJeOelee keâe keâejCe ueQefiekeâ peveve (Sexual
Reproduction) keâer Øeef›eâÙee ceW efÚhee ngDee nw~ Gmeves heeoheeW Deewj peblegDeeW keâer Øeke=âefle ceW GheefmLele peerJe efJeefJeOelee (Bio-
diversity) keâe ueeYe G"eÙee Deewj ueeYeoeÙekeâ ue#eCeeW Jeeues peerJeeW keâes Ûegvekeâj Gvekeâe Øepeveve keâjJeeÙee leLee Gvemes
FefÛÚle ue#eCeeW kesâ peerJe Øeehle efkeâS~
ceW[ue kesâ JebMeeieefle kesâ efveÙece (Mendal's law of Inheritance)
GvveermeJeeR meoer kesâ ceOÙe kesâ Je<eeX ceW ner DeevegJebefMekeâlee keâes mecePeves ceW «eerieesj ceW[ue (Gregor Mendel) ves GÅeeve cešj
kesâ heewOes ceW meele Je<eeX (1856-1863) lekeâ mebkeâjCe kesâ ØeÙeesie efkeâS leLee Gvekesâ DeeOeej hej peerJeeW keâer JebMeeieefle efveÙece keâes
ØemleeefJele efkeâÙee~ Gvekesâ meHeâue efve<keâ<eeX ves efmeæ efkeâÙee efkeâ ceW[ue kesâ JebMeeieefle efveÙeceeW ceW JÙeehekeâlee Leer~
ef«eiej ceW[ue (Gregor Mendel) keâes DeevegJeebefMekeâer keâe efhelee ceevee peelee nw~

Skeâ peerve keâer JebMeeieefle (Inheritance of One Gene)

 ceW[ue ves JebMeeieefle kesâ DeOÙeÙeve kesâ efueS Skeâ ØeÙeesie ceW cešj kesâ uebyes leLee yeewves heewOes keâe mebkeâjCe (Cross Pollination)
efkeâÙee~
- Fme ØeÙeesie Éeje Skeâ peerve (gene) keâe DeevegJebefMekeâ DeOÙeÙeve efkeâÙee ieÙee~
- Fme mebkeâjCe mes Glhevve yeerpeeW keâes ueieekeâj GvneWves ØeLece mebleefle heerÌ{er kesâ heewOes Øeehle efkeâS~ Fme heerÌ{er keâes ØeLece
mebleefle heerÌ{er (Fililal or Progency) Ùee F1 Yeer keâne peelee nw~
 ceW[ue ves osKee efkeâ F1 heerÌ{er kesâ meYeer heewOes uebyes Les DeLee&led Deheves uebyes pevekeâ kesâ meceeve Les, keâesF& heewOee yeewvee veneR Lee~
 Fmeer Øekeâej kesâ heefjCeece DevÙe efJeMes<ekeâeW Jeeues mebkeâjCe ØeÙeesieeW ceW Yeer heeS ieS~ GvneWves osKee efkeâ F1 ceW oes ceW mes Skeâ
pevekeâ kesâ ue#eCeeW keâer ner DeefYeJÙeefkeäle nesleer nw~ otmejs pevekeâ kesâ ue#eCe Øekeâš veneR nesles~
 ceW[ue ves efHeâj F1 kesâ meYeer uebyes heewOeeW keâes mJeÙeb hejeefiele (Self-Pollinated) efkeâÙee lees F2 heerÌ{er ceW ØelÙeglhevve kegâÚ heewOes
yeewves Les~
- pees ue#eCe F1 heerÌ{er ceW veneR osKee ieÙee, Jen Deye ØeoefMe&le nes ieÙee~ yeewves heewOeeW keâe Devegheele kegâue F2 heewOeeW keâe
25 ØeefleMele Lee peyeefkeâ 75 ØeefleMele heewOes uebyes Les~
- uebyes Deewj yeewvesheve kesâ ue#eCe pevekeâeW kesâ meceeve ner Les Deewj FveceW efkeâmeer Øekeâej keâe meefcceßeCe vener Lee~ DeLee&led
meYeer Ùee lees uebyes Les Ùee yeewves, cePeesues keâo kesâ keâesF& Yeer veneR Les~
 Deheves Øes#eCeeW keâes DeeOeej yeveekeâj ceW[ue ves JebMeeieefle mebyebOeer Deheveer mecePe kesâ meej ®he kesâ oes meeceevÙe efveÙece
ØemleeefJele efkeâS~ Fve efveÙeceeW keâes JebMeeieefle kesâ efveÙeceeW Ùee efmeæebleeW keâer meb%ee oer peeleer nw~ ØeLece efveÙece nw - ØeYeeefJelee
efveÙece (Law of Dominance) Deewj efJemebÙeespeve efveÙece (Principle of Segregation)~
ØeYeeefJelee efveÙece (uee Dee@Heâ [esefceveWme)
(i) ue#eCeeW keâe efveOee&jCe keâejkeâ veecekeâ efJeefJekeäle (Discrete) FkeâeFÙeeW Éeje nesles nQ~
(ii) keâejkeâ peesÌ[eW ceW nesles nQ~
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(iii) Ùeefo keâejkeâ peesÌ[eW kesâ oes meomÙe Demeceeve neW lees FveceW mes Skeâ keâejkeâ otmejs keâejkeâ hej ØeYeeJeer nes peelee nw DeLee&led
Skeâ ’ØeYeeJeer’ Deewj otmeje ’DeØeYeeJeer’ neslee nw~
veesš : F1 ceW kesâJeue Skeâ pevekeâ ue#eCe keâe Øekeâš nesvee leLee F2 ceW oesveeW pevekeâ ue#eCeeW keâe Øekeâš nesvee; ØeYeeefJelee kesâ efveÙece
keâs Éeje mecePee pee mekeâlee nw~
efJemebÙeespeve efveÙece (Law of Segregation)
 Fme efveÙece keâe DeeOeej Ùen leLÙe nw efkeâ Deueerue (Alleles) Deeheme ceW Iegueefceue (meefcceßeCe) vener heeles Deewj F2 heerÌ{er
ceW oesveeW ue#eCeeW keâer efHeâj mes DeefYeJÙeefkeäle nes peeleer nw, Yeues ner F1 heerÌ{er ceW Skeâ Øekeâš veneR neslee~ ÙeÅeefhe pevekeâeW ceW
oesveeW Deueerue efJeÅeceeve nesles nQ~
DehetCe& ØeYeeefJelee (Incomplete Dominance)
 peye cešj Jeeues ØeÙeesie keâes DevÙe efJeMes<ekeâeW kesâ meboYe& ceW oesnjeÙee ieÙee lees helee Ûeuee efkeâ keâYeer keâYeej F1 ceW Ssmee
HeâerveesšeFhe (Phenotype) Dee peelee nw pees efkeâmeer Yeer pevekeâ mes veneR efceuelee peguelee Deewj Fvekesâ yeerÛe keâe mee ueielee
nw~
 MJeeve heg<he (mveshe[^sieve/Antirhynum) ceW heg<he jbie keâer JebMeeieefle DehetCe& ØeYeeefJelee keâes mecePeves kesâ efueS DeÛÚe GoenjCe
nw~
- ueeue Hetâue Jeeueer (RR) Deewj meHesâo Hetâue Jeeueer (rr) Øepeeefle kesâ mebkeâjCe kesâ heefjCeecemJe®he F1 heerÌ{er iegueeyeer HetâueeW
(Uk) Jeeueer Øeehle ngF&~
- peye Fme F1 mebleefle keâes mJeÙeb hejeefiele efkeâÙee ieÙee lees heefjCeeceeW keâe Devegheele 1 (RR) ueeue : 2 (Uk) iegueeyeer :
(rr) meHesâo Lee~
- ÙeneB hej peerveesšeFhe (Genotype) Devegheele Jener Lee pees efkeâmeer Yeer ceW[ueerÙe SkeâmebkeâjCe kesâ mebkeâjCe ceW mebYeeefJele
neslee, efkeâvleg HeâerveesšeFhe Devegheele DeLee&led 3:1 (ØeYeeJeer : DeØeYeeJeer) yeoue ieÙee~ Fme GoenjCe ceW R keâejkeâ r
keâejkeâ hej hetCe&le: ØeYeeJeer veneR jne Dele: ueeue (RR), meHesâo (rr) mes iegueeyeer (Uk) Øeehle nes ieÙee~
men ØeYeeefJelee (Co-Dominance)
 men ØeYeeefJelee Ssmeer Iešvee nw efpemeceW F1 heerÌ{er oesveeW pevekeâeW mes efceueleer-pegueleer nw~
- Fmekeâe Skeâ DeÛÚe GoenjCe ceeveJeeW ceW ABO ®efOej JeieeX keâe efveOee&jCe keâjves Jeeueer efJeefYevve Øekeâej keâer ueeue
®efOej keâesefMekeâeSB nQ ABO ®efOej JeieeX keâe efveÙeb$eCe peerve 'I' keâjleer nQ~
- ueeue ®efOej keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâer hueepcee efPeuueer ceW melen mes yeenj efvekeâueles ngS Meke&âje yenguekeâ nesles nQ~ Fme
yenguekeâ keâe Øekeâej keäÙee nesiee ÙeneB Fme yeele keâe efveÙeb$eCe peerve 'I' mes neslee nw~
- Fme peerve 'I' kesâ leerve Deueerue - (a) IA, (b) IB Deewj (c) i nesles nQ~
 Deueerue IA Deewj Deueerue IB kegâÚ efYevve Øekeâej keâer Meke&âje keâe Glheeove keâjles nQ Deewj Deueerue i efkeâmeer Yeer Øekeâej keâer
Meke&âje keâe Glheeove veneR keâjleer~
 Deueerue IA Deewj Deueerue IB kegâÚ efYevve Øekeâej keâer Meke&âje keâe Glheeove keâjles nQ Deewj Deueerue i efkeâmeer Yeer Øekeâej keâer
Meke&âje keâe Glheeove veneR keâjleer~
 ceeveJe peerJeve (2n) efÉiegefCele neslee nw FmeefueS ØelÙeskeâ JÙeefkeäle ceW Fve leerve ceW mes oes Øekeâej kesâ peerve Deueerue nesles nQ~
IA Deewj IB lees i kesâ Thej hetCe&®he mes ØeYeeJeer nesles nQ DeLee&led peye IA Deewj i efJeÅeceeve neW lees kesâJeue IA DeefYeJÙekeäle neslee
nw Deewj peye IB Deewj i efJeÅeceeve neW lees kesâJeue IB DeefYeJÙekeäle neslee nw, i lees Meke&âje yeveelee ner veneR~
 peye IA Deewj IB oesveeW GheefmLele neW lees Ùes oesveeW Deheves-Deheves Øekeâej keâer Meke&âje keâer DeefYeJÙeefkeäle keâj osles nQ~ Ùen Iešvee
ner men-ØeYeeefJelee nw~
 Fmeer keâejCe ueeue ®efOej keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW A Deewj B oesveeW ØekeâejeW keâer Meke&âje nesleer nw~ leerve efYevve Øekeâej kesâ Deueerue
nesves kesâ keâejCe Fvekesâ 6 mebÙeespeve mebYeJe nQ~ Fme Øekeâej ABO ®efOej JeieeX kesâ 6 efJeefYevve peerveeesšeFhe neWies~
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leeefuekeâe : ceeveJe pevemebKÙee ceW ®efOej JeieeX keâe DeevegJebefMekeâ DeeOeej oMee&ves Jeeueer leeefuekeâe
pevekeâ 1 mes Deueerue pevekeâ 2 mes Deueerue mebleefle keâe peerveesšeFhe mebleefle kesâ ®efOej Jeie&
IA IA IAIA A
IA IB IAIB AB
IA i IAi A
IB IA IAIB AB
IB IB IBIB B
IB i IAi B
i i ii O

mJeleb$e DeheJÙetnve keâe efveÙece (Law of Independent Assortment)

 Fme efveÙece kesâ Debleie&le ceW[ue ves Deueie-Deueie ue#eCeeW kesâ peesÌ[eW kesâ meeLe ØeÙeesie efkeâÙee~
- Fmekesâ Debleie&le ceW[ue ves yeerpe keâe jbie (heeruee leLee nje) leLee yeerpe kesâ Keeue (ieesue leLee Pegjeaoej) keâe ØeÙeesie
efkeâÙee~
 ceW[ue ves ØelÙeskeâ yeerpe mes pevce heewOes keâes Cross pollinated kesâ Øeef›eâÙee mes iegpeeje~
- GvneWves heeÙee efkeâ ØeLece mebleefle heerÌ{er (Filial, progeny) ceW meYeer yeerpe heerues leLee ieesue nw~ Fme ÛejCe ceW efmeHe&â
’ØeYeeJeer’ (Dominant) ue#eCe ØeoefMe&le neslee nw~
- F1 Ùee ØeLece mebleefle heerÌ{er kesâ yeerpeeW keâes mJe-hejeieCe (Self-pollination) keâer Øeef›eâÙee mes iegpeeje ieÙee~ Fme ØeÙeesie
ceW efÉleerÙe mebleefle heerÌ{er Ùee Ùee F2 ceW Ûeej Deueie Øekeâej kesâ yeerpe Øeehle nesles nQ~
 ceW[ue ves Ùen efve<keâ<e& efvekeâeuee :
(i) ’ieesueekeâej’ ue#eCe pe®jer veneR nw efkeâ ’heeruee’ ue#eCe kesâ meeLe ner jns~
(ii) Ùen mebYeeJevee nw efkeâ ieesue yeerpe, njs jbie kesâ meeLe ner jns~ Gmeer Øekeâej Pegjeaoej ue#eCe, heerues ue#eCe kesâ meeeLe
ceewpeto jns~
ieesue-heeruee (RY) X Pegjeaoej - nje (RY)
meYeer ieesue - heeruee (RY) ........ ØeLece mebleefle heerÌ{er (F1)


–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
  
ieesue-heeruee Pegjeaoej-nje ieesue-nje Pegjeaoej-nje
(RY) (RY) (RY)
9 : 3 : 3 : 1
efÉleerÙe mebleefle heerÌ{er (F2)
ceelee-efhelee kesâ jkeäle mecetn kesâ DeeOeej hej yeÛÛeeW ceW mebYeeefJele jkeäle mecetn
ceelee-efhelee keâe jkeäle mecetn yeÛÛeeW ceW mebYeeefJele jkeäle mecetn yeÛÛeeW ceW DemebYeeefJele jkeäle mecetn
O×O O A,B,AB
O× A O,A B,AB
O× B O,B A,AB
A×A A,O B,AB
A×B A,B,O,AB d
A × AB A,B,AB O
B×B B,O A,AB
B × AB A,B,AB O
AB × AB A,B,AB O
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JebMeeieefle keâe ›eâeceesmeesce efmeæeble (Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance)

 ceW[ue kesâ keâeÙe& keâes hegve: SÛe.[er. Jesefjme (H.D. Veris) kesâ.keâesjsvme (K.Korens), F&.Jeer.Mescewkeâ (E.V. Shaimak) ves
Keespee~
 keâesefMekeâe-keWâõkeâ ceW Skeâ mebjÛevee keâer Keespe nes Ûegkeâer Leer, pees keâesefMekeâe-efJeYeepeve kesâ henues efÉiegefCele SJeb efJeYeeefpele Yeer
nes peelee nw~ Fvekeâes ›eâesceesmeesce (Chromosome) keâne ieÙee~
 1902 lekeâ DeOe&met$eer keâesefMekeâe efJeYeepeve (Meiosis) kesâ oewjeve ›eâesceesmeesce keâer ieefle (mebÛeeueve) keâe %eeve nes Ûegkeâe Lee~
 Jeeušj mešve (Walter Sutton) Deewj efLeÙees[esj yeescesjer ves osKee efkeâ ›eâesceesmeesce keâe JÙeJenej Yeer peerve pewmee ner nw~
FvneWves ceW[ue kesâ efveÙeceeW keâes ›eâesceesmeesce keâer ieefleefJeefOe Éeje mecePeeÙee~
 mešve Deewj yeescesjer (T- Bomeri) ves leke&â Øemlegle efkeâÙee efkeâ ›eâesceesmeesce Ùegice keâes peesÌ[e yeve peevee Ùee Deueie nesvee Deheves
ceW ues peeS pee jns keâejkeâeW kesâ efJemebÙeespeve (Dissociation) keâe keâejCe yevesiee~
- mešve (Sutton) ves ›eâesceesmeesce ves efJemebÙeespeve kesâ %eeve keâes ceW[ue kesâ efmeæebleeW kesâ meeLe peesÌ[keâj ’’JebMeeieefle keâe
›eâesceesmeesceJeeo Ùee efmeæeble’ (Chromosomonal Inheritance) Øemlegle efkeâÙee~
 Fme efJeÛeej kesâ efJeMues<eCeeW keâe Devegheeueve keâjles ngS, Leeceme nbš ceesjieve (T.H. Morgan) leLee Gmekesâ meeefLeÙeeW ves
JebMeeieefle keâe ›eâesceesmeesce-Jeeo Ùee efmeæeble kesâ ØeÙeesieelcekeâ melÙeeheve efkeâS Deewj Ùeewve peveve Glheeove efJeYesove kesâ efueS
Keespe kesâ DeeOeej keâer veeRJe [eueer~
- ceesjieve ves Heâue-ceefkeäKeÙeeW (øetâšHeäueeF& - [^esmeesefHeâuee cesueveesiewmšj) hej keâece efkeâÙee, pees Ùes Ssmes DeOÙeÙeveeW kesâ efueS
GheÙeg&keäle heeF& ieÙeer~
ceeveJe ceW eEueie efveOee&jCe (Sex- Determination In Human)
 ceeveJe keâe efuebie efveOee&jCe XY Øekeâej keâe neslee nw~
- kegâue 23 peesÌ[s ›eâesceesmeesce ceW mes 22 peesÌ[s vej Deewj ceeoe ceW efyeukegâue Skeâ pewmes nesles nQ, FvnW DeeeEueie ›eâesceesmeesce
(Autosome) keânles nQ~
- ceeoe ceW X ›eâesceesmeesce keâe Skeâ peesÌ[e Yeer neslee nw Deewj vej ceW X kesâ Deefleefjkeäle Skeâ ›eâesceesmeesce Y neslee nw pees vej
ue#eCe keâe efveOee&jkeâ neslee nw~
 vej ceW Meg›eâpeveve kesâ meceÙe oes Øekeâej kesâ Ùegicekeâ (Gamete) yeveles nQ~ kegâue Glhevve Meg›eâeCeg mebKÙee keâe 50 ØeefleMele
X Ùegkeäle neslee nw Deewj Mes<e 50 ØeefleMele Y Ùegkeäle, Fvekesâ meeLe Deefuebie ›eâesceesmeesce lees nesles ner nQ~
 ceeoe ceW kesâJeue Skeâ ner Øekeâej kesâ Deb[eCeg yeveles nw efpeveceW X - ›eâesceesmeesce neslee nw~ Deb[eCeg kesâ X Ùee Y Oeejer ›eâesceesmeesceeW
mes efve<esefÛele nesves keâer ØeeefÙekeâlee yejeyej-yejeyej jnleer nw~
 Ùeefo Deb[eCeg keâe efve<esÛeve X Oeejer Meg›eâeCeg mes nes ieÙee lees Ùegicejepe (Zygote) ceeoe (XX) ceW heefjJeefOe&le nes peelee nw~
 Fmekesâ efJehejerle Y ›eâesceesmeesce Oeejer Meg›eâeCeg mes efve<esÛeve nesves hej vej mebleefle pevce uesleer nw~
 Meg›eâeCeg keâer DeevegJebefMekeâ mebjÛevee ner efMeMeg kesâ efuebie keâe efveOee&jCe keâjleer nw~ ØelÙeskeâ ieYee&JemLee ceW efMeMeg kesâ yeeuekeâ Ùee
yeeefuekeâe nesves keâer ØeeefÙekeâlee 50 ØeefleMele jnleer nw~
GlheefjJele&ve (Mutation)
GlheefjJele&ve Jen ef›eâÙee nw pees DNA Deveg›eâce ceW yeoueeJe uee osleer nw~ Fmekesâ heefjCeecemJe®he peerJe kesâ peerveesšeFhe
(Genotype) Deewj HeâerveesšeFhe (Phenotype) ceW heefjJele&ve Dee peelee nw~ hegveÙeexpeve (Recombination) kesâ Deefleefjkeäle
GlheefjJele&ve Skeâ otmejer ef›eâÙee nw pees DNA ceW efJeefJeOelee ueeleer nw~
 peerve Øee®he Je ue#eCe Øee®he :
(a) peerve Øe®he (Genotype) : peerve Øe®he keâe DeLe& nw efkeâmeer peerJe Ùee peerJe mecetn keâe DevegJebefMekeâ kebâheueerceWš~
(b) ue#eCe Øe®he (Phenotype) : Fmekeâe DeLe& nw efkeâmeer peerJe keâe yeenjer ®he, pees peerJe yeenj mes efkeâmeer ue#eCe keâes

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ueskeâj meceeve efoKeles nQ, Fvekeâe ue#eCe Øee®he Yeer meceeve nw, pewmes efkeâ ØeLece heerÌ{er kesâ heeoheeW keâe ue#eCe Øee®he oesveeW
pevekeâeW kesâ meceeve ner nw, peyeefkeâ Jes DevegJeebefMekeâ ®he mes efYevve nw~
 ØelÙeskeâ ›eâescewefš[ (Chromatid) ceW Skeâ efmejs mes otmejs efmejs lekeâ Deefle kegbâ[efuele (Coiled) ®he ceW Skeâ DNA keâe kegbâ[ue
efJeÅeceeve jnlee nw~
- DeleSJe DNA Keb[ keâer keâceer (nš peevee) Ùee yeÌ{le (pegÌ[vee/efÉiegCeve) ›eâesceesmeesceeW ceW yeoueeJe uee osles nQ~ keäÙeeWefkeâ
peerve ›eâesceesmeesce ceW efmLele ceeveer peeleer nQ, FmeefueS ›eâesceesmeesceeW kesâ ®heeblej DemeeceevÙeleeDeeW (Abberation) leLee
efJeheLeveeW, keâes pevce osles nQ~
- Ssmes ›eâesceesmeesceerÙe efJeheLeve keQâmej keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW meeceevÙele: osKes peeles nQ~
 Fmekesâ Deefleefjkeäle DNA kesâ Skeâue #eej Ùegice (Base Pair) kesâ heefjJele&ve Yeer GlheefjJele&ve keâes pevce osles nQ~ Fmes eEyeog
GlheefjJele&ve (Point Mulation) keânles nQ~
- Fme Øekeâej kesâ GlheefjJele&ve keâe peevee ceevee GoenjCe oe$e keâesefMekeâe Dejkeälelee (Sickle Cell Anaemia) veecekeâ
jesie nw~
 DNA kesâ #eej ÙegiceeW kesâ Iešves-yeÌ{ves mes øesâce efMeHeäš GlheefjJele&ve Glhevve keâjles nQ~
DeevegJebefMekeâ efJekeâej (Genetic Disorders)
 efkeâmeer peerJe keâe ØelÙeskeâ ue#eCe ›eâesceesmeesce ceW efJeÅeceeve DNA hej efmLele peerve (Gene) ceW efveefnle neslee nw~
 DNA ner DeevegJebefMekeâ metÛevee (Genetic Information) keâe Jeenkeâ nw Deewj Ùen efyevee efkeâmeer heefjJele&ve kesâ Skeâ mes otmejer
heerÌ{er ceW mLeeveebleefjle neslee peelee nw~
 Ùeoe-keâoe heefjJele&ve/®heeblejCe Yeer nesles jnles nQ~ Fme Øekeâej kesâ heefjJele&ve Ùee ®heeblejCe keâes GlheefjJele&ve (Mutation)
keâne peelee nw~
 ceeveJe ceW keâF& efJekeâej Ssmes heeSb ieS nQ, efpevekeâe mebyebOe ›eâesceesmeesce Ùee peerve kesâ heefjJele&ve ®heeblejCe mes peesÌ[e pee mekeâlee
nw~
ceW[ueerÙe efJekeâej (Mendalian Disorders)
 ceesšs leewj hej efJekeâejeW keâes oes ßesefCeÙeeW ceW jKee pee mekeâlee nw -
 ceW[ueerÙe efJekeâej Deewj ›eâesceesmeesceerÙe efJekeâej~
 ceW[ueerÙe efJekeâej Jes nesles nQ pees Skeâue peerve kesâ ®heeblejCe Ùee GlheefjJele&ve mes cegKÙeleÙee efveOee&efjle nes peeles nQ~
 Fme Øekeâej kesâ ceW[ueerÙe efJekeâejeW keâer JebMeeieefle kesâ GoenjCe keâes efkeâmeer heefjJeej ceW JebMeeJeueer efJeMues<eCe Éeje Keespee pee
mekeâlee nw~
 ceW[ueerÙe efJekeâejeW kesâ meJe&Jeefole GoenjCe nerceesHeâerefueÙee (Haemophilia), efmeefmškeâ øeâeFyeÇesefmeme, oe$e keâesefMekeâe
Dejkeälelee (Sicklee Cell Anaemia), JeCeeËOelee (Colour Blindness), HeâerveeFue keâeršesvÙetefjÙee, LewuesmeerefceÙee FlÙeeefo
nQ~
 Ùes ceW[ueerÙe efJekeâej ØeYeeJeer DeLeJee DeØeYeeJeer nes mekeâles nQ~
 meeLe ner pewmee efkeâ nerceesHeâerefueÙee ceW neslee nw, Ùen ue#eCe efuebie ›eâesceesmeesce (Sex Chromosome) - DeeOeeefjle Yeer nes
mekeâlee nw~ Ùen megmhe<š nw efkeâ X-uei>e DeØeYeeJeer ue#eCe (X-Linked Recessive Character), Jeenkeâ ceeoe (kewâefjÙej
ceoj) mes vej mebleefle keâes Øeehle neslee nw~
nerceesHeâerefueÙee :
 FmeceW ØeYeeJe jefnle Jeenkeâ veejer mes vej-mebleefle keâes jesie keâe mebÛeej neslee nw~
 Fme jesie ceW ®efOej kesâ Lekeäkeâe (Blood Clotting) yeveves mebyeæ Skeâue Øeesšerve ØeYeeefJele neslee nw~
- Ùen Skeâue Øeesšerve Skeâ Øeesšerve ëe=bKeuee keâe DebMecee$e neslee nw~ Fmekesâ keâejCe Deenle JÙeefkeäle kesâ Mejerj keâer Skeâ Úesšer
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meer Ûeesš mes Yeer ®efOej keâe efvekeâuevee yebo ner veneR neslee nw~
 efJe<eceÙegicepeerveejer (Heterozygous) (Jeenkeâ) mes Ùen jesie heg$eeW ceW peelee nw~
 veejer keâer jesie«emle nesves keâer mebYeeJevee efJejue nesleer nw; keäÙeeWefkeâ Fme Øekeâej keâer veejer keâer ceelee keâes keâce mes keâce Jeenkeâ
(Carrier) Deewj efhelee keâes nerceesHeâerefueÙee mes «emle nesvee DeeJeMÙekeâ neslee nw~ (pees DeefOekeâ Je<e& lekeâ peerefJele veneR jn
heelee)
 cenejeveer efJekeäšesefjÙee keâer JebMeeJeueer ceW Deveskeâ nerceesHeâerefueÙee «emle JebMepe Les Deewj jeveer mJeÙeb jesie keâer Jeenkeâ Leer~
 oe$e keâesefMekeâe-Dejkeälelee (Sickle Cell Anaemia) : Ùen Deefuebie ›eâeceesmeesce (Autosome) ueive DeØeYeeJeer ue#eCe
(Autosomal Linked Recessive Character) nw pees pevekeâeW mes mebleefle ceW leYeer ØeJesMe keâjlee nw peyeefkeâ oesveeW pevekeâ
peerve kesâ Jeenkeâ nesles nQ Deewj efJe<eceÙegicepeer (heterozygous)~
HeâerveeFue keâeršesvetefjÙee (Phenyl Ketonuria) :
 Ùen pevcepeele GheeheÛeÙeer (Metabolic) $egefš Yeer DeeEueie ›eâesceesmeesce (Autosomes) DeØeYeeJeer ue#eCe keâer YeeBefle ner
JebMeeieefle ØeoefMe&le keâjleer nw~
 jesieer JÙeefkeäle ceW HeâerveeFue Ssuesveerve (Phenylalanine) Deceervees Decue keâes šeFjesmeerve (Tyrosine) Deceervees Decue ceW
yeoueves kesâ efueS DeeJeMÙekeâ Skeâ SbpeeFce keâer keâceer nes peeleer nw~ heefjCeecemJe®he HeâerveeFue Ssuesveerve Skeâef$ele neslee peelee
nw Deewj HeâerveeFueheeF®efJekeâ Decue (Phenyl Pyruvic Acid) leLee DevÙe JÙeglhevveeW ceW yeouelee peelee nw~
 Fvekesâ Skeâ$eerkeâjCe mes ceeveefmekeâ ogye&uelee (Mental Retardation) Dee peeleer nw~
- Je=keäkeâ (Kidney) Éeje keâce DeJeMeesef<ele nes mekeâves kesâ keâejCe Ùes cet$e kesâ meeLe Glmeefpe&le nes peeles nQ~
›eâesceesmeesceerÙe efJekeâej (Chromosomal Disorders)
 Skeâ Ùee DeefOekeâ ›eâesceesmeesceeW keâer DevegheefmLeefle, DeefOekeâlee Ùee DeemeceevÙe efJevÙeeme ›eâesceesmeesceerÙe efJekeâejeW kesâ keâejCe nesles
nQ~
- keâesefMekeâe efJeYeepeve kesâ meceÙe ›eâescesšs[ kesâ efJemebÙeespeve (Segregation) keâer DevegheefmLeefle kesâ keâejCe Skeâ ›eâesceesmeesce
keâer DeefOekeâlee Ùee neefve nes peeleer nw Fmes DemegiegefCelee (Aneuploid) keânles nQ~
(i) pewmes 21JeW iegCemet$e keâer Skeâ Øeefle keâer DeefOekeâlee mes [eGve efmeb[^esce (Down Syndrome) nes peelee nw~
(ii) Fmeer Øekeâej Skeâ X iegCemet$e keâer neefve mes veeefjÙeeW ceW šve&j efmeb[^esce (Turner Syndrome) nes peelee nw~
 keâesefMekeâe õJÙe efJeYeepeve ve nes mekeâves kesâ keâejCe ›eâesceesmeesce keâe Skeâ hetje mecegÛÙe (Set) DeefOekeâ nes peelee nw Fmes
yengiegefCelee (Polyploidy) keânles nQ~
- Ùen DeJemLee ØeeÙe: heewOeeW ceW heeF& peeleer nw~
 ceeveJe ceW ›eâesceesmeesceeW keâer kegâue mebKÙee 46 (23 peesÌ[s) nQ~ FveceW mes 22 peesÌ[s Deefuebie met$e (Autosome) nesles nQ Deewj
Skeâ peesÌ[e efuebie met$eeW (Sex-Chromosome) keâe~
- keâYeer-keâYeer, JÙeefkeäle ceW ›eâesceesmeesce keâe Skeâ Deefleefjkeäle peesÌ[e Meeefceue nes peelee nw Ùee keâYeer Skeâ peesÌ[s ›eâesceesmeesce
keâer keâceer nes peeleer nw~ Fve efmLeefleÙeeW keâes ›eâceMe: ›eâesceesmeesce keâer efÉDeefOe met$eer (Tetrasomy) Ùee efÉvÙetvemet$eer
(Nullsomy) keâne peelee nw~ Ssmeer efmLeefle kesâ ØeYeeJe mes JÙeefkeäle ceW iebYeerj jesie nes peelee nw~
- ›eâesceesmeesceerÙe efJekeâejeW keâe GoenjCe [eGve efmeb[^esce, šve&j efmeb[^esce, keäueeFveHesâušj efmeb[^esce nw~
 [eGve efmeb[^esce :
- Fme DeevegJebefMekeâ efJekeâej keâe keâejCe 21JeW ›eâesceesmeesce keâer Skeâ Deefleefjkeäle Øeefle keâe Dee peevee (21 keâer ef$emet$elee)
nw~
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- Fme efJekeâej keâes meJe&ØeLece uewvie[ce [eGve (Langdam Down) ves (1866) Keespee Lee~
- jesieer JÙeefkeäle :
(i) Úesšs keâo Deewj Úesšs ieesue efmeje keâe neslee nw,
(ii) peerYe ceW KeeBÛe neslee nw Deewj
COMMON HUMAN CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
Klinefelter's Syndrome 44+ XXY (47) Phenotypical male, undeveloped testes, long
limbs, often mental retardation
Turner's Syndrome 44+ XO (45) Phenotypical female with limited secondary
characters, sterile, webbed neck.
Jacob's/YY/Criminal Syndrome 44+ XYY (47) Male, usually tall with oversecretion of test-
osterone.
Super Female/Multiple X syndrome 44+ XXX Tall, thin, mentally retarded and often
(47,48,49) sterile.
Dwon's Syndrome (Mongolism) 45+ XX 45+ XY Mongolian idiocy-open mouth, long tongue,
(trisomy 21) projecting lower lip, vertical fold epicanthus
on either side of nose, skin folds at eye cor-
ners, flattened nasal bridge, mental retarda-
tion.
Edward's Syndrome Trisomy 18 Small face, small ears, overlapping fingers,
defective anatomy and physiology.
Patau's Syndrome Trisomy 13 Cleft palate, polyductilily, cardiac and brain
(trisomy D) abnormalities.
Cri-du-Chat Syndrome Deletion short Kitten-like cry due to laryngeal
(Cat Cry Syndrome) arm of 5th anomaly, microcephaly, moon face, wide
chromosome set eyes, heart and brain defects.

(iii) cegBn DeebefMekeâ ®he mes Keguee jnlee nw,

(iv) ÛeewÌ[er nLesueer ceW DeefYeuee#eefCekeâ hee@uce keâerpe nesleer nw~
(v) Meejerefjkeâ, ceve: Øesjkeâ (meeFkeâesceesšj) Deewj ceeveefmekeâ efJekeâeme DeJe®æ jnlee nw~
 keäueeFveHesâušj efmeb[^esce (Klinefelter Syndrome) :
- Fme DeevegJebefMekeâ efJekeâej keâe keâejCe X ›eâesceesmeesce keâer Skeâ Deefleefjkeäle Øeefleefueefhe nw; efpemekesâ keâejCe keWâõkeâ ceW 47,
›eâesceesmeesce (XXY) nes peeles nQ~
- Ssmes JÙeefkeäle mece«e ®he mes lees hegbØeOeeve (Masculine) nesles nQ, eEkeâleg ceeoe ue#eCe ieeFveerkeâescewemf šefpe (Gynecomestese)
DeLee&led m$eerJeled heg®<e Je#e keâe JeOe&ve) Yeer JÙekeäle nes peeles nQ, Ssmes JÙeefkeäle yeeBPe nesles nQ~
 šve&j efmeb[^esce :
- Fme efJekeâej keâe keâejCe Skeâ X ›eâesceesmeesce keâe DeYeeJe neslee nw, DeLee&led 45 ›eâesceesmeesce keâer (XO) efmLeefle~ Ssmeer veejer
yeeBPe (impotent) nesleer nw; keäÙeeWefkeâ Deb[eMeÙe DeuheJeefOe&le nesles nQ Deewwj;
- efÉefleÙekeâ ueQefiekeâ ue#eCeeW keâe DeYeeJe neslee nw~
JebMeeieefle keâe DeeCeefJekeâ DeeOeej
(Molecular Basis of Inheritance)
 ceW[ue kesâ efveÙeceeW kesâ Øeefleheeove lekeâ Jes keâejkeâ (factor) pees JebMeeieefle kesâ Øeefle®he keâes efveÙebef$ele keâjles nQ, Gvekesâ efJe<eÙe
ceW keâesF& peevekeâejer veneR Leer~ meew Je<eeX yeeo Devegceeefvele DeevegJeebefMekeâ heoeLe& keâe helee Ûeuee~ DeefOekeâebMe peerJeeW ceW Ùen DNA

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Lee Je kegâÚ ceW RNA~

DNA
 DNA- [erDeekeämeerjeFyeesvÙetefkeäueDeesšeF[dme (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) keâe Skeâ uebyee yenguekeâ nw - DNA keâer uebyeeF&
meeceevÙeleÙee FmeceW efceueves Jeeues Nucleotide (vÙetefkeäueÙeesšeF[dme Ùegice keâe mebyebOe #eej Ùegice mes nw) hej efveYe&j nw~ Ùen
efkeâmeer Yeer peerJe keâer efJeMes<elee nw~
hee@ueervÙetefkeäueÙeesšeF[ ëe=bKeuee keâer mebjÛevee
 vÙetefkeäueÙeesšeF[ kesâ leerve Ieškeâ nesles nQ - veeFš^espeveer #eej (Nitrogenous base), heWšesme Meke&âje (Pentose Sugar)
[RNA kesâ ceeceues ceW efjyeesme leLee DNA ceW [erDee@keämeerefjyeespe] Deewj Skeâ Heâe@mHesâš «eghe (Phosphate Group)~
 veeFš^espeveer #eej oes Øekeâej kesâ nesles nw - (a) hÙetefjvme (Purines) (S[sveerve Je iJeeveerve) Je (b) heeÙeefjefce[erve (Pyrimedine)
(meeFšesmeerve, Ùetjsefmeue Je LeeFceerve)~
- meeFšesmeerve (Cytocin) DNA & RNA oesveeW ceW efceuelee nw peyeefkeâ LeeFceerve DNA ceW efceuelee nw~
- LeeFceerve kesâ mLeeve hej Ùetjsmeerue RNA ceW efceuelee nw~
 veeFš^espeveer #eej veeFš^espeve iueeFkeâesefmeef[keâ kebâOe (Glycosidic Bond) Éeje heWšesme Meke&âje mes pegÌ[keâj vÙetefkeäueÙeesmeeF[
(Nucleoside) yeveelee nw, pewmes - S[erveesmeerve Ùee [erDee@keämeer S[erveesmeerve, iJeeveesmeerve Ùee [erDee@keämeer iJeeveesmeerve,
meeFšer[erve Ùee [erDee@keämeermeeFšer[erve Je Ùetjer[erve Je [erDee@keämeer LeeFceer[erve~
RNA ceW ØelÙeskeâ vÙetefkeäueÙeesšeF[ DeJeMes<e ceW jeFyeespe keâer ’2’ peien hej Skeâ Deefleefjkeäle neF[^e@keämeerue (Hydroxyl) mecetn
efmLele neslee nw~ RNA ceW LeeFceerve (Thymine) (5-ceefLeue Ùetjsmeerue LeeFceerve keâe otmeje jemeeÙeefvekeâ veece nw) keâer peien
hej Ùetjsmeerue (Uracil) efceuelee nw~
 øesâ[jerve cesmÛej (Fredrin Meischer) ves 1869 ceW keWâõkeâ ceW efceueves Jeeues DecueerÙe heoeLe& DNA keâer Keespe keâer Leer~
Gmeves Fmekeâe veece ’vÙetefkeäueve’ (Nuclein) efoÙee~
 ceewefjme efJeefukeâvme (Maurice Wilkins) Je jespeefueb[ øeQâkeâefueve (Roselind Franklin) Éeje efoS ieS~
 Skeäme-js efveJele&ve DeebkeâÌ[s kesâ DeeOeej hej 1953 ceW pescme Jeešdmeve Je øeâeBefvmeme ›eâerkeâ (James Wats on and Francis
Crick) ves DNA keâer mebjÛevee keâe efÉkegbâ[ueer vecetvee (Double Helix) Øemlegle efkeâÙee~ Ghejeskeäle ØemleeJe efÉkegbâ[ueer DNA
kesâ FefJe&ve ÛeejieeHeâ (E.Chargaff) kesâ hejer#eCe kesâ DeeOeej hej Yeer Lee efpemeceW Fmeves yeleeÙee efkeâ S[efveve Je LeeFefceve
leLee iJeeefveve Je meeFšesmeerve kesâ yeerÛe Devegheele efmLele Je Skeâ otmejs kesâ yejeyej jnlee nw~
 DeeCeefJekeâ peerJe efJe%eeve ceW øeâebefmeme ef›eâkeâ ves cetue efmeæeble meWš^ue [esicee (Central Dogma) keâe efJeÛeej Øemlegle efkeâÙee
efpememes mhe<š nw efkeâ DeevegJeebefMekeâ metÛeveeDeeW keâe yeneJe DNA mes RNA Je Fmemes Øeesšerve keâer lejHeâ jnlee nw ( DNA 
RNA  Øeesšerve)~
veesš : kegâÚ efJe<eeCegDeeW ceW Ghejeskeäle yeneJe efJehejerle efoMee RNA mes DNA keâer lejHeâ Yeer neslee nw~
(DNA) DNA kegbâ[ueer keâe hewkesâefpebie
 DemeercekeWâõkeâer (Prokaryotes) pewmeer F&.keâesueeF& (E.Coli) efpemeceW mhe<š keWâõkeâ veneR efceuelee nw Fmekesâ yeeJepeto Yeer
DNA hetjer keâesefMekeâe ceW veneR Hewâuee neslee nw~
- DNA $e+Ceelcekeâ DeeJesefMele (Negatively Charged) kegâÚ Øeesšervme Oeveelcekeâ DeeJesefMele (Positively Charged)
mes yebOekeâj Skeâ peien hej efmLele nesles nQ efpemes keWâõkeâeYe (Nucleoid) keânles nQ~ vÙetkeäueerDeeS[ ceW DNA yeÌ[s uetheeW
ceW JÙeJeefmLele neslee nw pees Øeesšerve mes pegÌ[s nesles nQ~
memeercekeWâõkeâer/megkeWâõkeâer (Eukaryotes) ceW Ùen mebjÛevee keâeHeâer peefšue nesleer nw~
- Oeveelcekeâ DeeJesefMele #eejerÙe Øeesšerve keâe mecetn neslee nw efpemes efnmšesvme (Histones) keânles nQ~
 Fme Øeesšervme keâe DeeJesMe, DeeJesefMele heeMJe& ëe=bKeueeDeeW ceW efmLele Sceervees DecueeW keâer yenguelee hej efveYe&j keâjlee nw~
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 efnmšesvme ceW #eejerÙe Sceervees DecueerÙe ueeFmeerve (Lycin) Je Deejpeerveerve (Arginine) DeefOekeâ cee$ee ceW efceueles nQ~
 vÙetefkeäueÙeesmeesme (Nucleosomes) Skeâ kesâ yeeo Skeâ efceueles nQ Gmes ›eâescesefšve keânles nQ - pees keWâõkeâ ceW DeefYejbefpele Oeeies
keâer lejn keâer mebjÛevee nesleer nw~
 Fueskeäš^e@ve met#ceoMeea Éeje osKeves hej vÙetefkeäueÙeesmeescme ›eâescesefšve efpeme lejn mes ’[esjer hej yeer[dme’ keâer lejn mes efoKeeF&
heÌ[les nQ~
DeevegJeebefMekeâ heoeLe& kesâ iegCe (DNA yeveece RNA)
 Deye Ùen meJe&ceevÙe nw efkeâ DNA DeevegJeebefMekeâ heoeLe& kesâ ®he ceW keâeÙe& keâjlee nw~ efHeâj Yeer Ùen mhe<š nes ieÙee efkeâ kegâÚ
efJe<eeCegDeeW (Virus) ceW RNA (GoenjCe - šesyewkeâes ceespeskeâ JeeFjme, keäÙetyeerše yewefkeäšjerÙeesHesâpe Deeefo) DeevegJebefMekeâ heoeLe&
nw~
 DNA ØecegKe DeevegJebefMekeâ heoeLe& nw, peyeefkeâ RNA otle (mRNA) Je Devegketâueve pewmes meef›eâÙe keâeÙe& keâjlee nw~
- oesveeW vÙetefkeäuekeâ Decue DeCegDeeW keâer jemeeÙeefvekeâ mebjÛevee ceW Deblej nw~
 Skeâ DeCeg pees DeevegJebefMekeâ heoeLe& kesâ ®he ceW keâeÙe& keâj mekeâlee nw Jen efvecve ceeveob[eW keâes DeJeMÙe hetCe& keâjlee nw -
keâ) Ùen Dehevee Øeefleke=âefle (Replica) yeveeves ceW me#ece nw~
Ke) Fmes jÛevee Je jemeeÙeefvekeâ mebie"ve kesâ DeeOeej hej efmLej nesvee ÛeeefnS~
ie) FveceW OeerceW heefjJele&veeW GlheefjJele&ve (Mutation) keâer mebYeeJevee nesleer nw pees efJekeâeme kesâ efueS DeeJeMÙekeâ nw~
Ie) Fmes mJeÙeb ’ceW[ue kesâ ue#eCe’ kesâ Deveg®he DeefYeJÙekeäle nesvee ÛeeefnS~
- oesveeW vÙetefkeäuekeâ DecueeW (DNA & RNA) ceW mJeÙeb Øeefleke=âefle keâer #ecelee nesleer nw~
 DeevegJebefMekeâ heoeLe& Flevee mLeeÙeer nesvee ÛeeefnS efkeâ peerJeve Ûe›eâ keâer efJeefYevve DeJemLeeDeeW, Gceü Ùee peerJe keâer Meejerefjkeâ
ef›eâÙee ceW heefjJele&ve mes FmeceW heefjJele&ve veneR nesvee ÛeeefnS~ DeevegJebefMekeâ peerJeve keâe mLeeefÙelJe (Permanance) Gmekeâer
Skeâ ØecegKe efJeMes<elee nw~
 RNA kesâ ØelÙeskeâ vÙetefkeäuekeâÙeesšeF[ hej 2-neF[^e@efkeämeue mecetn efceuelee nw Ùen ef›eâÙeeMeerue mecetn nw, efpememes RNA
DeefmLej Je Deemeeveer mes efJeKebef[le nes peelee nw~
DNA jemeeÙeefvekeâ mebie"ve keâer Âef<š mes keâce meef›eâÙe Je mebjÛeveelcekeâ Âef<š ceW DeefOekeâ mLeeÙeer neslee nw~ Fme keâejCe oesveeW
vÙetefkeäuekeâ DecueeW ceW DNA Skeâ DeÛÚe DeevegJebefMekeâ heoeLe& ceevee ieÙee nw~
 JeemleJe ceW DNA ceW Ùetjsmeerue (Uracil) keâer peien LeeFefceve (Thymine) nesves mes GveceW Skeâ DeefOekeâ mLeeefÙelJe efceuelee
nw~
 oesveeW RNA & DNA GlheefjJeefle&le nes mekeâles nQ~
 JeemleJe ceW RNA leer›e ieefle mes GlheefjJeefle&le neslee nw~
 heefjCeecemJe®he, efJe<eeCegDeeW ceW RNA peerveesce efceuelee nw Gmekeâer peerJeve DeJeefOe Úesšer Je lespeer mes GlheefjJeefle&le Je
efJekeâefmele nesves Jeeueer nesleer nw~
 DNA Øeesšerve mebMues<eCe kesâ efueS meerOes ketâšuesKeve (Translation) keâjles nQ, FmeefueS Jes Deemeeveer mes ue#eCe JÙekeäle keâjles
nQ~
 DNA Øeesšerve mebMues<eCe kesâ efueS RNA hej efveYe&j nw~
 Øeesšerve mebMues<eCe keâer meejer JÙeJemLee RNA mes efJekeâefmele ngF&~ mhe<š nw efkeâ oesveeW DNA & RNA DeevegJebefMekeâ heoeLe& kesâ
®he ceW keâeÙe& keâjles nQ~
 DNA kesâ DeefOekeâ mLeeÙeer nesves mes Jen DeevegJebefMekeâ metÛeveeDeeW kesâ mebÛeÙe nsleg meyemes GheÙeesieer nw, DeevegJebefMekeâ metÛeveeDeeW
kesâ mLeveeblejCe nsleg RNA GheÙegkeäle nw~

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[er.Sve.S. Je Deej.Sve.S. ceW Deblej

1. Fmekeâer mebjÛevee ceW oes met$e heeÙee peelee nw~ 1. Fmekeâer mebjÛevee ceW Skeâue met$e heeÙee peelee nw~
2. cegKÙe ®he mes kesâvõkeâ (Nucleus) ceW GheefmLele 2. cegKÙe ®he mes keâesefMekeâeõJÙe (Cytoplasm) ceW heeÙee
›eâesceespewce (Chromosome) ceW heeÙee peelee nw~ peelee nw~
3. Ùen DeevegJebefMekeâ heoeLe& nw leLee Fmekeâe cegKÙe keâeÙe& 3. Ùen DeevegJebefMekeâ metÛeveeDeeW keâe Jeenkeâ (Messenger)
DeevegJebefMekeâ Fmekeâe iegCeeW keâes Skeâ heerÌ{er mes otmejer nw, cegKÙe keâeÙe& Øeesšerve mebMues<eCe nw~
heerÌ{er ceW hengbÛeevee nw~
4. FmeceW [erDeekeämeerjeFyeespe Meke&âje 4. FmeceW jeFyeespe (Ribose) Meke&âje heeF& peeleer nw~ heeF&
(Deoxyribose Sugar) peeleer nw~
5. FmeceW LeeÙeefceve veecekeâ heeFefjceer[erve
(Thymin) 5. Fmemes Ùetjeefmeue (Urasil) veecekeâ heeFefjceer[erve #eej
(Pyrimedine) #eej heeF& peeleer nw~ heeF& peeleer nw~
DeevegJebefMekeâ ketâš (Genetic Code)
 DNA keâer mebjÛevee Je DeevegJebefMekeâ heoeLe& kesâ pewJe jemeeÙeefvekeâ Øeke=âefle keâe efveOee&jCe efpelevee Gòespevee hetCe& Lee, Gmesme
pÙeeoe DeevegJebefMekeâ ketâš keâe DeLe& efvekeâeuevee Je ØemleeJe keâjvee ÛegveewleerhetCe& Lee~ mener DeLeeX ceW Fmekesâ efueS efJeefYevve #es$eeW
kesâ Jew%eeefvekeâeW Yeewelf ekeâefJeod, keâeye&efvekeâ jmeeÙeveefJeod , pewJe jmeeÙeve%e Je DeevegJebeMf ekeâefJeod kesâ menÙeesie keâer DeeJeMÙekeâlee Leer~
 peepe& iescees (George Gamow) Skeâ YeeweflekeâefJeod Les efpevekeâe efJeÛeej Lee efkeâ Ùeefo #eej kesâJeue Ûeej nQ lees Fve yeerme
Deceervees Decue keâe ketâšuesKeve (Translation) efkeâme ®he mes neslee nw; Dele: ketâš kesâ efvecee&Ce ceW #eejeW keâe mecetn yevelee nw~
- Fvekeâe efJeÛeej Lee efkeâ meYeer yeerme Deceervees DecueeW kesâ ketâš nsleg, keâes[ leerve vÙetefkeäueÙeesšeF[eW kesâ yeves nesles nQ~ Ùen Skeâ
yengle "esme efJeÛeej Lee, efpememes 43 (4x4x4) kesâ Øeefle GlheefjJele&ve mecegÛÛeÙe mes 64 keâes[ keâe efvecee&Ce ngDee~
 Øeketâš (keâes[eve) ef$ekeâ nesles nQ~
 ieeseEJeo Kegjevee (Govind Khurana) ves efveefMÛele #eejeW (meceyenguekeâ Ùee menyenguekeâ) kesâ mecegÛÛeÙe Ùegkeäle RNA
DeCegDeeW kesâ mebMues<eCe keâer jemeeÙeefvekeâ efJeefOe keâe efJekeâeme efkeâÙee Lee efpemekesâ efueS GvnW ceW veesyesue efceuee~
ceeveJe peerveesce heefjÙeespevee (Human Genome Project)
 DNA ceW efceueves Jeeues #eejeW keâe Deveg›eâce efkeâmeer Yeer peerJe keâe DeevegJebefMekeâ metÛevee keâe efveOee&jCe keâjlee nw~ otmejs MeyoeW
ceW efkeâmeer Yeer peerJe keâer DeevegJebefMekeâ JÙeJemLee Gmekesâ DNA ceW efceueves Jeeues Deveg›eâce (Sequence) mes efveOee&efjle nesleer
nw~ oes efJeefYevve JÙeefkeäleÙeeW ceW efceueves Jeeuee DNA Deveg›eâce kegâÚ peieneW hej efYevve-efYevve neslee nw~
 Ùes keâuheveeSB ceeveJe peerveesce (Human Genome) ceW efceueves Jeeues hetCe& DNA Deveg›eâce kesâ yeejs ceW helee ueieeves kesâ efueS
efJeJeMe keâjleer nQ~
 DeevegJebefMekeâ DeefYeÙeebef$ekeâ lekeâveerkeâeW (Genetic Engineering Technique) kesâ efJekeâeme kesâ efkeâmeer Yeer, DNA Keb[ keâes
efJeueefiele Je keäueesve efkeâÙee pee mekeâlee nw Je DNA Deveg›eâceeW keâes MeerIeÇ peeveves kesâ efueS meeOeejCe lekeâveerkeâ kesâ efJekeâeme
mes 1990 ceW ceeveJe peervece kesâ Deveg›eâceeW keâes helee ueieeves kesâ efueS Skeâ cenòJekeâeb#eer Ùeespevee keâer Meg®Deele ngF&~
 ceeveJe peerveesce ceW ueieYeie 3 x 109 #eej Ùegice efceueles nQ; Fme Øekeâej yeÌ[er mebKÙee ceW DeeBkeâÌ[eW keâer Øeeefhle kesâ efueS GÛÛe
ieeflekeâerÙe mebieCekeâ meeOeve keâer DeeJeMÙekeâlee nesleer nw efpememes DeeBkeâÌ[eW kesâ meb«en, efJeMues<eCe Je hegve: GheÙeesie ceW meneÙelee
efceueleer nw~
 HGP kesâ yeejs ceW peevekeâejer peerJe efJe%eeve kesâ Fme veS #es$e keâer lespeer mes efJemleej mes mebYeJe nes heeÙee efpemes pewJe metÛevee
efJe%eeve (Bioinformatics) keânles nQ~
SÛe peer heer kesâ ue#Ùe
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keâ) ueieYeie - 20,000 - 25,000 peerveeW kesâ yeejs ceW helee ueieevee,
Ke) ceeveJe DNA keâes yeveeves Jeeues 3 efyeefueÙeve jemeeÙeefvekeâ #eej ÙegiceeW kesâ Deveg›eâceeW keâes efveOee&efjle keâjvee,
ie) Ghejeskeäle peevekeâejer keâes DeeBkeâÌ[es kesâ ®he ceW meb«eefnle keâjvee,
Ie) DeeBkeâÌ[eW kesâ efJeMues<eCe nsleg veÙeer lekeâveerkeâ keâe megOeej keâjvee,
*) Ùeespevee Éeje G"ves Jeeues veweflekeâ, keâevetveer Je meeceeefpekeâ cegöeW (Ethical, Legal, Social Issues) kesâ yeejs ceW
efJeÛeej keâjvee~
 ceeveJe peerveesce heefjÙeespevee 13 Je<e& keâer Ùeespevee nw, efpemes Decesefjkeâer Tpee& efJeYeeie (US Department of Energy) Je
je<š^erÙe mJeemLÙe mebmLeeve (National Institute of Health) Éeje menÙeesie Øeehle Lee~
- ØeejbefYekeâ Je<eeX ceW Jesuekeâce vÙeeme (Ùet.kesâ.) keâer SÛepeerheer ceW Yeeieeroejer Leer Deewj yeeo ceW peeheeve, øeâebme, pece&veer, Ûeerve
Je DevÙe osMeeW Éeje menÙeesie Øeoeve efkeâÙee ieÙee~
 Ùen Ùeespevee 2003 ceW hetCe& nes ieF&~
 efJeefYevve JÙeefkeäleÙeeW ces efceueves Jeeues DNA keâer efJeefYevvelee kesâ yeejs ceW Øeehle peevekeâejer mes ceeveJe ceW efceueves Jeeues npeejeW
DeefveÙeefceleleeDeeW kesâ yeejs ceW henÛeeveves, GheÛeej keâjves Je kegâÚ no lekeâ Gvekesâ jeskeâves ceW meneÙelee efceueer nw~
 Fmekesâ Deefleefjkeäle ceeveJe peerJe efJe%eeve kesâ megjeieeW keâes mecePeves, DeceeveJeerÙe peerJeeW kesâ DNA Deveg›eâceeW keâer Øeehle
peevekeâejer kesâ DeeOeej hej Gvekeâer Øeeke=âeflekeâ #eceleeDeeW keâe GheÙeesie keâj mJeemLÙe megj#ee, ke=âef<e, Tpee& Glheeove Je
heÙee&JejCe megOeej keâer efoMee ceW G"ves Jeeueer ÛegveewefleÙeeW keâes nue efkeâÙee pee mekeâlee nw~
 keâF& DeceeveJeerÙe Øeefle®he-peerJeeW pewmes-peerJeeCeg, Ùeermš, kesâSveesjnsy[eršerme FueerieWme (mJeleb$e Dejesiepevekeâ met$eke=âefce),
[^emeesefHeâuee (HeâuecekeäKeer), heewOee (Oeeve Je Sjsyeer[ehmeerme) Deeefo kesâ Deveg›eâceeW kesâ yeejs ceW peevekeâejer Øeehle ngF& nQ~
ceeveJe peerveesce keâer cegKÙe efJeMes<eleeSB
ceeveJe peerveesce heefjÙeespevee ceW Øeehle efJeMes<e hejer#eCe efvecveJele nw -
keâ) ceeveJe peerveesce 3164.7 keâjesÌ[ #eej efceueles nQ~
Ke) Deewmeleve ØelÙeskeâ peerve ceW 3000 #eej efmLele nQ efpevekesâ Deekeâej ceW DeefOekeâ efJeefYevveleeSB nQ~ ceveg<Ùe keâes %eele meyemes
yeÌ[er peerve ef[meš^e@efHeâve (Dystrophin) ceW 2.4 keâjesÌ[ #eej efceues nQ~
ie) peerve keâer mebKÙee 30,000 nw pees henues keâer Devegceeefvele mebKÙee 80,000 mes 140,000 mes keâeHeâer keâce nw~ ueieYeie
meYeer (99.9 ØeefleMele) ueesieeW ceW efceueves vÙetefkeäueÙeesšeF[dme #eej Skeâ meceeve nw~
Ie) Keespeer ieF& 50 ØeefleMele mes DeefOekeâ peerve kesâ keâeÙe& kesâ yeejs ceW peevekeâejer Øeehle nw~
*) oes ØeefleMele kesâ keâce peerveesce Øeesšerve keâe ketâšuesKeve (Coding) keâjles nQ~
Ûe) ceeveJe peerveesce kesâ yengle yeÌ[s Yeeie keâe efvecee&Ce hegvejeJe=efòe Deveg›eâce (Repititive Sequence) Éeje neslee nw~
Ú) iegCemet$e X ceW meJee&efOekeâ peerve (2968) Je Y iegCemet$e ceW meyemes keâce peerve (231) efceueles nQ~
GheÙeesie Je YeefJe<Ùe keâer ÛegveewefleÙeeB
 DNA Deveg›eâceeW mes Øeehle meeLe&keâ peevekeâeefjÙeeB Je MeesOees mes peeves Jeeues oMekeâeW ceW pewefJekeâ leb$e keâes mecePeves ceW keâeHeâer
mengefueÙele jner~ Fme Je=nod keâeÙe& keâes hetCe& keâjves ceW efJeMJe kesâ meeJe&peefvekeâ Je DemeeJe&peefvekeâ #es$e kesâ keâF& npeej efJeefYevve
#es$eeW kesâ efJeMes<e%eeW Je jÛeveekeâejeW keâe Ùeesieoeve jne~ SÛe peer Deveg›eâceeW keâe meyemes cenlJehetCe& ØeYeeJe Ùen jne efkeâ pewefJekeâ
DevegmebOeeveeW ceW cetuele: veS DeeÙeeceeW keâe meceeJesMe nes mekeâe~ henues MeesOekeâòee& Skeâ meceÙe hej Skeâ Ùee kegâÚ peerve kesâ yeejs
ceW ner DeOÙeÙeve keâj heeles Les~
 hetCe& peerveesce Deveg›eâceeW Je veÙeer lekeâveerkeâeW kesâ DeeOeej hej Deye keâeHeâer JÙeehekeâ mlej Je JÙeJeefmLele lejerkesâ mes G"ves Jeeues
ØeMveeW keâes nue keâjves ceW meneÙelee efceueer nw~

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- Fmemes peerveesce ceW efceueves Jeeues meYeer peerve kesâ yeejs ceW DeOÙeÙeve efkeâÙee pee mekeâe,
- GoenjCeeLe& - efJeMes<e TlekeâeW Ùee Debie Ùee Deyeg&o (Cancer) ceW efceueves Jeeues meYeer DeveguesKeeW Je npeejeW peerve Je
Øeesšerve Deeheme ceW pegÌ[s ngS leej keâer lejn kewâmes keâeÙe& keâjles nw Fmemes Øeehle peevekeâejer mes peerJeve kesâ jmeeÙeve keâes
JeebÚveerÙe yeveeves ceW GheÙeesieer jne~
DNA DebiegefueÚeheer (DNA Fingerprint)
 ceveg<ÙeeW ceW efceueves Jeeues #eej Deveg›eâce ueieYeie 99.9 ØeefleMele meceeve nesles nQ~ Ùen DNA kesâ Deveg›eâce ceW efceueves Jeeues
Deblej JÙeefkeäle efJeMes<e kesâ meceue#eCeerÙe ®he Deekeâej keâes efveOee&efjle keâjles nQ~
- Ùeefo efkeâmeer keâe GösMÙe oes JÙeefkeäleÙeeW Ùee efkeâmeer pevemebKÙee kesâ ueesieeW kesâ yeerÛe DeevegJebefMekeâ efJeefYevvelee keâe helee
ueieevee nes lees ncesMee DNA keâe Deveg›eâce %eele keâjvee nesiee pees Skeâ keâef"ve Je cenBiee keâeÙe& nw~ oes JÙeefkeäleÙeeW kesâ
DNA Deveg›eâceeW kesâ yeerÛe leguevee keâjves nsleg DNA DebiegefueÚeheer (Finger printing) Skeâ lJeefjle efJeefOe nw~
 DNA DebiegefueÚeheer ceW DNA Deveg›eâce ceW efmLele kegâÚ efJeefMe<š peieneW kesâ yeerÛe efJeefYevvelee keâe helee ueieeles nQ~ Fmekeâes
hegvejeJe=efòe DNA keânles nQ;
- Deveg›eâceeW ceW DNA keâe Úesše Yeeie keâF& yeej hegvejeJe=le neslee nw~ Fme hegvejeJe=efòe DNA keâes peerveesefcekeâ DNA kesâ {sj
ceW Deueie keâjves kesâ efueS efJeefYevve efMeKej yeveeles nQ~
- DNA {sj Skeâ yengle yeÌ[e efMeKej yeveelee nw peyeefkeâ meeLe ceW DevÙe Úesšs efMeKej yeveles nw efpemes Deveg<ebieer DNA
(Satellite DNA) keânles nQ~
 Deveg›eâce meeceevÙeleÙee efkeâmeer Yeer Øeesšerve keâe ketâšuesKeve veneR keâjles nQ, uesefkeâve Ùes ceeveJe peerveesce kesâ DeefOekeâebMe Yeeie ceW
efceueles nw~
- Ùes Deveg›eâce GÛÛe ßesCeer yeng®helee ØeoefMe&le keâjles nQ pees DNA DebiegefueÚeheer keâe DeeOeej nw~
GheÙeesie :
 efkeâmeer Yeer JÙeefkeäle kesâ efJeefYevve TlekeâeW (pewmes - Ketve, yeeue hegškeâ, lJeÛee, n[d[er, ueej, Meg›eâeCeg Deeefo) mes Øeehle DNA
ceW Skeâ meceeve yeng®helee efceueleer nw pees vÙeeÙeeueerÙeve GheÙeesie ceW Skeâ henÛeeve Deewpeej kesâ ®he ceW GheÙeesieer nw~ ÛetBefkeâ
yeng®helee pevekeâ mes yeÛÛeeW keâer Deesj JebMeeiele nesleer nw, FmeefueS DNA DebiegefueÚeheer efJeJeeo keâer efmLeefle ceW hewle=lJe hejer#eCe
ceW meneÙekeâ nw~

efJekeâeme (Evolution)
peerJeve keâer Glheefòe (Origin of Life)
 peerJeve keâer Glheefòe keâes, yeÇÿeeb[ kesâ Fefleneme ceW Skeâ Devet"er Iešvee ceevee ieÙee nw~ ØeejbefYekeâ DeJemLee ceW he=LJeer hej
JeeÙegceb[ue (Atmosphere) veneR Lee~
- peue, Jee<he, ceerLesve (Methane), keâeye&ve [eF&Dee@keämeeF[ leLee DeceesefveÙee Deeefo Oejeleue keâes {keâves Jeeues ieefuele
heoeLeeX mes efveceg&keäle ngFË~
- metÙe& mes Deeves Jeeueer hejeyeQieveer (Ultravoilet) efkeâjCeeW ves heeveer keâes H2 leLee O2 (neF[^espeve Je Dee@keämeerpeve) ceW
efJeKebef[le keâj efoÙee leLee nukeâer H2 cegkeäle nes ieF&~
- Dee@keämeerpeve (O2) ves DeceesefveÙee SJeb ceerLesve kesâ meeLe efceuekeâj heeveer, keâeye&ve [eF&Dee@keämeeF[ (CO2) leLee DevÙe
iewmeeW Deeefo keâes jÛevee keâer~
 he=LJeer kesâ ÛeejeW Deesj Deespeesve (O3) hejle keâe ie"ve ngDee~
 peye Ùen "b[e ngDee lees peue-Jee<he (Water Vapour) yejmeele kesâ ®he ceW yejmeer Deewj ienjs mLeeve Yej ieS, efpememes

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cenemeeiejeW keâer jÛevee ngF&~

 he=LJeer keâer Glheefòe kesâ ueieYeie 50 keâjesÌ[ (500 efceefueÙeve) Je<e& kesâ yeeo DeLee&led ueieYeie 400 keâjesÌ[ Je<e& henues peerJeve Øekeâš
ngDee~
 kegâÚ Jew%eeefvekeâeW keâe Ùen efJeMJeeme nw efkeâ peerJeve Debleefj#e mes ner DeeÙee nw~ hetJe& «eerkeâ efJeÛeejkeâeW keâe ceevevee nw efkeâ peerJeve
keâer ’mheesj’ (Spore) veecekeâ FkeâeF& efJeefYevve Ùee Deveskeâ «eneW ceW mLeeveebleefjle ngF&, he=LJeer efpeveceW Skeâ Leer~
 kegâÚ Keieesue Jew%eeefvekeâ ’hewve-mheefce&Ùee’ meJe&yeerpeeCeg (Pan Spermia) keâes DeYeer Yeer Dehevee cevehemeboeroe efmeæeble ceeveles
nw~
- keâeHeâer meceÙe lekeâ Ùen Yeer ceevee peelee jne ieÙee efkeâ peerJeve #eÙeceeve Deewj meÌ[leer ngF& meece«eer pewmes efkeâ Yetmes,
keâerÛeÌ[ Deeefo mes Øekeâš ngDee~ Ùen mJele: peveve (Spontaneous Generation) veecekeâ efmeæeble Lee~
 uegF& heeMÛej (Louis Pasteur) ves meeJeOeeveerhetJe&keâ ØeÙeesieeW keâes keâjles ngS Ùen ØeoefMe&le efkeâÙee efkeâ peerJeve henues mes
efJeÅeceeve peerJeve mes ner efvekeâue keâj Deelee nw~
- Gmeves Ùen ØeoefMe&le efkeâÙee efkeâ henues mes peerJeeCegjefnle efkeâS ieS Heäueemkeâ ceW ’ce=le Ùeermš’ mes peerJe veneR hewoe nesles nQ
peyeefkeâ otmejs Kegues Heäueemkeâ ceW ’ce=le Ùeermš’ keâes jKeves mes kegâÚ meceÙe yeeo veS peerJe Dee peeles nQ~ Fme Øekeâej kesâ
mJele: peveve efmeæeble keâes Skeâ yeej meoe kesâ efueS Keeefjpe keâj efoÙee ieÙee~ neueeBefkeâ, Fve meye yeeleeW mes Ùen Gòej
veneR efceuelee efkeâ he=LJeer hej peerJeve meyemes henues keâye DeeÙee ?
 ®me kesâ Deehesefjve (Oparin) leLee FbiueQ[ kesâ neue[sve (Halden) veecekeâ Jew%eeefvekeâeW ves Ùen ØemleeefJele efkeâÙee efkeâ peerJeve
keâe henuee mJe®he hetJe&-efJeÅeceeve peerJeve-jefnle keâeye&efvekeâ DeCeg (GoenjCe - RNA, Øeesšerve FlÙeeefo) mes DeeÙee ngDee nes
mekeâlee nw Deewj peerJeve keâer Jen jÛevee Gme jemeeÙeefvekeâ efJekeâeme kesâ yeeo Ieefšle ngF& Leer efpememes Dekeâeye&efvekeâ mebIeškeâeW mes
efJeefJeOe keâeye&efvekeâ DeCeg keâe ie"ve nes mekeâe~ Gme meceÙe he=LJeer keâer DeJemLee GÛÛe leehe Ùegkeäle, pJeeueecegKeerÙe letHeâeve Jeeueer
leLee JeeÙegceb[ue ceW efceLesve, DeceesefveÙee Deeefo keâer keâceer Jeeueer Leer~
 Skeâ Decesefjkeâe Jew%eeefvekeâ Sme.Sue.efceuej (S.L.Miller) ves 1953 ceW Deheveer ØeÙeesieMeeuee ceW Fmeer hewceeves keâer efmLeefleÙeeB hewoe
keâer~
- Fmeves Skeâ yebo Heäueemkeâ ceW efveefnle efceLesve, neF[^espeve, DeceesefveÙee leLee 800ºC mesefumeÙeme hej leehe kesâ meeLe Skeâ
efJeÅegle-ef[mÛeepe& keâj osKee efkeâ Deceervees Sefme[ yevelee nw~
- DevÙe ueesieeW ves Yeer "erkeâ Fmeer Øekeâej kesâ ØeÙeesie Éeje Meke&âjeDeeW, veeFš^espesve #eejkeâeW, JeCe&keâeW leLee Jemee Deeefo Øeehle
efkeâS GukeâeDeeW keâer DebleJe&mlegDeeW kesâ efJeMues<eCe mes Øekeâš ngDee efkeâ "erkeâ Ssmeer ner Øeef›eâÙee Debleefj#e kesâ efkeâmeer DevÙe
mLeeve hej (Ssmeer Iešvee) Ieefšle nesleer jner nesieer~
 meerefcele mee#ÙeeW kesâ DeeOeej hej efvejeOeej keâuhevee Jeeueer keâneefveÙeeW kesâ henues Yeeie DeLee&led jemeeÙeefvekeâ efJekeâeme (Charles
Darwin) keâes Yeer LeesÌ[er yengle cee$ee kesâ ®he ceW mJeerke=âle efkeâÙee pee mekeâlee nw~
peerJeve-mJe®he keâe efJekeâeme - Skeâ efmeæeble (Evolution of Life Forms - A Theory)
 Ûeeume& [eefJe&ve (Charles Darwin) ves efve<keâ<e& efvekeâeuee efkeâ efJeÅeceeve mepeerJe keâceesJesMe Deeheme ceW lees meceeveleeSB jKeles
ner nQ; yeefukeâ Gve peerJe ®heeW mes Yeer meceevelee jKeles nQ pees keâjesÌ[eW Je<e& hetJe& kesâ meceÙe efJeÅeceeve LeeR~ Deye yengle meejs peerJe
®he peerefJele efJeÅeceeve veneR nQ~
- ÙeneB hej (Oejleer ceW) peerJeeW kesâ efJeefYevve mJe®he iegpejles Je<eeX kesâ meeLe ve<š nesles ieS Deewj Oejleer kesâ Fefleneme ceW
efJeefYevve DeJeefOeÙeeW hej veS peerJe ®he hewoe nesles ieS~
- ÙeneB hej peerJe ®heeW keâe Oeercee efJekeâeme (Gradual Evolution) neslee jne~
 ØelÙeskeâ peerJe mebKÙee ceW efJeefYevvelee efveefnle nesleer jner~ efpeve efJeefMe<šleeDeeW ves FvnW peerefJele jn mekeâves ceW (peueJeeÙeg,
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Yeespeve, Yeeweflekeâ-keâejkeâ Deeefo ves) meneÙelee oer~ Jes FvnW DevÙeeW keâer Dehes#ee DeefOekeâ peveve#ece Yeer yevee mekeâeR~
- otmejs MeyoeW ceW; peerJe Ùee peerJe mebKÙee ceW GheÙegkeälelee Leer~ Ùen GheÙegkeälelee [eefJe&ve kesâ Devegmeej peveve mebbyebOeer
GheÙegkeälelee ner jn peeleer nw~ pees JeeleeJejCe ceW DeefOekeâ GheÙegkeäle Les Gvekeâer DeefOekeâ mebleeves ngFË~ Deble ceW Gvekeâe JejCe
neslee ieÙee~
- [eefJe&ve ves Fmes Øeeke=âeflekeâ JejCe (Natural Selection) (ÛegveeJe) keâe veece efoÙee Deewj Fmes efJekeâeme kesâ Øeefleceeve kesâ
®he ceW ueeiet efkeâÙee~ Jee@uesme (Wallace) ves ceueÙeDeeke&âhesuewiees (Malay Archipelago) hej keâece efkeâÙee~ FvneWves Yeer
"erkeâ Fmeer meceÙe hej, ueieYeie Fmekesâ Deeme heeme Ùener efve<keâ<e& efvekeâeuee~ meceÙe iegpejves kesâ meeLe, mhe<š ®he mes
veS Øekeâej kesâ peerJe henÛeeve ceW Deeles ieS~
- efJeÅeceeve meYeer peerJe ®he meceeveleeDeeW ceW Yeeieeroejer jKeles nQ leLee Skeâ meePes hetJe&pe kesâ efnmmesoej nesles nQ~ neueeBefkeâ
Ùes hetJe&pe he=LJeer kesâ Fefleneme kesâ efJeefYevve meceÙeeW (ÙegieeW, DeJeefOeÙeeW leLee keâeueeW) ceW efJeÅeceeve Les~ he=LJeer keâe
YetJew%eeefvekeâ Fefleneme he=LJeer kesâ peerJe Jew%eeefvekeâ Fefleneme kesâ meeLe efvekeâšlee mes pegÌ[e ngDee nw~
efJekeâeme kesâ ØeceeCe (Evidences For Evolution)
 he=LJeer hej peerJeeW keâe efJekeâeme ngDee, Fme yeele kesâ ØeceeCe keâF& nQ~
 henuee ÛešdševeeW kesâ Deboj peerJeeMce (Fossil) ®he ceW peerJeve kesâ keâ"esj DebieeW kesâ DeJeMes<e ceW efJeÅeceeve nQ~
- efYevve DeeÙeg keâer ÛešdševeeW keâer leueÚš ceW efYevve peerJe ®he heeS ieS nQ pees efkeâ mebYeJele: Gme efJeMes<e leueÚš kesâ efvecee&Ce
kesâ oewjeve cejs Les~ GveceW mes kegâÚ DeeOegefvekeâ peerJeeW mes efceueles-pegueles nQ~ Jes efJeueghle peerJeeW (pewmes [eÙeveemeesj) keâe
ØeefleefveefOelJe keâjles nQ~
- GheÙeg&keäle DeOÙeÙeve yeleueeles nQ efkeâ meceÙe-meceÙe hej he=LJeer hej peerJeve kesâ ®he yeoueles jns nQ Deewj kegâÚ ®he efJeMes<e
YetJew%eeefvekeâ keâeue lekeâ ner meerefcele jns~ DeLee&led peerJeeW kesâ ®he efJeefYevve keâeueeW ceW Øekeâš ngS~ Fve meYeer keâes
hewuesDeeWšesueesefpekeâue hegjepeerJeer (Palaentological) ØeceeCe keâne peelee nw~
 legueveelcekeâ Mejerj efJe%eeve (Meejerefjkeâer) (Comparative Morphology) Ùee Deeke=âefle efJe%eeve (Deekeâeefjkeâer) Deepe kesâ
peerJeeW leLee Je<eeX hetJe& efJeÅeceeve peerJeeW kesâ yeerÛe Skeâ®helee SJeb efJeefYevvelee oMee&lee nw~ Fme Øekeâej keâer meceeveleeDeeW keâes meePes
hetJe&peeW kesâ meeLe kesâ efjMles kesâ ®he ceW peevee pee mekeâlee nw~
 GoenjCe kesâ efueS £sue (Whale), ÛeceieeoÌ[eW (Bat), Ûeerlee (Panther) Deewj ceeveJe (meYeer mleveOeejer) De«eheeo
(Forelimb) keâer DefmLeÙeeW ceW meceevelee oMee&les nQ~
- Jes ÙeÅeefhe efYevve ef›eâÙeekeâueehe mebhevve keâjles nQ; hejbleg Gvekeâer Meejerefjkeâ mebjÛevee meceeve nesleer nw; pewmes efkeâ Øeiebef[lee
(Humerus), Øekeâesef<"keâe (Radius) Deble: Øekeâesef<"keâe (Ulna), ceefCeyebefOekeâe (Carpals), keâjefYekeâe (Metacar-
pals) leLee DebiegueeefmLe (Phalangs) Deeefo~
- efYevve-efYevve keâeÙe& mebhevve keâjves kesâ keâejCe Jener jÛevee efYevve ®he ues uesleer nw~ Ùes Dehemeejer efJekeâeme (Divergent
Evolution) nw Deewj Ùen mebjÛeveeSB mecepeeleerÙe (Homologous) nesleer nw; efpemeceW meceeve hetJe&pe hejbhejeSB
mecepeeleerÙe nesleer nw; efpemeceW meceeve hetJe&pe hejbhejeSW nesleer nQ~ Fme Iešvee keâes mecepeelelee (Homogenity) keânles
nQ~
 Fmeer Øekeâej mes hesÌ[eW ceW Yeer yeesieveefyeefueÙee (Bouganvilla) SJeb keäÙegkeâjefyeše kesâ keâeBšeW SJeb ØeleeveeW (Tendrils) ceW Yeer
mecepeelelee keâe ØeoMe&ve efoKelee nw~
 leguÙee®helee efyeukegâue efJehejer efmLeefle keâes efoKeueeleer nw~
 he#eer SJeb efleleefueÙeeW kesâ hebKe ueieYeie Skeâ meceeve efoKeles nQ; uesefkeâve FveceW hetJe&pe hejbheje meeceevÙe veneR nw Deewj ve ner
Mejerj keâer jÛevee ceW meceevelee nw~ Yeues Jes meceeve ef›eâÙee keâes mebhevve keâjles nQ~ leguÙe®helee kesâ DevÙe GoenjCe Mekeâjkebâoer
(peÌ[/cetue - ®heeblej) leLee Deeuet (levee-®heeblej) nw~

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 Øeeke=âeflekeâ JejCe kesâ meceLe&ve ceW Skeâ DevÙe DeJeueeskeâve FbiueQ[ ceW MeueYeeW kesâ meb«en keâe nw~
- Menjer #es$eeW ceW osKee ieÙee nw efkeâ DeewÅeesefiekeâerkeâjCe Meg® nesves kesâ hetJe& DeLee&led 1850 F&. mes henues Ùeefo meb«en efkeâÙee
peelee lees hesÌ[eW hej MJesle hebKeer MeueYe ienjs JeieeX kesâ MeueYeeW keâer Dehes#ee mebKÙee ceW DeefOekeâ nesles~
- Deye DeewÅeeskeâerkeâjCe kesâ heMÛeeled 1920 ceW efkeâS ieS meb«en Ùen mebkesâle osles nQ efkeâ "erkeâ Gmeer #es$e ceW ienjs jbie kesâ
MeueYe DeefOemebKÙekeâ Les DeLee&led Devegheele Gueše nes ieÙee~
Devegketâueer efJeefkeâjCe (Adaptive Radiation)
 [eefJe&ve Deheveer Ùee$ee kesâ oewjeve iewueehewieeW (Galapagos) Éerhe ieS Les~ peneB hej GvneWves ØeeefCeÙeeW ceW Skeâ DeeÛeMÙe&pevekeâ
efJeefJeOelee osKeer~
- efJeMes<e ®efÛekeâj yeele Ùen Leer efkeâ GvnW Skeâ keâeueer Úesšer efÛeefÌ[Ùee (Darwin Finch) ves GvnW efJeMes<e ®he mes
DeeMÛeÙe&Ûeefkeâle efkeâÙee~ GvneWves cenmetme efkeâÙee efkeâ Gmeer Éerhe kesâ Devleie&le efJeefYevve Øekeâej keâer efHebâÛe Yeer heeF& peeleer
nQ~ efpeleveer Yeer efkeâmceeW keâes GvneWves heefjkeâefuhele efkeâÙee lee, Ùes meYeer Gmeer Éerhe ceW ner efJekeâefmele ngF& LeeR~
- Ùes he#eer cetuele: yeerpeYe#eer efJeefMe<šleeDeeW kesâ meeLe-meeLe DevÙe mJe®he ceW yeoueeJeeW kesâ meeLe Devegketâefuele ngFË Deewj
ÛeeWÛe kesâ Thej G"ves pewmes heefjJele&veeW ves Fmes keâerš Ye#eer SJeb Meekeâenejer eEHeâÛe yevee efoÙee~
 Skeâ efJeMes<e Yet-Yeewieesefuekeâ #es$e ceW efJeefYevve ØepeeefleÙeeW kesâ efJekeâeme keâe Øe›eâce Skeâ efyebog mes Meg® neskeâj DevÙe Yet-Yeewieesefuekeâ
#es$eeW lekeâ Øemeeefjle nesves keâes Devegketâueer efJeefkeâjCe (Adaptive Radiation) keâne ieÙee~
 [eefJe&ve eEøeâÛe Fme Øekeâej keâer Iešvee keâe Skeâ meJeexòece GoenjCe Øemlegle keâjleer nw~
pewJe efJekeâeme (Evolution)
 Øeeke=âeflekeâ JejCe mes efJekeâeme Deheves JeemleefJekeâ DeLe& ceW leye Meg® ngDee nesiee; peye peerJeve kesâ keâesefMekeâerÙe ®heeW ves Deheveer
ÛeÙeeheÛeÙeer (Metabolic) #eceleeDeeW keâer efJeefYevvelee kesâ keâejCe Dehevee peerJeve DeejbYe efkeâÙee nesiee~
 efJekeâeme kesâ [eefJe&ve efmeæeble keâe cetue lelJe Øeeke=âeflekeâ ÛegveeJe (Natural Selection) nw~
- veS mJe®he kesâ Øekeâšve keâer oj peerJeve Ûe›eâ Ùee peerJeve DeJeefOe mes mebyeæ nw~ Jes jesieeCeg pees lespeer mes efJeYeeefpele nesles
nQ GveceW yengiegCeve keâer #ecelee nesleer nw Deewj Skeâ Iebšs kesâ Yeerlej keâjesÌ[eW JÙeef<š yeve peeles nQ~
- peerJeeCegDeeW (ceeve ueerefpeS-S) keâer Skeâ keâeueesveer Skeâ Øeoòe efJeMes<e ceeOÙece ceW yeÌ{leer nw; keäÙeeWefkeâ YeespÙe heoeLe& kesâ
Skeâ Ieškeâ keâe GheÙeesie keâjves keâer #ecelee efveefnle nw~ ceeOÙece mebIeškeâ efJeMes<e yeoueeJe peerJe mebKÙee (ceeve ueerefpeS-
yeer) keâe kesâJeue Jen DebMe meeceves ueeSiee, pees efkeâ veF& heefjefmLeefleÙeeW ceW GòejpeerefJele jn mekesâ~ Skeâ meceÙeeJeefOe kesâ
oewjeve Ùen heefjJele&ve DevÙeeW mes yeepeer ceej uesleer nw Deewj Skeâ veF& Øepeeefle (kesâ ®he ceW) Øekeâš nesleer nw~ Ùen kegâÚ
efoveeW kesâ Yeerlej ner neslee nw~
- "erkeâ Ùener yeele Skeâ ceÚueer Ùee kegâkeäkegâš (cegieea) kesâ efueS ueeiet nesleer nw pees ueeKeeW Je<e& ueWieer; keäÙeeWefkeâ Gmekeâer peerJeve
DeJeefOe Je<eeX uebyeer nesleer nw~
 ÙeneB hej nce keân mekeâles nQ efkeâ ’S’ keâer Dehes#ee ’yeer’ keâer GheÙegkeälelee yesnlej nw~
- Øeke=âefle GheÙegkeälelee keâes Ûegveleer nw~
 GheÙegkeälelee Gve efJeefMe<šleeDeeW hej DeeOeeefjle nesleer nw pees keâer JebMeevegiele nesleer nw~ Dele: ÛeÙeefvele nesves leLee efJekeâeme nsleg
efveefMÛele ner Skeâ DeevegJebefMekeâ DeeOeej nesvee ÛeeefnS~
- otmejs MeyoeW ceW kegâÚ peerJe Øeefleketâue JeeleeJejCe ceW peerefJele jnves ceW yesnlej Devegketâefuele nesles nQ~ Devegketâueve #ecelee
JebMeevegiele nesleer nw~ Fmekeâe DeevegJebefMekeâ DeeOeej neslee nw~
 DevegketâueveMeeruelee Deewj Øeke=âefle Éeje JejCe keâer Debeflece heefjCeece GheÙegkeälelee neslee nw~
 [eefJe&ve mes henues, Skeâ øeâebmeermeer Øeke=âefle efJe%eeveer ueeceeke&â (Lamarck) ves keâne Lee efkeâ peerJe ®heeW keâe efJekeâeme, DebieeW kesâ
GheÙeesie SJeb DevegheÙeesie kesâ keâejCe ngDee~

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- GvneWves efpejeHeâ (Zebra) keâe GoenjCe efoÙee, efpemeceW TBÛes hesÌ[eW kesâ HegâveefieÙeeW keâer heefòeÙeeW keâes Ûejves kesâ efueS Deheves
ieo&ve keâer uebyeeF& yeÌ{ekeâj Devegketâueve efkeâÙee~ Fme uebyeer ieo&ve keâer Øeeefhle keâer efJeefMe<šlee keâes GòejJeleea mebleefleÙeeW keâes
Øeoeve efkeâÙee Deewj Je<eeX-Je<e& yeeo efpejeHeâ ves Oeerjs-Oeerjs Gleveer uebyeer ieo&ve keâes Øeehle efkeâÙee~ Deepe Fme Deškeâueyeepeer
hej keâesF& efJeMJeeme veneR keâjlee~
efJekeâeme keâe mebef#ehle efJeJejCe (A Brief Account of Evolution)
 ueieYeie 200 efceefueÙeve Je<e& hetJe& he=LJeer hej peerJeve keâe ØeLece keâesefMekeâerÙe ®he Øekeâš ngDee~ efJeMeeue ye=noCeg keâe iewj
keâesefMekeâerÙe hegbpe efPeuueerÙegkeäle DeeJejCe kesâ meeLe keâesefMekeâe ceW kewâmes efJekeâefmele ngDee, Fmekeâer ef›eâÙeeefJeefOe De%eele jner~
FveceW mes kegâÚ keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW Dee@keämeerpeve (O2) keâes cegkeäle keâjves keâer #ecelee Leer~ Ùen DeefYeef›eâÙee mebYeJele: ØekeâeMe
mebMues<eCe ceW ØekeâeMe DeefYeef›eâÙee kesâ meceeve ner jner nesieer~
- ÙeneB hej heeveer mebie=nerle neskeâj meewj Tpee& keâer meneÙelee mes efJeIeefšle neslee nw~ Ùen Tpee& ØekeâeMe meb«eener JeCe&keâeW
mes Øesefjle nesleer nw~
 Oeerjs-Oeerjs Skeâ keâesefMekeâerÙe peerJe yengkeâesefMekeâerÙe (Multicellular) peerJeeW ceW heefjJeefle&le ngS~
 500 efceefueÙeve Je<e& hetJe& DekeâMes®keâer peerJe yeves SJeb ef›eâÙeeMeerue ngS~
 peyeÌ[s jefnleo ceÚueer mebYeJele: 350 efceefueÙeve Je<e& hetJe& efJekeâefmele ngFË~
 mecegõer KejheleJeej SJeb kegâÚ heeohe mebYeJele: 320 efceefueÙeve Je<e& hetJe& DeefmlelJe ceW DeeS~
 henues peerJe Oejleer hej Øekeâš ngS, Jes heeohe Les~ peye Oejleer hej heMeg DeefmlelJe ceW DeeS leye Ùes heeohe Oejleer hej Dee Ûegkesâ
Les~ Ssmee ueieYeie 350 efceefueÙeve Je<e& hetJe& mebYeJe ngDee Lee~
- meved 1938 ceW oef#eCe Deøeâerkeâe ceW Skeâ ceÚueer hekeâÌ[er ieF& pees meerueekeWâefLe Leer, efpemes efJeueghle ceeve efueÙee ieÙee Lee~
- Ssmes ØeeefCeÙeeW keâes heeefuehejJe (Lobofin) keâne ieÙee pees henues GYeÙeÛej ØeeCeer kesâ ®he ceW efJekeâefmele ngS Deewj pees peue
SJeb Leue oesveeW hej ner jns~ nceejs heeme Deepe Fvekeâe keâesF& Yeer vecetvee veneR yeÛee nw~
- neueeBefkeâ Ùes DeeOegefvekeâ Ùegie kesâ ØeeCeer ceW{keâ SJeb mejš (Salamander) peerJeeW kesâ hetJe&pe Les~
- Ùener GYeÙeÛej ØeeCeer mejerme=heeW (Repetiles) kesâ ®he ceW efJekeâefmele ngS~ Ùes ceesšs keâJeÛe Jeeues Deb[s osles nQ pees GYeÙeÛej
Deb[eW keâer lejn Oethe ceW metKe veneR peeles~
- Skeâ yeej efHeâj Deepe nce Fvekesâ kesâJeue GòejeefOekeâejer keâÛÚhe, keâÚgDee, leLee ceiej (›eâeskeâes[eFue) Ùee IeefÌ[Ùeeue keâer
lejn Oethe ceW metKe veneR peeles~
 Deieues 200 efceefueÙeve Je<e& yeeeo, efJeefYevve Deekeâej SJeb Deeke=âefle Jeeues mejerme=heeW ves he=LJeer hej DeeefOehelÙe keâeÙece efkeâÙee~
efJeMeeue Heâve& Ùee šsefj[esHeâeF[ GheefmLele Les; eEkeâleg Jes meYeer Oeerjs-Oeerjs cej keâj keâesÙeues kesâ Yeb[ej yeve ieS~ FveceW mes kegâÚ
mejerme=he hegve: heeveer ceW Jeeheme Ûeues ieS Deejw ueieYeie 200 efceefueÙeve Je<e& hetJe& mebYeJele: ceÚueer pewmes mejerme=he (pewmes
FefkeäLeÙeesmeeSme) kesâ ®he ceW Øekeâš ngS~
 he=LJeer hej jnves Jeeues mejerme=he ner [eÙeveemeewj Les~ FveceW meyemes yeÌ[e DeLee&led š^eFvewveesmeesjme jskeäme (T.Rex) ueieYeie 20
Hegâš TBÛee leLee efJeMeeue [jeJeves keâšej pewmes oeBleeW Jeeuee Lee~
- ueieYeie 65 efceefueÙeve Je<e& hetJe& DeÛeevekeâ he=LJeer mes [eÙeveemeewj meceehle nes ieS~
- nceW Fmekesâ mener keâejCeeW keâe helee veneR nQ~ kegâÚ ueesieeW keâe cele nw efkeâ JeeleeJejCe SJeb peueJeeÙeg heefjJele&veeW ves FvnW
ceeje~ kegâÚ ueesie ceeveles nQ efkeâ FveceW mes pÙeeoelej heef#eÙeeW kesâ ®he ceW efJekeâefmele nes ieS~ melÙe MeeÙeo FvneR oesveeW
kesâ yeerÛe efveefnle nQ~ Gme Ùegie kesâ Úesšs mejerme=he Deepe kesâ oewjs ceW Yeer efJeÅeceeve nw~
 henues mleveOeejer ØeeCeer ßet (cebpees®) Les~ Fmekesâ peerJeeMce (Fossil) Úesšs Deekeâej kesâ nQ~
- mleveOeejer (Mammals) ØeeCeer pejeÙegpe (Viviparous) nesles nQ leLee Gvekesâ Depevces efMeMeg ceeB kesâ Mejerj kesâ Deboj
(ieYe& ceW) megjef#ele jnles nQ~
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- mleveOeejer ØeeCeer Úesšs mes Úesšs KelejeW kesâ Øeefle meleke&â jnves SJeb yeÛeeJe keâjves ceW yegefæceeve nesles Les~
- peye mejerme=heeW keâer keâceer ngF&, leye mleveOeejer ØeeefCeÙeeW ves mLeue hej keâypee keâj efueÙee~ ÙeneB hej oef#eCe Decesefjkeâer
mleveOeejer IeesÌ[s mes efceuelee-peguelee, oefjÙeeF& IeesÌ[e (Hippopotamus), Yeeuet leLee KejieesMe Deeefo Les~
 ceneÉerheerÙe efJeÛeueve (Continental Drift) kesâ keâejCe peye oef#eCeer SJeb Gòejer Decejerkeâe ØeeefCe peiele hej Úe ieS~
ceneÉerheerÙe efJemLeeheve kesâ keâejCe peye oef#eCeer Decejerkeâe Gòejer Decejerkeâe mes efceue ieÙee lees Ùes peerJe Gòejer peblegDeeW kesâ
oyeeJe ceW Dee ieS Deewj Jes yengmebKÙe nes ieS~ ceneÉerheerÙe efJemLeeheve kesâ keâejCe ner Deemš^sefueÙeeF& mleveOeejer (pewmes kebâiee®
Deeefo) peerefJele jns; keäÙeeWefkeâ GvnW otmejs DevÙe mleveOeejer peerJeeW mes keâce ØeefleÙeesefielee Leer~
ceeveJe keâe GodYeJe Deewj efJekeâeme (Origin of Man and Evolution)
 ueieYeie 15 efceefueÙeve Je<e& hetJe& [^eÙeesefheefLekeâme (Driopithecus) leLee jemeeefheefLekeâme (Ramapithecus) veecekeâ
vejJeevej efJeÅeceeve Les~ Fve ueesieeW kesâ Mejerj yeeueeW mes Yejhetj Les leLee ieesefjuuee SJeb efÛeheQpeer pewmes Ûeueles Les~
- jeceeefheefLekeâme DeefOekeâ ceveg<ÙeeW pewmes Les peyeefkeâ [^eÙeesefheefLekeâme Jeveceeveg<e (Ape) pewmes Les~
- FLeesefheÙee leLee lebpeeefveÙee ceW kegâÚ peerJeeMce (Fossils) DeefmLeÙeeB ceeveJeeW pewmeer Øeehle ngF& nQ~
- Ùes peerJeeMce ceeveJe efJeefMe<šleeSB oMee&les nQ pees Fme efJeMJeeme keâes Deeies yeÌ{eleer nQ efkeâ 3-4 efceefueÙeve Je<e& hetJe& ceeveJe
pewmes vej Jeevej ieCe ØeeFcesšdme (Primates) hetJeea-Deøeâerkeâe ceW efJeÛejCe keâjles jns Les~
- Ùes ueesie mebYeJele: TBÛeeF& ceW 4 Hegâš mes yeÌ[s veneR Les; eEkeâleg Jes KeÌ[s neskeâj meerOes Ûeueles Les~
 ueieYeie 2 efceefueÙeve Je<e& hetJe& Deesmš^eueesefheLeskeâme (DeeefoceeveJe) mebYeJele: hetJeea Deøeâerkeâe kesâ Ieeme mLeueeW ceW jnlee Lee~
- mee#Ùe Ùen Øekeâš keâjles nw efkeâ Jes ØeejbYe ceW helLej kesâ nefLeÙeejeW mes efMekeâej keâjles Les, eEkeâleg ØeejbYe ceW HeâueeW keâe ner
Yeespeve keâjles Les~
- Keespeer ieF& DeefmLeÙeeW ceW mes kegâÚ DeefmLeÙeeB yengle ner efYevve LeeR~
 Fme peerJe keâes henuee ceeveJe pewmes ØeeCeer kesâ ®he ceW peevee ieÙee Deewj Gmes nescees nwefyeefueme (Homo Hibilis) keâne ieÙee Lee~
- Gmekeâer efoceeieer #ecelee 650-800 meermeer kesâ yeerÛe Leer~ Jes mebYeJele: ceeBme veneR Keeles Les~
 1991 ceW peeJee ceW Keespes ieS peerJeeMce ves Deieues ÛejCe kesâ yeejs ceW Yeso Øekeâš efkeâÙee~ Ùen ÛejCe Lee nescees Fjwkeäšme
(Homo erectus) pees 1.5 efceefueÙeve Je<e& hetJe& ngDee~
- nescees Fjwkeäšme keâe ceefmle<keâ yeÌ[e Lee pees ueieYeie 900 meermeer keâe Lee~
- nescees Fjwkeäšme mebYeJele: ceeBme Keelee Lee~
 efveÙeb[jLeue (Neanderthal) ceeveJe 1400 meermeer Deekeâej Jeeues ceefmle<keâ efueS ngS, 100,000 mes 40,000 Je<e& hetJe& SJeb
ceOÙe SefMeÙeeF& osMeeW ceW jnles Les~
- Jes Deheves Mejerj keâer j#ee kesâ efueS KeeueeW keâe Fmlesceeue keâjles Les Deewj Deheves ce=lekeâeW keâes peceerve ceW ieeÌ[les Les~
 nescees meQefheÙebme (Homosapiens) (ceeveJe) Deøeâerkeâe ceW efJekeâefmele ngDee Deewj Oeerjs-Oeerjs ceneÉerheeW mes heej hengBÛee Lee leLee
efJeefYevve ceneÉerheeW ceW Hewâuee Lee, Fmekesâ yeeo Jen efYevve peeefleÙeeW ceW efJekeâefmele ngDee~
 75,000 mes 10,000 Je<e& kesâ oewjeve efnceÙegie (Iceage) ceW Ùen DeeOegefvekeâ Ùegieerve ceeveJe hewoe ngDee~
 ceeveJe ves Øeeiewefleneefmekeâ (Protohistoric) iegHeâe-efÛe$eeW keâer jÛevee ueieYeie 18,000 Je<e& hetJe& keâer~
 ke=âef<e keâeÙe& ueieYeie 10,000 Je<e& hetJe& DeejbYe ngDee Deewj ceeveJe yeefmleÙeeB yevevee Meg® ngFË~ yeekeâer pees kegâÚ Jen ceeveJe
Fefleneme Ùee Je=efæ keâe Yeeie Deewj meYÙelee keâer Øeieefle keâe efnmmee nw~
mcejCeerÙe leLÙe :
 DeevegJebefMekeâ peerJe efJe%eeve keâer Jen MeeKee nw efpemeceW heerefÌ{ÙeeW kesâ yeerÛe ue#eCeeW keâer melelelee keâe DeOÙeÙeve efkeâÙee peelee nw~
 ceW[ue ves JebMeeieefle (inheritance) kesâ efmeæebleeW keâer JÙeeKÙee cešj (Garden pea) hej efkeâÙes ieÙes Deheves ØeÙeesieeW kesâ
DeeOeej hej efkeâÙee Lee~

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 peerJe (Gene) DNA (DNA) keâe Skeâ Keb[ nw Deewj Ùen peerJe ceW efkeâmeer ue#eCe keâer DeefYeJÙeefkeäle kesâ efueS GòejoeÙeer neslee
nw~
 Jemlegle: DNA (DNA) ner DeevegJebefMekeâ heoeLe& nw pees iegCemet$eeW keâe meeJe&efOekeâ cenlJehetCe& mebIeškeâ nw leLee Skeâ heerÌ{er mes
otmejs heerÌ{er lekeâ DeevegJebefMekeâ metÛeveeDeeW keâe mebJenve keâjlee nw~
 ceeveJe mecesle kegâÚ pevlegDeeW ceW ueQefiekeâ iegCemet$e efuebie efveOee&jCe kesâ efueS GòejoeÙeer nw~ eEueie iegCemet$eeW keâes X SJeb Y De#ejeW
Éeje DeefYeJÙekeäle efkeâÙee peelee nw~
 peerJeeW ceW efJeefJeOelee, Fmekesâ meceepeele DebieeW, YeütCeeW SJeb peerJeeMceeW pewmes ue#eCeeW mes pewefJekeâ efJekeâeme keâe GoenjCe efceuelee
nw~
 uewceeke&â ves efJekeâeme keâer JÙeeKÙee keâjves kesâ efueS Gheeefpe&le ue#eCeeW keâer JebMeeieefle keâe efmeæeble Øeefleheeefole efkeâÙee~ Fmekesâ
JÙeehekeâ ceevÙelee veneR efceueer~
 [eefJe&ve ves efJekeâeme keâer JÙeeKÙee Deheves Øeeke=âeflekeâ ÛeÙeve (Natural Selection) kesâ efmeæeble mes keâer Leer, efpemes JÙeehekeâ
ceevÙelee efceueer~ DeevegJebefMekeâer ceW ngF& Gvveefle kesâ Deeueeskeâ ceW FmeceW heefjJele&ve efkeâÙee ieÙee~
 efJekeâeme keâer DeeOegefvekeâ JÙeeKÙee keâe efJekeâeme keâe mebMues<eCeelcekeâ efmeæeble (Synthetic Theory of Evolution) keâne
peelee nw, efpemeceW efJeefJeOelee leLee Øeeke=âeflekeâ ÛeÙeve Ssmeer efJekeâemeerÙe MeefkeäleÙeeb ceeveer peeleer nw, efpevekesâ keâejCe veF&
peeefleÙeeW keâe DeYÙegoÙe ngDee nw~
 ueieYeie 2000 efceefueÙeve Je<e& hetJe& peerJeve ØeLece keâesefMekeâerÙe ®he ceW Øekeâš ngDee, Oeerjs-Oeerjs yengkeâesefMekeâerÙe ®he ceW
heefjJeefle&le ngS~
 jmeeÙeefvekeâ efJekeâeme keâes peerJeve kesâ Glheefòe kesâ meboYe& ceW meerefcele ceevÙelee efceueer nw~
 1990 ceW ceeveJe peerveesce kesâ Deveg›eâceeW kesâ helee ueieeves nsgle ceeveJe peerveesce heefjÙeespevee Meg® keâer ieF&~



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½ãã¶ãÌã ÔÌããÔ©¾ã †Ìãâ ÀãñØã (Human Health & Disease)

mJeemLÙe efvecveefueefKele yeeleeW mes ØeYeeefJele neslee nw -
(a) DeevegJebefMekeâ efJekeâej (Genetic Disorder) - Ùes DehetCe&leeSB efpeve keâes ueskeâj yeÛÛee pevcelee nw Deewj Jes DehetCe&leeSB pees yeÛÛes
keâes pevce mes ner ceeB-yeehe mes JebMeeiele (Inheritance) ®he mes efceueleer nQ~
(b) meb›eâceCe (Infections) Deewj
(c) nceejer peerJeve Mewueer efpemeceW, pees Keevee nce Keeles nQ Deewj heeveer heerles nQ, pees efJeßeece nce Mejerj keâes osles nQ Deewj pees
JÙeeÙeece nce keâjles nQ, pees mJeYeeJe nceejs Yeerlej nw Deewj efpeveceW nceceW keâceer nw; Deeefo Meeefceue nQ~
 DeÛÚe mJeemLÙe yeveeS jKeves kesâ efueS meblegefuele Deenej (Balanced Diet), JÙeefkeäleiele mJeÛÚlee (Personal Hygeine)
Deewj efveÙeefcele JÙeeÙeece (Regular Exercise) yengle cenòJehetCe& nw~
 Meejerefjkeâ Deewj ceeveefmekeâ mJeemLÙe heeves kesâ efueS DeefleØeeÛeerve keâeue mes Ùeesie keâe DeYÙeeme efkeâÙee pee jne nw~
 jesie Deewj Mejerj kesâ efJeefYevve ØekeâeÙeeX hej Gvekesâ ØeYeeJe kesâ yeejs ceW peeie®keâlee, meb›eâecekeâ jesieeW kesâ Øeefle šerkeâekeâjCe
(Øeeflej#eerkeâjCe Immunisation), DeheefMe<šeW (Waste) keâe mecegefÛele efveheševe, jesieJeenkeâeW (Vectors) keâe efveÙeb$eCe
SJeb Keeves Deewj heeveer kesâ mebmeeOeveeW keâe mJeÛÚ jKejKeeJe DeÛÚs mJeemLÙe kesâ efueS DeeJeMÙekeâ nw~
 peye Mejerj kesâ Skeâ Ùee DeefOekeâ DebieeW Ùee leb$e kesâ ØekeâeÙeeX hej Øeefleketâue ØeYeeJe heÌ[lee nw Deewj efJeefYevve efÛevn Deewj ue#eCe
Øekeâš nesles nQ lees nce keânles nQ efkeâ nce mJemLe veneR nQ DeLee&led nceW jesie nes ieÙee nw~
- jesieeW keâes ceesšs leewj hej (a) meb›eâecekeâ Deewj (b) Demeb›eâecekeâ mecetneW ceW yeeBše pee mekeâlee nw~
(a) meb›eâecekeâ (Communicable) : pees jesie Skeâ JÙeefkeäle mes otmejs ceW Deemeeveer mes mebÛeeefjle nes mekeâles nQ, GvnW
meb›eâecekeâ jesie keânles nQ~ meb›eâecekeâ jesie yengle Deece nw Deewj nce meye keâYeer ve keâYeer Fmekesâ efMekeâej ngS nQ~ kegâÚ
meb›eâecekeâ jesie, pewmesefkeâ S[dme, Ieelekeâ nesles nQ~
(b) Demeb›eâecekeâ (Non - communicable) : Demeb›eâecekeâ jesieeW ceW keQâmej ce=lÙeg keâe ØecegKe keâejCe nw~ veMeerues heoeLeeX
([^ie) Deewj Ssukeâesnue keâe kegâØeÙeesie Yeer nceejs mJeemLÙe hej Øeefleketâue ØeYeeJe [euelee nw~
ceeveJe ceW meeceevÙe jesie (Common Diseases in Human)
 Deveskeâeveskeâ peerJe, efpemeceW peerJeeCeg (Vacteria), efJe<eeCeg (Virus), keâJekeâ (Fungi), ØeesšespeesDeve, ke=âefce (Helminthes)
Deeefo Meeefceue nQ, ceveg<Ùe ceW jesie hewoe keâjles nQ~ Ssmes jesiekeâejkeâ peerJeeW keâes jesiepevekeâ (Pathogen) keânles nQ~
- FmeefueS meYeer hejpeerJeer (Parasites) jesiepevekeâ nQ, keäÙeeWefkeâ Ùes hejhees<eer (Host) kesâ Yeerlej Ùee Gmekesâ Thej jnkeâj
Gmes #eefle Ùee neefve hengBÛeeles nQ~
- jesiepevekeâ nceejs Mejerj ceW keâF& lejn mes ØeJesMe keâj mekeâles nQ SJeb Deheveer mebKÙee ceW Je=efæ keâj nceejer meeceevÙe
DelÙeeJeMÙekeâ ef›eâÙeeDeeW ceW yeeOee hengBÛeeles nQ~ HeâuemJe®he, Deeke=âeflekeâ (Morphological) Deewj ØekeâeÙee&lcekeâ #eefle
nesleer nw~
peerJeeCeg :
 meeuceesvesuee (Salmonella Typhi) Skeâ jesiepevekeâ peerJeeCeg nw efpememes ceeveJe ceW šeFHeâe@F[ pJej neslee nw~
- Ùen jesiepevekeâ Deeceleewj mes mebotef<ele (Contaminated) Yeespeve Deewj heeveer Éeje Úesšer DeeBle ceW Iegme peelee nw Deewj
JeneB mes jkeäle Éeje Mejerj kesâ DevÙe DebieeW ceW hengBÛe peelee nw~
- Fme jesie kesâ kegâÚ meeceevÙe ue#eCe nQ -
(i) ueieeleej GÛÛe pJej (390 mes 400 meWšer),
(ii) keâcepeesjer,
(iii) DeeceeMeÙe ceW heerÌ[e,

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(iv) keâype,
(v) efmejoo& Deewj
(vi) YetKe ve ueievee Deeefo~
- iebYeerj ceeceueeW ceW Deeb$e ceW Úso Deewj ce=lÙeg Yeer nes mekeâleer nw~
- šeFHeâe@F[ pJej keâer hegef<š efJe[eue hejer#eCe mes nes mekeâleer nw~
 mš^shšeskeâeskeâme vÙegceesveer (Stertococus Pneumonal) Deewj nerceesefHeâume FbHeäuegSBpeer (Haemophills Influenzi) pewmes
peerJeeCeg ceeveJe ceW vÙegceesefveÙee jesie (Pneumonia) kesâ efueS GòejoeÙeer nQ~
- Fme jesie jceW HegâhHegâme (Lungs) kesâ JeeÙegkeâes<" (Alveoli) meb›eâefcele nes peeles nQ~
(i) meb›eâceCe kesâ HeâuemJe®he JeeÙegkeâes<"eW ceW lejue Yej peelee nw efpemekesâ keâejCe meebme uesves ceW iebYeerj mecemÙeeSB hewoe nes
peeleer nQ~
(ii) pJej,
(iii) ef""gjve,
(iv) KeeBmeer Deewj
(v) efmejoo& Deeefo vÙegceesefveÙee kesâ ue#eCe nQ~
- iebYeerj ceeceueeW ceW, neW" Deewj neLe keâer GbieefueÙeeW kesâ veeKetveeW keâe jbie Oetmej mes ueskeâj veeruee lekeâ nes peelee nw~
- mJemLe ceveg<Ùe keâes meb›eâceCe efkeâmeer meb›eâefcele JÙeefkeäle Éeje ÚesÌ[s ieS efyebogkeâeW (Droplets) DeLeJee SÙejesmee@ue
(Aerosol) meeBme Éeje Deboj uesves mes Ùee meb›eâefcele JÙeefkeäle kesâ efieueeme Ùee yele&ve Fmlesceeue keâjves mes Yeer nes peelee
nw~ ceeveJe ceW nesves Jeeues kegâÚ DevÙe peerJeeCJeerÙe jesie nQ - Deeflemeej hesefÛeMe (Dysentry), huesie (Plague) Deewj
ef[HeäLeerefjÙee (Dipthiria) Deeefo~
 yengle mes efJe<eeCeg (Bacteria) Yeer ceeveJe ceW jesie keâe keâejkeâ nesles nQ~
- efJe<eeCegDeeW keâe Ssmee ner Skeâ mecetn veemeeefJe<eeCegDeeW (Rhinovirus) keâe nw pees ceeveJe ceW meyemes pÙeeoe meb›eâecekeâ jesie,
meeceevÙe pegkeâece (Common Cold) Hewâueelee nw~
- Ùes veekeâ Deewj MJemeve heLe keâes meb›eâefcele keâjles nQ, uesefkeâve HesâHeâÌ[eW keâes veneR~
- meeceevÙe pegkeâece kesâ DeefYeue#eCe nQ -
(i) veemeerÙe mebkegâuelee (Nosal Congestion) Deewj Deem$eeJe,
(ii) kebâ" oen,
(iii) mJe®#elee DeLee&led Heâšer DeeJeepe,
jesieeW kesâ keâejCe leLee Øekeâej
(Causes and Types of Diseases)

 
pevcepeele jesie Gheeefpe&le jesie
(Congential Diseases) (Acquired Diseases)
pevce mes ner jnles nQ pevceeshejevle Deefpe&le

 
meb›eâecekeâ (Ùee mebmeie&) jesie Demeb›eâecekeâ Ùee Demebmeieelcekeâ jesie
(Infectious or Communicable Diseases) (Non - infectious or Non -
peerefJele jesieeCegDeeW pewmes, peerJeeCeg, keâJekeâ, Communicable Diseases)

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efJe<eeCeg Deeefo kesâ keâejCe, Skeâ JÙeefkeäle mes Ùes jesieer JÙeefkeäle lekeâ ner meerefcele jnles nQ,
otmejs JÙeefkeäle keâes mebÛeefjle nesles nQ~ otmejs JÙeefkeäle ceW mebÛeefjle veneR nesles~
pewmes pegkeâece, šer.yeer., šeÙeHeâe@F[~

  
neefmele jesie Suepeea DeevegJebefMekeâ jesie
(Degenerative Diseases) (Allergy) (Genetic Diseases)
efJeefYevve Meejerefjkeâ DebieeW kesâ ve<š efkeâmeer heoeLe& kesâ Øeefle DeevegJebefMekeâ keâejkeâeW kesâ
nesves mes nesles nQ, pewmes ùoÙe jesie DelÙeefOekeâ mebJesoveMeeruelee keâejCe pewmes
kesâ keâejCe TnerceesHeâerefueÙee

  
nerveleepevÙe jesie keQâmej meeceeefpekeâ jesie
(Deficiency Diseases) (Cancer) (Social Diseases)
efJeefYevve heoeLeeX keâer keâceer mes, DeefveÙeefcele Tlekeâ pewmes, ceefojeheve,
pewmes efjkesâšdme Je=efæ mes veMeeKeesjer
(iv) KeeBmeer,
(v) efmejoo&,
(vi) LekeâeJeš Deeefo, pees ØeeÙe: 3-7 efove lekeâ jnles nQ~
- meb›eâefcele JÙeefkeäle keâer KeeBmeer Ùee ÚeRkeâeW mes efvekeâues efyebogkeâ peye mJemLe JÙeefkeäle Éeje meeBme uesves hej Deboj peeles nQ
DeLeJee hesve, efkeâleeyeeW, hÙeeueeW, ojJeepes keâer cet"eW, kebâhÙetšjeW kesâ keâeryees[& Ùee ceeGme pewmeer mebotef<ele ngF& JemlegDeeW kesâ
mebheke&â ceW Deelee nw, lees Gmes Yeer meb›eâceCe nes peelee nw~
ØeesšespeesDee (Protozoa)
 ceeveJe ceW kegâÚ jesie ØeesšespeesDee (Protozoa) mes Yeer nesles nQ~ ceuesefjÙee (Malaria) Skeâ Ssmee jesie efpememes ceveg<Ùe keâF&
meeueeW mes ueÌ[lee Dee jne nw~
- huewpeceesef[Ùece (Plasmodium) veecekeâ Skeâ yengle ner Úesše mee ØeesšespeesDeve Fme jesie kesâ efueS GòejoeÙeer nw~
- huewpeceesef[Ùee keâer efJeefYevve (huew JeeFJewkeäme, huew cesefueefjDeeF& Deewj huew, Hewâumeerhesjce) efJeefYevve Øekeâej kesâ ceuesefjÙee kesâ
efueS GòejoeÙeer nQ~ FveceW mes huewpceesef[Ùece Hewâumeerhesjce Éeje nesves Jeeuee ogo&ce (Malighant) meyemes iebYeerj nw Deewj
Ùen Ieelekeâ Yeer nes mekeâlee nw~
- huewpeceesef[Ùece Ùeke=âle ceW Deheveer mebKÙee yeÌ{eles jnles nQ Deewj efHeâj ueeue ®efOej keâefCekeâeDeeW (RBC) hej Dee›eâceCe
keâjles nQ efpememes Ùes ve<š nes peeleer nw~
- Fmemes nerceespeesFve (Haemozoin) veecekeâ efJe<eekeäle heoeLe& efvekeâuelee nw efpememes ef""gjve ueieleer nw~ ceuesefjÙee
hejpeerJeer keâes Dehevee peerJeve Ûe›eâ hetje keâjves kesâ efueS, ceveg<Ùe Deewj ceÛÚj, oes hejheesef<eÙees keâer pe®jle heÌ[leer nw~
- ceeoe SsveesHesâueerpe (Female Anophels) jesieJeenkeâ DeLee&led jesie keâe mebÛejCe keâjves Jeeueer Yeer nw~
 ceeveJe keâer Je=nled Deeb$e (Large Intestine) ceW heeS peeves Jeeues SbšDeceeryee efnmšesefueefškeâe (Antameoba Histolitica)
veecekeâ Øeesšespeesve hejpeerJeer mes Deceeryelee (Ameobesis) Ùee Deceeryeer Deeflemeej neslee nw~
ue#eCe :
(i) keâes<"yeælee (keâype),

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(ii) GojerÙe heerÌ[e Deewj SW"ve,

(iii) DelÙeefOekeâ Mues<eceue Deewj
(iv) jkeäle kesâ Oekeäkesâ
- Iejsuet ceefkeäKeÙeeB Fme jesie keâer Meejerefjkeâ Jeenkeâ nQ Deewj hejpeerJeer keâes meb›eâefcele JÙeefkeäle kesâ ceue mes KeeÅe Deewj KeeÅe
heoeLeeX lekeâ ues peekeâj GvnW mebotef<ele keâj osleer nQ~
- cetue heoeLe& Éeje mebotef<ele hesÙe peue Deewj KeeÅe heoeLe& meb›eâceCe kesâ ØecegKe m$eesle nQ~
 meeceevÙe ieesueke=âefce Ssmkeâeefjjme (Ascaris) Deewj HeâeFuesefjÙee ke=âefce (Filarial Worms) , JegÛesjsefjÙee kegâÚ Ssmes ke=âefce nQ
pees ceveg<Ùe kesâ efueS jesiepevekeâ nQ~
- Deeb$e hejpeerJeer Ssmkeâeefjme mes Ssmkesâefjmelee (SsmkesâefjSefmeme) veecekeâ jesie neslee nw~
ue#eCe :
(i) Deebleefjkeâ jkeälem$eeJe,
(ii) hesMeerÙe heerÌ[e,
(iii) pJej,
(iv) Dejkeälelee Deewj
(v) Deeb$e keâe DeJejesOe Fme jesie kesâ ue#eCe nQ~
- Fme hejpeerJeer kesâ Deb[s meb›eâefcele JÙeefkeäle kesâ ceue kesâ meeLe yeenj efvekeâue Deeles nQ Deewj efcešdšer, peue, heewOeeW Deeefo keâes
mebotef<ele keâj osles nQ~ mJemLe JÙeefkeäle ceW Ùen meb›eâceCe mebotef<ele heeveer, Meekeâ-meefypeÙeeW, HeâueeW Deeefo kesâ mesJeve mes nes peelee
nw~
 JegÛesjsefjÙee (yeg yeQ›eâesHeäšeF& Deewj Jeg.cewueeF&) Ssmes HeâeFuesefjDeeF& ke=âefce nQ efpevekesâ keâejCe DebieeW ceW, ØeeÙe: DeOe&: heeo keâer
uemeerkeâe JeeefnkeâeDeeW (Lymphatic Vessels) ceW, Oeerjs-Oeerjs yeÌ{ves Jeeuee oerIe&keâeefuekeâ MeesLe (Longterm Inflamma-
tion) nes peelee nw~ Ùes ke=âefce Fve DebieeW mes keâF& Je<eeX lekeâ jnles nQ~ Ùen jesie nefmleheeo (Elephentasis) Ùee Mueerheo
(SueerHeQâMeerSefmeme) DeLeJee HeâeFuesefjÙee (HeâeFuesefjSefmeme) keânueelee nw~ peveefvekeâ Debie Yeer Dekeämej Fme jesie mes ØeYeeefJele
nes peeles nQ Deewj Fmekeâer Jepen mes yeÌ[er Yeejer efJe®heleeSB Dee peeleer nQ~ jesieJeenkeâ ceeoe ceÛÚj peye efkeâmeer mJemLe JÙeefkeäle
keâes keâešleer nw, lees jesiepevekeâ Gme JÙeefkeäle kesâ Mejerj ceW mebÛeeefjle nes peeles nQ~
keâJekeâ (Fungi)
 ceeF›eâesmheesjjce, š^eFkeâesHeâeFše@ve Deewj Sefhe[ceexHeâeFše@ve Deeefo JebMe (pesveje) kesâ Deveskeâ keâJekeâ, oeo (eEjieJece&) kesâ efueS
GòejoeÙeer nQ~ Ùen meb›eâecekeâ jesie ceveg<ÙeeW ceW yengle ner meeceevÙe nw~
ue#eCe :
- Mejerj kesâ efJeefYevve YeeieeW pewmes -
(i) lJeÛee, veeKetve Deewj efMejesJeukeâ (mkewâuhe) hej metKeer Meukeâer efJe#eefleÙeeB (mkesâueer ueerpeve) Fme jesie kesâ ØecegKe
ue#eCe nQ~
(ii) Fve efJe#eefleÙeeW ceW Kegpeueer nesleer nw~
- T<cee Deewj veceer Fve keâJekeâeW keâes lJeÛee kesâ JeueveeW (Heâesu[), pewmesefkeâ «eesFve DeLeJee heeobiegefueÙeeW kesâ yeerÛe heveheves ceW
ceoo keâjleer nQ~
- oeo Deeceleewj hej efcešdšer mes Ùee meb›eâefcele JÙeefkeäleÙeeW kesâ leewefueS, keâheÌ[s Ùee kebâIes lekeâ keâe ØeÙeesie keâjves mes nes peelee
nw~
yeÛeeJe (Prevention)
 Deveskeâ meb›eâecekeâ jesieeW kesâ efvejesOe Deewj efveÙeb$eCe kesâ efueS JÙeefkeäleiele leLee peve mJeÛÚlee (Personal and Communal
Hygeine) yeveeS jKevee yengle cenlJehetCe& nw~

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 JÙeefkeäleiele mJeÛÚlee ceW (i) Mejerj keâes meeHeâ jKevee, (ii) heerves kesâ efueS meeHeâ heeveer, (iii) Keevee, Meekeâ-meefypeÙeeW, (iv)
Heâue Deeefo keâe mesJeve Meeefceue nw~
 peve mJeemLÙe ceW DeheefMe<š heoeLe& Deewj cetue-met$e Glmeie& (Skeäme›eâerše) keâe mecegefÛele efveheševe; peueeMeÙeeW, kegbâ[eW Deewj
ceuekegbâ[eW Deewj leeueeyeeW keâer meceÙe-meceÙe hej meHeâeF& Deewj efJemeb›eâceCe leLee peve Keeve-heeve ØeyebOe ceW mJeÛÚlee kesâ ceevekeâ
keâe heeueve keâjvee nw~
- Ùes GheeÙe efJeMes<e®he mes JeneB DeefveJeeÙe& nQ peneB meb›eâecekeâ jesie KeeÅe heoeLe& Deewj heeveer kesâ Éeje mebÛeeefjle nesles nQ
pewmes efkeâ šeFHeâe@F[ Deceeryelee, Ssmkesâefjmelee~
 vÙegceesefveÙee Deewj meeceevÙe pegkeâece pewmes JeeÙegJeeefnle (Airborne) jesieeW kesâ ceeceues ceW Thej yeleeS ieS GheeÙeeW kesâ DeueeJee
meb›eâefcele JÙeefkeäleÙeeW kesâ Ùee Gvekesâ meceeve kesâ efvekeâš mebheke&â ceW Deeves mes yeÛevee ÛeeefnS~
 keâerš jesieJeenkeâeW kesâ Éeje mebÛeeefjle nesves Jeeues ceuesefjÙee Deewj HeâeFuesefjÙee pewmes jesieeW kesâ efueS meyemes cenlJehetCe& GheeÙe
jesieJeenkeâeW Deewj Gvekesâ Øepeveve (Breeding) keâer peieneW keâe efveÙeb$eCe Ùee GvnW Kelce keâj osvee nw~
- Ùen ue#Ùe DeeJeemeerÙe #es$eeW ceW Deewj Gmekesâ Deeme-heeme heeveer keâes pecee veneR nesves osves, Iejsuet MeerleueÙeb$eeW (ketâuej)
keâer efveÙeefcele meHeâeF&, ceÛÚjoeveer keâe ØeÙeesie ceÛÚj kesâ ef[byekeâeW (ueeJee&) keâes Keeves Jeeueer iebyegefpeÙee pewmeer ceÚefueÙeeB
[eueves, KeeFÙeeW, peueefvekeâeme #es$eeW Deewj DevetheeW (oueoueeW) (mJebhme) Deeefo ceW keâeršveeMekeâeW kesâ efÚÌ[keâeJe mes pee
mekeâlee nw~
- Fmekesâ DeueeJee ojJeepeeW Deewj efKeÌ[efkeâÙeeW ceW peeueer ueieeveer ÛeeefnS, leeefkeâ ceÛÚj Deboj ve Iegme mekeWâ~ YeejleJe<e& kesâ
yengle mes YeeieeW ceW neue ner ceW jesieJeenkeâ-Jeeefnle (S[erpe ceÛÚj) [Wiet Deewj efÛekeâveiegefveÙee pewmes jesieeW keâe JÙeehekeâ
®he mes Hewâueves kesâ meboYe& ceW Ssmes GheeÙe Deewj Yeer cenlJehetCe& nes ieS nQ~
 peerJe efJe%eeve ceW ngF& Øeieefle mes nceW Deveskeâ meb›eâecekeâ jesieeW mes efveyešves kesâ efueS keâejiej nefLeÙeej efceue ieS nQ~
- šerkeâe (Vaccine) kesâ GheÙeesie Deewj Øeeflej#eerkeâjCe keâeÙe&›eâceeW (Immunisation Programme) mes ÛesÛekeâ pewmes
peeveuesJee jesie keâe hetjer lejn mes Gvcetueve keâj efoÙee ieÙee nw~
- Jewkeämeerve kesâ Fmlesceeue mes heesefueÙees, ef[HeäLeerefjÙee, vÙegceesefveÙee Deewj efššveme pewmes Deveskeâ meb›eâecekeâ jesieeW keâes keâeHeâer
no lekeâ efveÙebef$ele keâj efueÙee ieÙee nw~
 pewJeØeewÅeesefiekeâer (Biotechnology), veS-veS Deewj DeefOekeâ megjef#ele Jewkeämeerve yeveeves kesâ keâieej hej nw~
- ØeeflepewefJekeâer (Antibiotics) SJeb DevÙe otmejer Deew<eefOeÙeeW keâer Keespe ves Yeer meb›eâecekeâ jesieeW kesâ ØeYeeJeer {bie mes GheÛeej
keâjves ceW nceW me#ece yeveeÙee nw~
Øeeflej#ee (Immunity)
 nceW nj jespe yeÌ[er mebKÙee ceW meb›eâecekeâ keâejkeâeW keâe meecevee keâjvee heÌ[lee nw~ hejbleg, FveceW mes kegâÚ ner jesie kesâ efMekeâej
yeveeles nQ~ Fmekeâe keâejCe Ùen nw efkeâ nceeje Mejerj DeefOekeâebMe yeeÿe keâejkeâeW mes Deheveer j#ee keâj ueslee nw~ hejhees<eer keâer
jesiekeâejkeâ peerJeeW mes ueÌ[ves keâer #ecelee pees Gmes Øeeflej#eer-leb$e kesâ keâejCe efceueer nw, Øeeflej#ee (Immunity) keânueeleer nw~
Øeeflej#ee oes Øekeâej keâer nesleer nw - (a) menpe Øeeflej#ee (b) Gheeefpe&le Øeeflej#ee~
(A) menpe Øeeflej#ee (Innate Immunity)
 menpe Øeeflej#ee Skeâ Øekeâej keâer DeefJeefMe<š j#ee nQ pees pevce kesâ meceÙe ceewpeto nesleer nw~ Ùen Øeeflej#ee nceejs Mejerj ceW
yeeÿe keâejkeâeW kesâ ØeJesMe kesâ meeceves efJeefYevve Øekeâej kesâ jesOe KeÌ[e keâjves mes neefmeue nesleer nw~
- menpe Øeeflej#ee ceW Ûeej Øekeâej kesâ jesOe nesles nQ~ Ùes jesOe nQ -
(i) Meejerefjkeâ jesOe (Physical Barrier) : nceejs Mejerj hej lJeÛee cegKÙe jesOe nw pees met#cepeerJeeW kesâ ØeJesMe keâes
jeskeâlee nw~ MJemeve, pe"jeb$e (iewmš^esFbšsšeFveue) Deewj pevevecet$e heLe keâes Deemleefjle keâjves Jeeueer SefheLeerefueÙece
keâe Mues<cee Deeueshe (cÙetkeâme keâeseEšie) Yeer Mejerj ceW Iegmeves Jeeues jesieeCegDeeW keâes jeskeâves ceW meneÙelee keâjlee nw~

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(ii) keâeefÙekeâerÙe jesOe (Physiological Barrie) : DeeceeMeÙe ceW Decue, cegBn ceW ueej, DeeBKeeW kesâ DeeBmet, Ùes meYeer
jesieeCeerÙe Je=efæ keâes jeskeâles nQ~
(iii) keâesefMekeâerÙe jesOe (Cellular Barrier) : nceejs Mejerj kesâ jkeäle ceW yeng®he keWâõkeâ MJesleeCeg Goemeervejbpeer
(Neutrophils) pewmes kegâÚ Øekeâej kesâ MJesleeCeg Deewj SkeâkeWâõkeâeCeg (Monocytes) leLee Øeeke=âeflekeâ, ceejkeâ
efuebHeâesmeeFšdme kesâ Øekeâej SJeb TlekeâeW ceW ye=nled Ye#ekeâeCeg (Macrophages) jesieeCegDeeW keâe Ye#eCe keâjles Deewj
ve<š keâjles nQ~
(iv) meeFšeskeâeFve jesOe (Cytokine Barrier) : efJe<eeCeg meb›eâefcele keâesefMekeâeSB FbšjHesâje@ve (Interferon) veecekeâ
ØeesšerveeW keâe m$eJeCe keâjleer nQ pees Demeb›eâefcele keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâes Deewj Deeies efJe<eeCeg-meb›eâceCe mes yeÛeeleer nQ~
(B) Gheeefpe&le Øeeflej#ee (Acquired Immunity)
 Øeeflej#ee Devegef›eâÙeeSB nceejs Mejerj kesâ jkeäle ceW ceewpeto oes efJeMes<e Øekeâej kesâ uemeerkeâeCegDeeW (Lymp molecule) Éeje nesleer
nQ~ Ùes nQ - (a) yeer-uemeerkeâeCeg Deewj (b) šer-uemeerkeâeCeg~
(a) jesiepevekeâeW keâer Devegef›eâÙee ceW yeer-uemeerkeâeCeg nceejs jkeäle ceW ØeesšerveeW keâer mesvee Glhevve keâjles nQ leeefkeâ Jes jesiepevekeâeW
mes ueÌ[ mekeWâ~ Ùes Øeesšerves Øeeflej#eer (SbšeryeeÙeesefškeäme) keânueeleer nw~
(b) šer-keâesefMekeâeSB Kego lees Øeeflejef#eÙeeW keâe m$eJeCe veneR keâjleeR, uesefkeâve Øeesšerve Glhevve keâjves ceW yeer-keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâer
meneÙelee keâjleer nQ~
meef›eâÙe Deewj efveef<›eâÙe Øeeflej#ee (Active and Passive Immunity)
 peye hejhees<eer ØeeflepeveeW (Antigens) keâe meecevee keâjlee nw lees Gmekesâ Mejerj ceW Øeeflej#eer (Antibody) hewoe nesles nQ~
- Øeeflepeve, peerefJele Ùee ce=le jesieeCeg Ùee ØeesšerveeW kesâ ®he ceW nes mekeâles nQ~ Fme Øekeâej keâer Øeeflej#ee meef›eâÙe Øeeflej#ee
(Active Immunity) keânueeleer nw~
- meef›eâÙe Øeeflej#ee Oeerceer nesleer nw Deewj Deheveer hetjer ØeYeeJeMeeueer Devegef›eâÙee ØeoefMe&le keâjves ceW meceÙe uesleer nw~
- Øeeflej#eerkeâjCe (Immunisation) kesâ oewjeve peeveyetPekeâj jesieeCegDeeW keâe šerkeâe osvee DeLeJee Øeeke=âeflekeâ meb›eâceCe kesâ
oewjeve meb›eâecekeâ peerJeeW keâe Mejerj ceW hengBÛevee meef›eâÙe Øeeflej#ee keâes Øesefjle keâjlee nw~
 peye Mejerj keâer j#ee kesâ efueS yeves yeveeS Øeeflej#eer meerOes ner Mejerj keâes efoS peeles nQ lees n efveef<›eâÙe Øeeflej#ee (Passive
Immunity) keânueeleer nw~
- neue ner ceW pevce efMeMeg kesâ efueS ceeB keâe otOe yengle ner DeeJeMÙekeâ ceevee peelee nw~ ogiOem$eJeCe (Lactation) kesâ
ØeejbefYekeâ efoveeW kesâ oewjeve ceeB Éeje m$eeefJele heerues mes lejue ’heerÙet<e (Colostrum)’ ceW Øeeflejef#eÙeeW keâer ØeÛegjlee nesleer
nw pees efMeMeg keâer j#ee keâjlee nw~ meieYe&lee (ØeeriveWmeer) kesâ oewjeve YeütCe keâes Yeer Deheje (huewmeWše) Éeje ceeB mes kegâÚ
Øeeflej#eer efceueles nQ~ Ùes efveef<›eâÙe Øeeflej#ee kesâ kegâÚ GoenjCe nQ~
šerkeâekeâjCe Deewj Øeeflej#eerkeâjCe (Vaccinization and Immunization)
 Øeeflej#eerkeâjCe Ùee šerkeâekeâjCe keâe efmeæeble Øeeflej#ee leb$e (Immunity System) keâer mce=efle kesâ iegCe hej DeeOeeefjle nw~
 šerkeâekeâjCe (Vaccinization) ceW jesiepevekeâ Ùee efveef<›eâÙelee/ogye&ueerke=âle jesiepevekeâ (šerkeâe) keâer Øeeflepeveer ØeesšerveeW keâes
efveefce&le Mejerj ceW ØeJesMe keâjeF& peeleer nw~ Fve ØeeflepeveeW kesâ efJe®æ Mejerj ceW Glhevve Øeeflejef#eÙeeB JeemleefJekeâ meb›eâceCe kesâ
oewjeve jesiepeveer keâejkeâeW keâes efve<ØeYeeJeer yevee osleer nQ~
- šerkeâe mce=efle-yeer Deewj šer-keâesefMekeâeSB Yeer yeveeles nQ pees heefjJeleea ØeYeeJeve (Subsequent Exposer) nesves hej
jesiepevekeâ keâes peuoer mes henÛeeve uesleer nQ Deewj Øeeflejef#eÙeeW kesâ Yeejer Glheeove mes nceueeJej keâes nje osleer nQ~
- Deiej JÙeefkeäle efkeâvneR Ssmes Ieelekeâ jesieeCegDeeW mes meb›eâefcele neslee nw efpemekesâ efueS Heâewjve Øeeflejef#eÙeeW keâer DeeJeMÙekeâlee
nw, pewmee efkeâ efššsveme ceW, lees ØeYeeJekeâejer efve<heeefole Øeeflejef#eÙeeW Ùee ØeefleDeeefJe<e (Antitioxin) keâes šerkesâ kesâ ®he ceW
meerOes ner efoS peeves keâer pe®jle nw~
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- meeBhe kesâ keâešs peeves kesâ ceeceueeW ceW Yeer jesieer keâes pees megF& ueieeF& peeleer nw GmeceW mehe& peerefJe<e (Jesvece) kesâ efJe®æ
efve<heeefole Øeeflej#eer nesles nQ~ Fme Øekeâej keâe Øeeflej#eerkeâjCe efveef<›eâÙe Øeeflej#eerkeâjCe keânueelee nw~
 hegveÙeexiepe [erSveS (Recombinant DNA) ØeewÅeesefiekeâer mes peerJeeCeg Ùee Keceerj (Ùeermš) ceW jesiepevekeâ keâer Øeeflepeveer
hee@efueheshšeF[ keâe Glheeove nesves ueiee nw~
- Fme efJeefOe mes šerkeâeW keâe yeÌ[s hewceeves hej Glheeove nesves ueiee nw Deewj FmeefueS Øeeflej#eerkeâjCe (Immunisation) nsleg
Gve šerkeâeW keâer GheueyOelee Ketye yeÌ{er nw, pewmes - Keceerj mes yeveves Jeeuee Ùeke=âleMeesLe (Hepatites- B) yeer šerkeâe~
Ssuepeea (Allergy)
 nceceW mes kegâÚ ueesie heÙee&JejCe ceW ceewpeto kegâÚ keâCeeW kesâ Øeefle mebJesoveMeerue (Sensitive) nesles nQ~ GheÙeg&keäle DeefYeef›eâÙee
hejeie, efÛeÛeÌ[er (ceeFš) Deeefo kesâ Øeefle Ssuepeea kesâ keâejCe nes mekeâleer nw~ pees efYevve-efYevve peieneW hej efYevve-efYevve nes
mekeâles nQ~
 heÙee&JejCe ceW ceewpeto kegâÚ ØeeflepeveeW kesâ Øeefle Øeeflej#ee leb$e keâer Deeflejbefpele Devegef›eâÙee (Hyperactivity) Ssuepeea (Allergy)
keânueeleer nw~
- Ssmes heoeLe&, efpevekesâ Øeefle Ssmeer Øeeflejef#ele Devegef›eâÙee nesleer nw Ssuepe&ve (Allergen) keânueeles nQ~
- Suepe&ve kesâ meeceevÙe GoenjCe nQ - Oetue ceW efÛeÛeÌ[er, hejeie, ØeeCeer ueIegMegukeâ ([Q[j) Deeefo~
 SsuepeeaÙe Devegef›eâÙeeDeeW kesâ ue#eCeeW ceW ÚeRkeâvee, heveerueer DeeBKeW, yenleer veekeâ Deewj meeBme uesves ceW keâef"veeF& Meeefceue nQ~
- Ssuepeea ceemš keâesefMekeâeDeeW mes efnmšwefceve (Histamin) Deewj meerjesšesefveve (Serotonin) pewmes jmeeÙeveeW kesâ efvekeâueves
kesâ keâejCe nesleer nw~
 Ssuepeea keâe keâejCe peeveves kesâ efueS jesieer keâes mebYeeefJele Suepe&veeW keâer yengle ner LeesÌ[er meer cee$ee šerkesâ Éeje oer peeleer nw Deewj
Øeefleef›eâÙee keâe DeOÙeÙeve efkeâÙee peelee nw~
- Øeefleefnmšwefceve, S[^ervesefueve Deewj mšerjeF[eW pewmeer Deew<eefOeÙeeW kesâ ØeÙeesie mes Ssuepeea kesâ ue#eCe peuoer Ieš peeles nQ~
 uesefkeâve, DeeOegefvekeâ peerJeve Mewueer kesâ HeâuemJe®he ueesieeW ceW Øeeflej#ee Iešer nw Deewj Suepe&veeW kesâ Øeefle mebJesoveMeeruelee yeÌ{er nw~
 YeejleJe<e& kesâ ceneveiejeW kesâ DeefOekeâeefOekeâ yeÛÛes heÙee&JejCe kesâ Øeefle mebJesoveMeeruelee kesâ keâejCe Ssueefpe&ÙeeW Deewj ocee
(Asthma) mes heerefÌ[le jnles nQ~ Fmekeâe keâejCe yeÛÛeeW kesâ ØeejbefYekeâ peerJevekeâeue ceW GvnW yengle jef#ele heÙee&JejCe ceW jKevee
nes mekeâlee nw~
Mejerj ceW Øeeflej#ee leb$e (Immune System In The Body)
 ceeveJe Øeeflej#ee leb$e ceW uemeerkeâeYe Debie (Lymphoid Organs), Tlekeâ, keâesefMekeâeSB Deewj IegueveMeeruelee DeCeg pewmeeefkeâ
Øeeflej#eer Meeefceue nw~ Øeeflej#ee leb$e Fme ceeÙeves ceW yespeesÌ[ nw efkeâ Ùen efJepeeleerÙe ØeeflepeveeW keâes henÛeevelee nw, Fvekesâ Øeefle
Devegef›eâÙee keâjlee nw Deewj FvnW Ùeeo jKelee nw~ Øeeflej#ee leb$e Ssuepeea Øeefleef›eâÙeeDeeW, mJe-Øeeflej#ee jesieeW Deewj Debie
ØeeflejesheCe ceW cenlJehetCe& Yetefcekeâe efveYeelee nw~
uemeerkeâeYe Debie :
 Ùes ner Jes Debie nQ efpeveceW uemeerkeâeCegDeeW keâer Glheefòe Deewj / Ùee heefjhekeäJeve (Maturation) Deewj ØeÛegjesodYeJeve (Prolifera-
tion) neslee nw~
 DeefmLe ceppee (Bone Marrow) Deewj LeeFceme (Thymus) Ssmes ØeeLeefcekeâ uemeerkeâeYe Debie nQ peneB DeheefjhekeäJe uemeerkeâeCeg,
Øeeflepeve mebJesoveMeerue uemeerkeâeCegDeeW ceW efJeYesefole nesles nQ~
- heefjhekeäJeve kesâ yeeo uemeerkeâeCeg hueerne (Spleen), uemeerkeâe «ebefLeÙeeW, šebefmeueeW, #egõe$e kesâ hesÙej hewÛeeW Deewj heefjMesef<ekeâe
(Appendix) pewmes efÉleerÙekeâ DebieeW ceW Ûeues peeles nQ~
 efÉleerÙekeâ uemeerkeâeYe Debie Ssmes mLeeve nw peneB uemeerkeâeCegDeeW keâer Øeeflepeve kesâ meeLe heejmheefjkeâ ef›eâÙee nesleer nw pees yeeo ceW
ØeÛegj mebKÙee ceW Glhevve neskeâj ØeYeeJeer keâesefMekeâeSB yeve peeles nQ~
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- DeefmLe ceppee cegKÙe uemeerkeâeYe Debie nw peneB uemeerkeâeCegDeeW mecesle meYeer ®efOej keâesefMekeâeSB Glhevve nesleer nQ~
- LeeFceme Skeâ meheeefue (Lobed) Debie nw pees ùoÙe kesâ heeme GjesefmLe kesâ veerÛes efmLele nw~ pevce kesâ meceÙe LeeFceme
keâeHeâer yeÌ[e neslee nw, uesefkeâve yeÌ{leer Gceü kesâ meeLe Deekeâej ceW Iešlee jnlee nw Deewj ÙeewJeveeJemLee Deeves hej Ùen yengle
Úesšs Deekeâej keâe jn peelee nw~
 DeefmLe ceppee Deewj LeeFceme, oesveeW ner šer-uemeerkeâeCegDeeW kesâ heefjJeOe&ve Deewj heefjhekeäJeve kesâ efueS met#ce heÙee&JejCe cegnwÙee
keâjeles nQ~
 hueerne (Spleen) ceW cegKÙe®he mes uemeerkeâeCeg Deewj Ye#ekeâeCeg nesles nQ~
- Ùen ®efOej cesW hewoe nesves Jeeues met#ce peerJeeW keâes Heâebmekeâj ®efOej efvemÙebokeâ (Filter) kesâ ®he ceW keâece keâjles nQ~
- hueerne ceW ueeue jkeäle keâefCekeâeDeeW (RBC) keâe yeÌ[e Yeb[ej neslee nw~
 uemeerkeâe «ebefLeÙeeB (Lymph Gland) Úesšer "esme mebjÛeveeSB nesleer nQ, pees uemeerkeâe leb$e hej efYevve-efYevve mLeueeW hej efmLele
nQ~
- pees met#cepeerJe Ùee otmejs Øeeflepeve uemeerkeâe Deewj Tlekeâ lejue ceW Dee peeles nQ, uemeerkeâe «ebefLeÙeeB GvnW HeâeBme uesleer nQ~
uemeerkeâe «ebefLeÙeeW ceW HeBâmes Øeeflepeve JeneB ceewpeto uemeerkeâeCegDeeW kesâ mebef›eâÙeCe Deewj Øeeflej#ee Devegef›eâÙee kesâ efueS
GòejoeÙeer nQ~
S[dme (AIDS)
 S[dme Meyo Gheeefpe&le Øeeflej#ee vÙetvelee mebue#eCe (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Diseases - ADIS) kesâ efueS
ØeÙegkeäle neslee nw~
- Fmekeâe DeLe& nw Øeeflej#ee leb$e keâer vÙetvelee, pees JÙeefkeäle kesâ peerJevekeâeue ceW Gheeefpe&le nesleer nw Deewj pees Fme yeele keâe
mebkesâle nw efkeâ Ùen vÙetvelee keâesF& pevcepeele jesie veneR nw~
 S[dme keâe meyemes henues 1981 ceW helee Ûeuee Deewj pees ueieYeie efheÚues 25 Je<eeX ceW meejs efJeMJe ceW Hewâue ieÙee nw Fme jesie
mes oes keâjesÌ[ heÛeeme ueeKe ueesieeW keâer ce=lÙeg nes Ûegkeâer nw~
 S[dme Skeâ efJe<eeCeg jesie (Viral Disease) nw pees ceeveJe ceW Øeeflej#ee vÙetvelee efJe<eeCeg (HIV- Human Immuno
Deficiency Virus) kesâ keâejCe neslee nw~
- SÛeDeeF&Jeer efJe<eeCeg kesâ Gme mecetn ceW Deelee nw efpemes heMÛeefJe<eeCeg (Retrovirus) keânles nQ, efpeveceW DeejSveS peerveesce
keâes {keâves Jeeuee DeeJejCe neslee nQ~
 Deeceleewj hej SÛeDeeF&Jeer keâe meb›eâceCe efvecveefueefKele mes neslee nw - (i) meb›eâefcele JÙeefkeäle kesâ Ùeewve mebheke&â mes, (ii) mebotef<ele
jkeäle Deewj ®efOej GlheeoeW kesâ DeeOeeve mes, (iii) meb›eâefcele megFÙeeW kesâ meePee ØeÙeesie mes pewmeeefkeâ Deble: efMeje (Fbš^eJesveme)
Éeje [^ie keâe kegâØeÙeesie keâjves JeeueeW kesâ ceeceues ceW Deewj (iv) meb›eâefcele ceeB mes Deheje (Placenta) Éeje Gmekesâ yeÛÛes ceW~
 FmeefueS, efpeve ueesieeW ceW Ùen meb›eâceCe nesves keâe yengle pÙeeoe Keleje nw Jes nQ - Ssmes JÙeefkeäle pees Deveskeâ mes cewLegve keâjles
nQ, ceeokeâ õJÙe JÙemeveer pees Deble: efMeje (Intra Venous) Éeje [^ie uesles nQ, Ssmes JÙeefkeäle efpevnW yeej-yeej jkeäle-DeeOeeve
keâer pe®jle nesleer nw Deewj meb›eâefcele ceeB mes pevces yeÛÛes~
 ÙeneB hej Ùen OÙeeve osvee cenòJehetCe& nw efkeâ SÛeDeeF&Jeer S[dme kesâJeue Útves Ùee Mejerj kesâ mebheke&â ceW Deeves mes veneR Hewâuelee
nw~ Ùen kesâJeue Mejerj ceW m$eefJele õJeeW mes Hewâuelee nw~
FmeefueS Ùen Yeer cenòJehetCe& nw efkeâ Meejerefjkeâ SJeb ceveesJew%eeefvekeâ mJemLelee kesâ efueS Ùen DeeJeMÙekeâ nw efkeâ SÛe DeeF& Jeer/S[dme
ØeYeeefJele JÙeefkeäle keâes heefjJeej mes Ùee meceepe mes Deueie-Leueie ve efkeâÙee peeS~ meb›eâceCe nesves Deewj S[dme kesâ ue#eCe Øekeâš
nesves kesâ yeerÛe ncesMee Deblejeue neslee nw Ùen DeJeefOe kegâÚ cenerveeW mes ueskeâj keâF& Je<eeX (ØeeÙe: 5-10 Je<e&) keâer nes mekeâleer nw~
 HIV keâesefMekeâe ceW Iegme peelee nw, Øeefleke=âefle yeveelee nw Deewj mebleefle efJe<eeCeg hewoe keâjlee nw~ ®efOej ceW ÚesÌ[s ieS mebleefle
efJe<eeCeg otmejs meneÙekeâ šer-uemeerkeâeCegDeeW (T-Cells) hej nceuee keâjles nQ~ Ùen ›eâce yeej-yee oesnjeÙee peelee nw efpemekeâer
Jepen mes meb›eâefcele JÙeefkeäle kesâ Mejerj ceW meneÙekeâ šer-uemeerkeâeCegDeeW hej nceuee keâjles nQ~
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- Ùen ›eâce yeej-yeej oesnjeÙee peelee nw efpemekeâer Jepen mes meb›eâefcele JÙeefkeäle kesâ Mejerj ceW meneÙekeâ šer-uemeerkeâeCegDeeW
keâer mebKÙee ceW Gòejesòej keâceer nesleer nw~
- Fme DeJeefOe kesâ oewjeve, yeej-yeej yegKeej Deewj omle Deeles nQ leLee Jepeve Iešlee nw~
 meneÙekeâ šer-uemeerkeâeCegDeeW keâer mebKÙee ceW efiejeJeš kesâ keâejCe JÙeefkeäle peerJeeCegDeeW, efJeMes<e®he mes ceeFkeâesyewkeäšerefjÙece
(Mycobacterium), efJe<eeCegDeeW, keâJekeâeW ÙeneB lekeâ keâer še@keämeeshuewpcee (Toxoplasm) pewmes hejpeerefJeÙeeW kesâ meb›eâceCe keâe
efMekeâej nes peelee nQ jesieer ceW Fleveer Øeeflej#ee vÙetvelee nes peeleer nw efkeâ Jen Fve meb›eâceCeeW mes Deheveer j#ee keâjves ceW DemeceLe&
nes peelee nQ~
 S[dme kesâ efueS JÙeehekeâ®he mes keâece ceW ueeÙee peeves Jeeuee vewoeefvekeâ hejer#eCe SbpeeFcme mebueive Øeeflej#ee jesOeer Deeceeheve
Ùee Sueermee (ELISA-Enzyme Linked Immunosorben Assay) nw~
 Øeefle-heMÛeefJe<eeCeJeerÙe (Anti Retroviral) Deew<eefOeÙeeW mes S[dme keâe GheÛeej DeebefMekeâ ®he mes ner ØeYeeJeer nw~
- Ùes Deew<eefOeÙeeB jesieer keâer DeJeMÙebYeeJeer ce=lÙeg keâes Deeies mejkeâe mekeâleer nQ, jeskeâ veneR mekeâleer~
 S[dme keâer jeskeâLeece : S[dme keâes "erkeâ veneR efkeâÙee pee mekeâlee; FmeefueS Fmekeâer jeskeâLeece ner meyemes Gòece GheeÙe nw~
- Fmekesâ DeueeJee, SÛeDeeF&Jeer meb›eâceCe meÛesleve JÙeJenej hewšve& kesâ keâejCe Hewâuelee nw ve efkeâ vÙetceesefveÙee Ùee šeFHeâe@F[
keâer lejn DevepeeveW ceW~ Ùen "erkeâ nw efkeâ jkeäle-DeeOeeve jesefieÙeeW ceW, veJepeeleeW ceW (ceeB mes) Deeefo ceW Ùen meb›eâceCe mener
efveiejeveer (cee@efvešeEjie) ve nesves kesâ keâejCe nes mekeâlee nw~
- Skeâcee$e yenevee DeveefYe%elee nes mekeâleer nw uesefkeâve keâneJele efyeukegâue mener nw efkeâ ’De%eevelee kesâ keâejCe cele cejes’~
 nceejs osMe ceW je<š^erÙe S[dme efveÙeb$eCe mebie"ve (NACO - National AIDS control Organisation) Deewj DevÙe iewj-
mejkeâejer mebie"ve (NGO) ueesieeW keâes S[dme kesâ yeejs ceW efMeef#ele keâjves kesâ efueS yengle keâece keâj jns nQ~
 SÛeDeeF&Jeer meb›eâceCe keâes Hewâueves mes jeskeâves kesâ efueS efJeMJe mJeemLÙe mebie"ve (WHO) ves Deveskeâ keâeÙe&›eâce DeejbYe efkeâS nQ~
 jkeäle yeQkeâeW kesâ jkeäle keâes SÛeDeeF&Jeer mes cegkeäle keâjvee, meeJe&peefvekeâ Deewj efvepeer DemheleeueeW Deewj efkeäueefvekeâeW ceW kesâJeue
ØeÙeespÙe (Disposable) megF&ÙeeB Deewj efmeeEjpe ner keâece ceW ueeF& peeSB - Fmekeâer JÙeJemLee keâjvee, kebâ[esce keâe cegHeäle
efJelejCe, [^ie kesâ kegâØeÙeesie keâes efveÙebef$ele keâjvee, megjef#ele Ùeewve mebyebOeeW keâer efmeHeâeefjMe keâjvee Deewj meg«eener meceef<š
(Suceptible Population) ceW SÛeDeeF&Jeer kesâ efueS efveÙeefcele peeBÛe keâes yeÌ{eJee osvee, Fve keâeÙe&›eâceeW ceW mes kegâÚ Skeâ nw~
 SÛe DeeF& Jeer mes meb›eâceCe Ùee S[dme mes «emle nesvee keâesF& Ssmeer yeele veneR nw efpemes ÚgheeÙee peeS; keäÙeeWefkeâ Úgheeves mes Ùen
meb›eâceCe Deewj Yeer pÙeeoe ueesieeW ceW Hewâue mekeâlee nw~
 meceepe ceW SÛeDeeF&Jeer/S[dme meb›eâefcele ueesieeW keâes meneÙelee Deewj menevegYetefle keâer pe®jle nesleer nw Deewj SJeb GvnW nsÙe Âef<š
mes veneR osKee peevee ÛeeefnS~
- peye lekeâ meceepe Fmes Skeâ Ssmeer mecemÙee kesâ ®he ceW veneR osKesiee efpemekeâe meceeOeeve meecetefnkeâ leewj hej efkeâÙee peevee
ÛeeefnS, leye lekeâ jesie kesâ JÙeehekeâ ®he mes Hewâueves keâer iegbpeeFMe keâF& iegvee pÙeeoe yeÌ{sieer~ Ùen Skeâ Ssmeer JÙeeefOe nw
efpemekesâ HewâueeJe keâes meceepe Deewj efÛeefkeâlmekeâ Jeie& kesâ meefcceefuele ØeÙeeme mes ner jeskeâe pee mekeâlee nw~
keQâmej (Cancer)
 ceeveJe kesâ YeÙebkeâj jesieeW ceW mes Skeâ keQâmej nw Deewj efJeMJeYej ceW ceewle keâe ØecegKe keâejCe nw~
- YeejleJe<e& ceW ØeefleJe<e& ome ueeKe mes Yeer pÙeeoe ueesie keQâmej mes heerefÌ[le nesles nQ Deewj Fmemes yeÌ[er mebKÙee ceW cej peeles
nQ~
 keQâmej nesves keâer ef›eâÙeeJeefOe DeLeJee keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâe keQâmejpeveer ®heeblejCe (Carsinogenic Transformation), Fmekeâe
GheÛeej Deewj efveÙeb$eCe pewefJekeâer Deewj DeeÙegefJe&%eeve ceW ienve DevegmebOeeve keâe efJe<eÙe nw~
 nceejs Mejerj ceW keâesefMekeâe Je=efæ Deewj efJeYesove DelÙeefOekeâ efveÙebef$ele Deewj efveÙeefcele nw~ keQâmej keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW, Ùes efveÙeecekeâ
ef›eâÙeeefJeefOeÙeeB štš peeleer nQ~ keQâmej keâesefMekeâeDeeW efJeYeeefpele nesvee peejer jKe keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâe Yeb[ej KeÌ[e keâj osleer nQ

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efpemes Deyeg&o (Tumor) keânles nQ~

 Deyeg&o oes Øekeâej kesâ nesles nQ - (a) megoce (Benign) Deewj (b) ogo&ce (Malignant)~
(a) megoce Deyeg&o meeceevÙelee Deheves cetue mLeeve lekeâ meerefcele jnles nQ, Mejerj kesâ otmejs YeeieeW ceW veneR Hewâueles leLee Fvemes
ceecetueer #eefle nesleer nw~
(b) otmejer Deewj ogo&ce Deyeg&o yengle lespeer mes yeÌ{leer nQ Deewj Deeme-heeme kesâ meeceevÙe TlekeâeW hej nceuee keâjkesâ GvnW #eefle
hengBÛeeleer nQ~
- Deyeg&o keâesefMekeâeSB meef›eâÙelee mes efJeYeeefpele Deewj JeefOe&le nesleer nw efpememes Jes DelÙeeJeMÙekeâ hees<ekeâeW kesâ efueS meeceevÙe
keâesefMekeâeDeeW mes mheOee& keâjleer nQ Deewj GvnW YetKee ceejleer nQ~
- Ssmes Deyeg&oeW mes Glejer ngF& keâesefMekeâeSB jkeäle Éeje otjojepe mLeueeW hej hengBÛe peeleer nQ Deewj peneB Yeer Ùes peeleer nQ veÙes
Deyeg&o yeveevee ØeejbYe keâj osleer nQ~ cewmšemšsefmeme (Metastasis) keânueeves Jeeuee Ùen iegCe ogo&ce Deyeg&oeW keâe meyemes
[jeJevee iegCe nw~
veesš : met#ce Deyeg&o keâce Dee›eâecekeâ neslee nw, peyeefkeâ ogo&ce Deyeg&o pÙeeoe Dee›eâecekeâ neslee nw~
keQâmej kesâ keâejCe :
 ØemeeceevÙe keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâe keQâmejer veJeõJÙeerÙe keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW ®heeblejCe keâes Øesefjle keâjves Jeeues keâejkeâ Yeeweflekeâ,
jemeeÙeefvekeâ DeLeJee pewefJekeâ nes mekeâles nQ~ Ùes keâejkeâ keQâmejpeve keânueeles nQ~
- Skeäme-efkeâjCe (X- ray) Deewj ieecee efkeâjCeeW (Gamma Rays) pewmes DeeÙevekeâejer efJeefkeâjCe Deewj hejeyeQieveer pewmes
DeveeÙevekeâejer efJeefkeâjCe [erSveS keâes #eefle hengBÛeeles nQ, efpemesme veJeõJÙeÙeer ®heeblejCe neslee nw~
- lebyeeketâ kesâ OetSB ceW ceewpeto jemeeÙeefvekeâ keQâmejpeve HesâHeâÌ[s kesâ keQâmej kesâ cegKÙe keâejCe nQ~
 keQâmej Glhevve keâjves Jeeues efJe<eeCeg Deyeg&oerÙe efJe<eeCeg (Oncogenic Virus) keânueeles nQ~ FveceW pees peerve nesles nQ GvnW
efJe<eeCegJeerÙe Deyeg&opeerve (Viral Oncogen) keânles nQ~
 Fmekesâ DeueeJee ØemeeceevÙe keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW keâF& peerveeW keâe helee Ûeuee nw efpevnW kegâÚ efJeMes<e heefjefmLeefleÙeeW ceW meef›eâÙelee
efkeâS peeves hej Jes keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâe keQâmejpeveer ®heeblejCe keâj osles nQ~
- Ùes leerve keâesefMekeâerÙe Deyeg&opeerve (mesuÙetuej Deebkeâesefpeve-meer Deebkeâ) Ùee DeeefoDeyeg&o peerve (Proto Oncogin) keânueeles
nQ~
keQâmej DeefYe%eeve Deewj efveoeve :
 keQâmejeW keâe Meg® ceW ner helee ueieevee yengle ner DeeJeMÙekeâ nw, keäÙeeWefkeâ Ssmee nesves hej keâF& ceeceueeW ceW Fme jesie keâe
meHeâueleehetJe&keâ GheÛeej efkeâÙee pee mekeâlee nw~
- Deebleefjkeâ DebieeW kesâ keQâmej keâe helee ueieeves kesâ efueS efJeefkeâjCe-efÛe$eCe (Radio Graphy) (Skeäme-efkeâjCeeW keâe ØeÙeesie),
DeefYekeâefuele še@cees«eeHeâer (CT- Computer Tomography) Deewj ÛebgyekeâerÙe Devegveeoer FceseEpeie (Magnetic Reso-
nance Imaging -MRI) pewmeer lekeâveerkeWâ yengle GheÙeesieer nw~
- DeefYekeâefuele še@cees«eeHeâer Skeäme-efkeâjCeeW keâe GheÙeesie keâjkesâ efkeâmeer Debie kesâ Yeerlejer YeeieeW keâer ef$eefJece ØeefleeEyeye yeveeleer nw~
 peerefJele Tlekeâ ceW Jewke=âeflekeâ (Pathological) Deewj keâeefÙekeâerÙe (Physiological) heefjJele&veeW keâe Skeâoce mener helee
ueieeves kesâ efueS MRI ceW lespe ÛebgyekeâerÙe #es$eeW Deewj DeveeÙevekeâejer efJeefkeâjCeeW keâe GheÙeesie efkeâÙee peelee nw~
 kegâÚ keQâmejeW keâe helee ueieeves kesâ efueS keQâmej-efJeefMe<š ØeeflepeveeW kesâ efJe®æ Øeeflejef#eÙeeW keâe Yeer GheÙeesie efkeâÙee peelee nw~
kegâÚ keQâmejeW kesâ Øeefle JebMeeiele meg«eefnlee Jeeues JÙeefkeäleÙeeW ceW peervees keâe helee ueieeves kesâ efueS DeeefCJekeâ (Molecular)
pewefJekeâer keâer lekeâveerkeâeW keâes keâece ceW ueeÙee pee mekeâlee nw~ Ssmes peerveeW keâer henÛeeve, pees efkeâmeer JÙeefkeäle keâes efJeMes<e keQâmejeW
kesâ Øeefle ØeJe=òe (Pridispose) keâjles nQ, keQâmej keâer jeskeâLeece kesâ efueS yengle GheÙeesieer nes mekeâles nQ~
 Ssmes JÙeefkeäleÙeeW keâes kegâÚ Ssmes efJeMes<e keQâmejpeveeW mes, efpevekesâ Øeefle Jes meg«eener nQ, (pewmes - HegâhHegâme keQâmej ceW lebyeeketâ keâe

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OegDeeB) mes yeÛeves keâer meueen osveer ÛeeefnS~

keQâmejeW keâe GheÛeej :
 Deeceleewj hej keQâmejeW kesâ GheÛeej kesâ efueS MeuÙeef›eâÙee, efJeefkeâjCe efÛeefkeâlmee Deewj Øeeflej#ee efÛeefkeâlmee keâe meneje efueÙee
peelee nw~
 efJeefkeâjCe efÛeefkeâlmee ceW, Deyeg&o keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâes Ieelekeâ®he mes efkeâjefCele Fjxef[Sšs[ efkeâÙee peelee nw uesefkeâve Deyeg&o kesâ {sj
kesâ heeme Jeeues ØemeeceevÙe TlekeâeW keâe hetje OÙeeve jKee peelee nw~
 keQâmej-keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâes ceejves kesâ efueS kesâ efueS Deveskeâ jmeesefÛeefkeâlmeerÙe (Chemothera Peutic) Deew<eOe keâece ceW ueeS
peeles nQ~ FveceW mes kegâÚ Deew<eOe efJeMes<e Deyeg&oeW kesâ efueS efJeefMe<š nQ~
 DeefOekeâebMe Deew<eOeeW kesâ Deveg<ebieer ØeYeeJe Ùee og<ØeYeeJe (Side Effect) nesles nQ pewmes efkeâ yeeueeW keâe PeÌ[vee, Dejkeälelee Deeefo~
 DeefOekeâebMe keQâmej keâe GheÛeej MeuÙekeâce&, efJeefkeâjCe efÛeefkeâlmee Deewj jmeesefÛeefkeâlmee kesâ mebÙeespeve mes efkeâÙee peelee nw~
 Deyeg&o keâesefMekeâeSB Øeeflej#ee leb$e Éeje helee ueieeS peeves Deewj ve<š efkeâS peeves mes yeÛeleer nQ~ FmeefueS, Ssmes heoeLe& efoS
peeles nQ efkeâ efpevnW pewefJekeâ Devegef›eâÙee ®heeblejCe keânles nQ, pewmesefkeâ Y-FbšjHesâje@ve, pees Gvekesâ Øeeflej#ee leb$e keâes meef›eâÙelee
keâjlee Deewj Deyego& keâes ve<š keâjves ceW meneÙelee keâjlee nw~
[^ie Deewj Sssukeâesnue kegâØeÙeesie
 meJex#eCeeW Deewj DeeBkeâÌ[eW mes helee Ûeuelee nw efkeâ [^ie Deewj Ssukeâesnue keâe GheÙeesie, efJeMes<e®he mes veJeÙegJekeâeW ceW yeÌ{ jne nw~
Ùen meÛecegÛe eEÛelee keâe efJe<eÙe nw; keäÙeeWefkeâ Fmekesâ Deveskeâ og<heefjCeece nesles nQ~
- Deeceleewj hej efpeve [^ieeW keâe kegâØeÙeesie efkeâÙee peelee nw Jes nQ - Deesehf eDee@F[dme, kewâvesefyevee@F[dme Deewj keâeskeâe SukewâueeF[dme~
FveceW mes DeefOekeâebMe heg<heer heeoheeW mes Øeehle efkeâS peeles nQ~ kegâÚ Ssmes Yeer nQ pees keâJekeâeW mes efvekeâeues peeles nQ~
 DeesefheDee@F[dme (Opioids) Ssmes [^ie nQ pees nceejs kesâõeRÙe leeE$ekeâ leb$e (CNS) Deewj pe"jeb$e heLe (Gastro Intestinal
Path) ceW ceewpeto efJeefMe<š DeesefheDeeF@[dme «eeefnÙeeW (Receptors) mes yebOe peeles nQ~
 Deeceleewj hej ’mcewkeâ’ kesâ veece mes ceMentj efnjeFve (Heroine), jemeeÙeefvekeâ ®he mes [eFSefmeefšue cee@Heâeave (Diacetyl-
morphine) nw pees Skeâ meHesâo, iebOenerve, leerKee jJesoej Ùeewefiekeâ neslee nw~
- Ùen ceeefHe&âve kesâ SmeerefšueerkeâjCe mes Øeehle efkeâÙee peelee nw, pees efkeâ heesmle kesâ heewOes meescveerHesâjce kesâ uesšskeäme kesâ
efve<keâ<e&Ce Éeje Øeehle efkeâÙee peelee nw~
 Deeceleewj hej efnjeFve veekeâ Éeje peesj mes meebme ueskeâj Ùee šerkesâ Éeje ueer peeleer nw~ Ùen Skeâ DeJemeeokeâ (Depressent)
nw Deewj Mejerj kesâ ØekeâeÙeeX keâes Oeercee keâjleer nw~
kewâveeefyevee@F[dme (Carobinoids) :
 kewâveeefyevee@F[dme jmeeÙeveeW keâe mecetn nQ, pees cegKÙe®he mes ceefmle<keâ ceW ceewpeto kewâveesefyevee@F[ «eeefnÙeeW mes heejmheefjkeâ
ef›eâÙee keâjles nQ~
- Øeeke=âeflekeâ kewâvesefyevee@F[ kewâvesefyeme mewšeFJee heewOes kesâ heg<he›eâce (Inflorensis) mes Øeehle efkeâS peeles nQ~
- YeeBie kesâ HetâueeW kesâ Meer<e&, heefòeÙeeB Deewj jeue (Resin) kesâ efJeefYevve mebÙeespeve cewefjpegDeevee, nMeerMe, Ûejme Deewj ieeBpee
yeveeves kesâ keâece Deeles nQ~
 Deeceleewj hej Deble:MJemeve Deewj cegBn Éeje KeeS peeves Jeeues ceeokeâ õJÙe ([^ie) Mejerj kesâ ùo-Jeeefnkeâe leb$e (Cardio
Vassular System) keâes ØeYeeefJele keâjles nQ~
keâeskeâe Ssukeâesuee@F[ (Coca Alkoloids) :
 keâesefkeâve (Cocaine) keâeskeâe heeohe SsefjLeÇes]peeFuece keâeskeâe mes Øeehle efkeâÙee peelee nw pees efkeâ cetue®he mes oef#eCe Decesefjkeâe
keâe heewOee nw~
 Ùen lebef$ekeâeØes<ekeâ (Neurotransmitter) [eshesceerve kesâ heefjJenve ceW yeeOee [eueleer nw~

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 keâeskesâve, efpemes Deeceleewj mes keâeskeâ Ùee ›ewâkeâ keâne peelee nw, ØeeÙe: peesj mes meeBme Éeje KeeRÛeer peeleer nw~ Fmekeâe keWâõerÙe
lebef$ekeâe leb$e hej peesjoej Göerhekeâ (Stimulating) Demej heÌ[lee nw efpememes megKeeYeeme (Euphoria) Deewj Tpee& ceW Je=efæ
keâer DevegYetefle nesleer nw~ keâeskesâve keâer DelÙeefOekeâ cee$ee mes efJeYeüce (Hallucination) nes peelee nw~
 DevÙe Øeefmeæ heeohe, efpeveceW efJeYeüce hewoe keâjves keâe iegCe nw, Ssš^esHeâe yesues[esvee Deewj Oeletje nQ~ Deepekeâue kegâÚ efKeueeÌ[er
Yeer kewâveesefyevee@F[eW keâe og®heÙeesie keâjles nQ~
 yeefye&šdÙetjsš, SbHesâšsceerve, yeWpees[eÙepesheerve Deewj ueeFmeefpe&keâ Decue [eSefLeue SceeF[dme (LSD) pewmes [^ie Deewj Fve pewmes
DevÙe [^ie pees DeJemeeo (Depression) Deewj Deefveõe (Insomania) pewmes ceeveefmekeâ JÙeeefOe mes «emle jesefieÙeeW keâer
meneÙelee kesâ efueS meeceevÙeleÙee Deew<eefOeÙeeW kesâ ®he ceW keâece ceW efueS peeles nQ, Fvekeâe Yeer kegâØeÙeesie neslee nw~
 ceeHeâeave (Morphine) Skeâ yengle ØeYeeJeer Meecekeâ (Seditive) Deewj heerÌ[enej nw Deewj efpeve jesefieÙeeW keâe MeuÙeef›eâÙee
(Surgery) ngF& nw, Gvekesâ efueS yengle GheÙeesieer nw~
 efJeYeüceer iegCeJeeues Deveskeâ heeoheeW, HeâueeW, yeerpeeW keâe efJeMJeYej ceW ueeskeâ Deew<eefOe, Oeeefce&keâ GlmeJeeW Deewj Deveg<"eveeW ceW mewkeâÌ[eW
Je<eeX mes GheÙeesie nes jne nw~ peye Ùes Deew<eefOeÙeeB efÛeefkeâlmee kesâ yepeeÙe otmejs GösMÙe mes ueer peeleer nQ Ùee Fleveer cee$ee ceW
Fleveer yeej ueer peeleer nQ efkeâ JÙeefkeäle kesâ Meejerefjkeâ, keâeefÙe&keâ DeLeJee ceveesJew%eeefvekeâ ØekeâeÙeeX keâes ieÌ[yeÌ[e osleer nQ lees Ùen
[^ieeW keâe kegâØeÙeesie yeve peelee nw~
Oetceüheeve (Smoking) :
 Oetceüheeve mes Fve leer›e [^ieeW kesâ mesJeve keâe jemlee Keguee peelee nw~
- lebyeeketâ keâe ØeÙeesie ceeveJe 400 Je<eeX mes Yeer DeefOekeâ meceÙe mes keâjlee Dee jne nw~
- lebyeeketâ (Oetceüheeve) ceW heerÙee peelee nw, ÛeyeeÙee peelee nw Ùee megBIee (megBIeveer uesvee) peelee nw~
- lebyeeketâ ceW yengle mes jemeeÙeefvekeâ heoeLe& nesles nQ efpeveceW Skeâ SsukesâueeF[, efvekeâesšerve (Nicotine) Meeefceue nw~
 efvekeâesšerve DeefOeJe=keäkeâ «ebefLe (Adrenal Gland) keâes Göerefhele keâjleer nw, efpememes Sef[^veueerve Deewj vee@j-Sef[^veueerve jkeäle
heefjmebÛejCe ceW ceesefÛele nesleer nQ DeLee&le ÚesÌ[er peeleer nQ~
- Ùes oesveeW jkeäleÛeehe Deewj ùoÙe mhebove oj yeÌ{eleer nQ~
 Oetceüheeve HegâHeäHegâme, cet$eeMeÙe Deewj ieues kesâ keQâmej, MJemeveerMeesLe (Bronchaitis), JeelemHeâerelf e (Eemphiceima, ùoÙejesie,
pe"j ›eCe (Gastric Ulcer) mes mebyeæ nw~ lebyeeketâ Ûeyeevee cegKe keâesšj kesâ keQâmej kesâ Kelejs keâes yeÌ{e oslee nw~ Oetceüheeve
mes jkeäle ceW keâeye&veceesveeskeäemeeF[ keâer cee$ee yeÌ{ peeleer nw Deewj nerceDeeyeæ Dee@keämeerpeve keâer meebõlee Ieš peeleer nw~ Fmemes
Mejerj ceW Dee@keämeerpeve keâer keâceer nes peeleer nw~
- peye JÙeefkeäle efmeiejsš kesâ hewkesâš Kejerolee nw lees Ùen veneR nes mekeâlee efkeâ Gmekeâer efveieen hewkesâš hej Úheer Gme
JewOeeefvekeâ (keâevetveer) ÛesleeJeveer hej ve heÌ[s peesefkeâ Oetceüheeve mes Deeieen keâjleer nw Deewj yeleeleer nw Ùen efkeâme Øekeâej
mJeemLÙe kesâ efueS neefvekeâejkeâ nw~
 Deepekeâue efHeâj Yeer ÙegJeeDeeW Deewj Je=æeW oesveeW ceW Oetceüheeve keâe Ketye Ûeueve nw~ Oetceüheeve Deewj lebyeeketâ kesâ Kelejs Deewj Fmekeâer
leue heÌ[ peeves Jeeueer ØeJe=efòe keâes osKeles ngS ÙegJee Deewj Je=æ oesveeW keâes Fmekeâer Deeole mes yeÛevee ÛeeefnS~ efkeâmeer Yeer uele
mes Úgškeâeje heeves kesâ efueS hejeceMe& leLee efÛeefkeâlmee meneÙelee keâer DeeJeMÙekeâlee nesleer nw~
[^ie/Sukeâesnue kegâØeÙeesie kesâ ØeYeeJe
 [^ie Deewj Ssukeâesnue kesâ lelkeâeefuekeâ Øeefleketâue ØeYeeJe DebOeeOegbOe JÙeJenej, yeye&jlee Deewj eEnmee kesâ ®he ceW JÙekeäle nesles nQ~
[^ieeW keâer DelÙeefOekeâ cee$ee mes MJemeve-heele (Respiratory Failure), ùo-heele (Heart Failure) DeLeJee Øeceefmle<keâ
jkeälem$eeJe (Cereberal Haemorrhage) kesâ keâejCe mebcetÛÚe& (keâescee) Deewj ce=lÙeg nes mekeâleer nw~
 [^ieeW keâe mebÙeespeve Ùee Ssukeâesnue kesâ meeLe Gvekesâ mesJeve keâe Deeceleewj hej Ùen heefjCeece Deeflecee$ee nesleer nw ÙegJeeDeeW ceW [^ie
Deewj Ssukeâesnue og®heÙeesie kesâ meyemes meeceevÙe ue#eCe : (i) Mewef#ekeâ #es$e ceW ØeoMe&ve ceW keâceer, (ii) efyevee efkeâmeer mhe<š

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keâejCe kesâ mketâue Ùee keâe@uespe ceW DevegheefmLele, (iii) JÙeefkeäleiele mJeÛÚlee kesâ ®efÛe ceW keâceer, (iv) efJeefveJele&ve, (v)
Skeâekeâerheve, (vi) DeJemeeo, (vii) LekeâeJeš, (viii) Dee›eâceCeMeerue Deewj efJeõesner JÙeJenej, (ix) heefjJeej Deewj efce$eeW mes
efyeieÌ[les mebyebOe, (x) Meewkeâ keâer ®efÛe ceW keâceer, (xi) meesves Deewj Keeves keâer DeeoleeW ceW heefjJele&ve, (xii) YetKe Deewj Jepeve ceW
Ieš-yeÌ{ Deeefo nQ~
 pees Deble:efMeje Éeje (megF& Deewj efmeefjpe mes meerOes ner efMeje ceW FbpeskeäMeve) [^ie uesles nQ, Gvekeâes S[dme Deewj Ùeke=âleMeesLe-yeer
(Hepatitis- B) pewmes iebYeerj meb›eâceCe nesves keâer mebYeeJevee DeefOekeâ nesleer nw~
- Fve jesieeW kesâ efJe<eeCeg meb›eâefcele ngF& Deewj efmeefjpe kesâ meePee ØeÙeesie mes Skeâ JÙeefkeäle mes otmejs JÙeefkeäle ceW mLeeveebleefjle
nes peeles nQ~
- S[dme Deewj Ùeke=âleMeesLe-yeer, oesveeW ner meb›eâceCe, efÛejkeâejer meb›eâceCe nQ Deewj Deblele: Ieelekeâ nesles nQ~
 S[dme heefle-helveer Éeje cewLegve mes mLeeveebleefjle neslee nw, peyeefkeâ Ùeke=âleMeesLe yeer meb›eâefcele ®efOej Éeje mLeeveebleefjle neslee
nw~
 efkeâMeesjeJemLee kesâ oewjeve Ssukeâesnue kesâ mesJeve keâe oerIe&keâeefuekeâ ØeYeeJe Yeer nes mekeâlee nw; Fmemes ØeewÌ{eJemLee ceW yengle
DeefOekeâ heerves keâer uele ueie mekeâleer nw~ [^ie Deewj Ssukeâesnue kesâ efÛejkeâejer GheÙeesie mes lebef$ekeâe leb$e Deewj Ùeke=âle keâes #eefle
(Cirrhosis) hengBÛeleer nw~
 Ssmee Yeer %eele nw efkeâ ieYee&JemLee kesâ oewjeve [^ieeW SJeb Ssukeâesnue keâe GheÙeesie ieYe& hej Øeefleketâue ØeYeeJe [euelee nw~
efÛeefkeâlmee mecyevOeer GhekeâjCe
 cewivesšesSefvmeHesâuees «eeHeâer (MEG) - Fme Ùev$e kesâ GheÙeesie mes ceefmle<keâ kesâ DeuheÛegcyekeâerÙe #es$eeW keâe DeOÙeÙeve efkeâÙee
peelee nw~ FmeceW Skeâ SQUID (Super Conducting Quantum Interference Device) neslee nw~
 keâchÙetšs[ šescees«eeHeâer mkewâve (CT Scan) - FmeceW efJeefYevve De#eeW mes X- efkeâjCeeW Éeje Debie keâe ÚeÙeeefÛe$e efueÙee peelee
nw, efpevnW mebueive keâchÙetšj Éeje efJeMuesef<ele efkeâÙee peelee nQ meer.šer. mkewâve mes ceefmle<keâ keâe efÛe$e ueskeâj Gmekeâe efJeMues<eCe
efkeâÙee peelee nw~
 heesefpeš^e@ve SefceMeve šescees«eeHeâer (PET) - FmeceW Jewmes jsefÌ[ÙeeW mecemLeeefvekeâeW keâe GheÙeesie efkeâÙee peelee nw, pees heesefpeš^e@ve
keâe Glmepe&ve keâjles nQ~ pewmes C11, N13, O15 leLee O18~ Fve jsef[Ùees mecemLeefvekeâeW keâes iuetkeâespe, Ssceervees Decue,
keâeye&ve [eF-Dee@keämeeF[ Ùee DeceesefveÙee kesâ meeLe efceueekeâj FbpeskeäMeve Éeje Ùee megbOee keâj ceeveJe Mejerj ceW ØeefJe<š Debkeâ keâe
ef$eefJeceerÙe efÛe$e ueskeâj Gmekeâe keâchÙetšj Éeje efJeMues<eCe efkeâÙee peelee nw~
 vÙetefkeäueÙej cewivesefškeâ jspeesvesvme FceseEpeie (NMR) - Mejerj kesâ TlekeâeW ceW efJeÅeceeve neF[^espeve hejceeCegDeeW kesâ veeefYekeâeW
mes Glhevve ÛegcyekeâerÙe jspeesvesvme keâes ceeheves kesâ efueS Fme Ùev$e ceW Skeâ keâchÙetšj ueiee neslee nQ efJeefYevve De#eeW keâe efÛe$e
ueskeâj GmeceW jspeesvesvme kesâ ›eâce kesâ DeeOeej hej keâchÙetšj Éeje efJeke=âle keâe efJeMues<eCe efkeâÙee peelee nw~
 Deuš^emeesefvekeâ FceseEpeie (Ultrasonic Imaging) Fmes meesvees«eeHeâer (Sonography) Yeer keâne peelee nw~ FmeceW hejeßeJÙe
lejbieeW keâes Gme Debie lekeâ Yespee peelee nw efpemekeâe efÛe$e Øeehle keâjvee neslee nw~
- Debie mes škeâjekeâj Jeeheme Deeves hej lejbie ceW pees heefjJele&ve neslee nw, Gmemes Debie keâer mebjÛevee keâes keâchÙetšj Éeje
efJeMuesef<ele efkeâÙee peelee nw Deewj Dehesef#ele efÛe$e Øeehle neslee nw~ FmeceW heerpeesFuesefkeäš^keâ FHesâkeäš (Phisoelectric
effect) mes Glhevve hejßeJÙe lejbies ØeÙegkeäle nesleer nQ~
 hesmeceskeâj (Pacemaker) ke=âØeeke=âeflekeâ ®he ceW ùoÙe ceW meeFveesSefš^kegâuej vees[ hesmeceskeâj keâe keâeÙe& keâjlee nw Deewj Fmemes
ùoÙe keâer meeOeejCe ieefle 72 mes 80 Øeefle efceveš yeveer jnleer nw~
- uesefkeâve Ùeefo efkeâmeer keâejCe mes ùoÙe keâer ieefle Ieškeâj 30-40 Øeefle efceveš nes peeleer nw, lees ke=âef$ece hesmeceskeâj keâer
meneÙelee mes Fme ieefle keâes yeÌ{eÙee peelee nw~
- hesmeceskeâj ceW (a) Skeâ heume pesvejsšj, (b) Fueskeäš^es[ leLee (c) ueerefLeÙece nwueeF[ mesue neslee nw~
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- Ùen mesue 10 Je<eeX lekeâ Ùev$e keâes Tpee& Øeoeve keâjlee nQ heume pesvejsšj keâes keâe@uej yeesve kesâ heeme keâer lJeÛee ceW oyee
efoÙee peelee nw leLee Skeâ efmeje efveueÙe kesâ Devoj keâer melen mes pegÌ[e jnlee nw~ Fueskeäš^es[ keâes efMeje kesâ jemles oeÙeW
efveueÙe lekeâ hengbÛeeÙee peelee nw~ 10 Je<eeX kesâ yeeo DeeJeMÙekeâlee heÌ[ves hej MeuÙe efÛeefkeâlmee Éeje heume pesvejsšj keâes
yeouee pee mekeâlee nw~
 Sve.Sce.F&.heer. (National Malaria Eradication Programme) ke=âceuesejf Ùee ceeoe SveeefHeâueerpe ceÛÚj Éeje hueepceese[f Ùece
kesâ meb›eâceCe mes Hewâuelee nw~ ceuesefjÙee kesâ Gvcetueve kesâ efueS Yeejle mejkeâej Éeje ceuesefjÙee Gvcetueve keâeÙe&›eâce keâes
keâeÙee&efvJele efkeâÙee ieÙee nw leeefkeâ Fme meb›eâecekeâ yeerceejer mes Úgškeâeje heeÙee pee mekesâ~
 Sve.SHeâ.meer.heer. (National Filaria Control Programme) ke=âÙen keäÙetueskeäme ceÛÚj Éeje JetÛeefje Jewve›eâesHeäšer kesâ
meb›eâceCe mes Hewâuelee nw~
 Sve.Sue.meer.heer. (National Leopresy Control Programme) ke=âkegâ<" jesie kesâ Gvcetueve kesâ efueS Ùen keâeÙe&›eâce Yeejle
mejkeâej Éeje ÛeueeÙee peelee nw~ FmeceW ueesieeW keâes kegâ<" jesie kesâ ue#eCe Deewj efveJeejCe kesâ GheeÙe yeleeS peeles nQ~
 cesef[keâue uespej (Medical Laser) ke=âuespej JeemleJe ceW GÛÛe Tpee& Ùegkeäle keâCe nQ pees Glmeefpe&le efJeefkeâjCeeW kesâ ØeJeæ&ve
mes Øeehle nesles nQ~
- uespej keâF& Øekeâej kesâ nesles nQ ke=âefveÙeeve uespej, Deeie&ve uespej, keâeye&ve [eF-Dee@keämeeF[ uespej Deeefo~
- efkeâmeer Yeer Øekeâej kesâ Tlekeâ hej uespej keâe ØeYeeJe heÌ[lee nw~ Fvekeâe GheÙeesie Deepekeâue efJeefYevve Øekeâej keâer MeuÙe
efÛeefkeâlmee ceW efkeâÙee peelee nw~
- uespej Lewjsheer keâe GheÙeesie ceefmle<keâ kesâ šdÙetcej kesâ GheÛeej ceW leLee DevÙe šdÙetcejeW kesâ GheÛeej ceW efkeâÙee peelee nw~
Skeâ GÛÛe Tpee& Jeeues uespej efkeâjCe hegbpe keâes keQâmej-keâesefMekeâe hej Deejesefhele efkeâÙee peelee nw, efpememes ØeYeeefJele
keâesefMekeâe ce=le nes peeleer nw uesefkeâve meeceevÙe keâesefMekeâe hej keâesF& efJeMes<e-ØeYeeJe veneR heÌ[lee nw~
 ke=âef$ece nš& JeeuJeke=â Fvekeâe GheÙeesie yegjer lejn mes #eefle«emle JeeuJeeW keâes nšekeâj veS JeeuJe ueieeves ceW efkeâÙee peelee nw~
#eefle«emle JeeuJe Kegueves Deewj yevo nesves ceW DemeceLe& nesles nQ, efpememes ùoÙe keâer ieefle yevo nesves Deewj Heâuele: jesieer keâer
ce=lÙeg keâer mecYeeJevee jnleer nQ JeeuJeeW keâes yeoueves keâer megefJeOee Deepe mechetCe& efJeMJe ceW nw~ Yeejle ceW Yeer 16 mebmLeeveeW ceW
JeeuJeeW keâes ØelÙeejesefhele efkeâÙee peelee nw~
 ke=âef$ece Oeceveerke=âØeeke=âeflekeâ OeceefveÙeeW Éeje ùoÙe mes ®efOej keâes Mejerj kesâ efJeefYevve YeeieeW lekeâ hengbÛeeÙee peelee nw~ efkeâmeer
keâejCe mes GveceW DeJejesOe Glhevve nes peeves hej kegâÚ DebieeW lekeâ Dee@keämeerpeve Deewj hees<ekeâ lelJeeW keâe hengbÛevee DeJe®æ nes
peelee nw~ DeeÙeg kesâ yeÌ{ves hej OeceefveÙeeW keâer oerJeejW ceesšer nes mekeâleer nQ Ùee Oeceveer keâe keâesF& Yeeie Hetâuekeâj Heâš mekeâlee
nw~ Fve meYeer heefjefmLeefleÙeeW ceW OeefveÙeeW kesâ hegve: JÙeJemLeeheve keâer DeeJeMÙekeâlee nesleer nw pees MeuÙe efÛeefkeâlmee Éeje
Jewmkegâuej «eeHeäš keâer meneÙelee mes hetjer keâer peeleer nw, efpemeceW ke=âef$ece OeceefveÙeeW keâes ØelÙeejesefhele efkeâÙee peelee nw~
 Dee@keämeerefpevesšjke=âÙen ùoÙe MeuÙe efÛeefkeâlmee kesâ oewjeve ®efOej keâes Dee@keämeerke=âle keâjlee nw~
- henueer Kegueer ùoÙe MeuÙe efÛeefkeâlmee 1935 ceW nš& uebie yeeFheeme (H.L. Bipass) Øeef›eâÙee Éeje keâer ieF& Leer~ Ssmes
Dee@hejsMeveeW ceW ùoÙe leLee HegâHeäHegâme keâes yeeFheeme keâj Gmekeâer peien nš& uebie ceMeerve Éeje jkeäle mebÛejCe leLee
MJemeve keâe keâeÙe& DemLeeÙeer leewj hej neslee nw~
 heshme cesÙej šsmške=âÙen šsmš ceefnueeDeeW ceW ieYee&MeÙe kesâ cegKe kesâ kewâvmej keâer peebÛe kesâ efueS efkeâÙee peelee nw~ Fmemes Ùen
helee Ûeue peelee nw efkeâ mesjefJekeäme kewâvmej nw Ùee veneR~

efJe<eeCeg (Virus)
 uewefšve Yee<ee ceW ’JeeFjme’ (virus) Meyo keâe DeLe& neslee nw efJe<e~ JeemleJe ceW, GvveermeJeeR Meleeyoer kesâ ØeejbYe ceW Fme Meyo
keâe ØeÙeesie efJe<eekeäle (toxic) jesie hewoe keâjves Jeeues efkeâmeer Yeer heoeLe& kesâ efueS efkeâÙee peelee Lee~ hejvleg Deepekeâue JeeFjme
Meyo keâe ØeÙeesie Gveve jesiepevekeâ keâCeeW kesâ efueS efkeâÙee peelee nw~
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 efpeveceW keâesefMekeâe mlej kesâ mebie"ve (Cellular Organisation) keâe hetCe&leÙee DeYeeJe neslee nw, DeLee&led FveceW keâesefMekeâe-
õJÙe, keâesefMekeâe keâuee leLee DevÙe keâesefMekeâebie (cell Organelle) DevegheefmLele nesles nQ~
 efpeveceW kesâJeue Skeâ Øekeâej keâe vÙetefkeäuekeâ Decue (DNA DeLeJee RNA) neslee nw~ vÙetefkeäuekeâ Decue Skeâ Øeesšerve DeeJejCe
(Protein coat) mes efIeje jnlee nw~
 pees DeefJekeâuheer hejpeerJeer (Obligate Parasites) nesles nQ leLee kesâJeue hees<eer (host) keâer keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ Devoj ner Je=efæ
leLee Øepeveve keâjles nQ Deewj Fme keâeÙe& kesâ efueS Yeer hees<eer keâer keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ ner pewJe-mebMues<eCe lev$e (Biosynthetic
Machinery) keâe ØeÙeesie keâjles nQ~
 ®meer Jew%eeefvekeâ FyeeveesJemkeâer (Ivanovsky) ves meJe&ØeLece meved 1892 ceW Ùen yeleeÙee efkeâ ceespeskeâ (Mosaic) jesie mes
heerefÌ[le lecyeeketâ kesâ heewOeeW keâer heefòeÙeeW kesâ mJejme () ceW JeeFjme kesâ keâCe efJeÅeceeve nesles nQ~ Deepe nce peeveles nQ efkeâ
peerJeeCegDeeW mes ueskeâj ceveg<Ùe lekeâ Deveskeâ peerJeeW ceW efJe<eeCegDeeW Éeje jesie HewâueeS peeles nQ~
mebjÛevee (Structure of the Virus)
 mšwveues efceuej (Stanley Miller) ves meved 1935 ceW šesyewkeâes ceespeskeâ JeeFjme (Tobacco Mosaic Virus- TMV) keâes jJeeW
(Crystal) kesâ ®he ceW heewOes mes Deueie Øeehle efkeâÙee leLee yeleeÙee efkeâ Ùen Øeesšerve keâe yevee neslee nw~
 yeey[sve leLee efheÙejs (Bawden and Perrie) ves 1938 ceW Fve jJeeW keâe jemeeÙeefvekeâ efJeMues<eCe efkeâÙee Deewj heeÙee efkeâ
FveceW DelÙeble keâce cee$ee ceW RNA Yeer heeÙee peelee nw~
 DevÙe efJe<eeCegDeeW kesâ jemeeÙeefvekeâ DeOÙeÙeve mes helee Ûeuee efkeâ Deveskeâ efJe<eeCegDeeW ceW Øeesšerve kesâ Deefleefjkeäle DNA neslee nw~
veesš : hejvleg efkeâmeer Yeer JeeFjme ceW [er.Sve.S. leLee Deej.Sve.S. oesveeW veneR heeÙes peeles nQ~
 efJe<eeCegDeeW keâer mebjÛevee yengle meeOeejCe nesleer nw~ FveceW DNA DeLeJee RNA keâer Skeâ kesâvõerÙe keâesj (Central Core)
nesleer nw peesefkeâ kewâefhmekeâ (Capsid) veecekeâ Skeâ Øeesšerve kesâ DeeJejCe mes efIejer jnleer nw~ kewâefhme[ mJeÙeb yengle Úesšer-Úesšer
FkeâeFÙeeW keâer yeveer nesleer nw, efpevnW kewâhmeesefceÙej (capsomere) keânles nQ~
 kegâÚ JeeFjme, pewmes efkeâ FvHeâuegSbpee (Influenza) JeeFjme Skeâ DevÙe DeeJejCe mes {kesâ jnles nw~
 JeeFjme keâCeeW ceW vÙetekf eäuekeâ Decue leLee Øeesšerve kesâ Devegheele ceW Yeer keâeHeâer efJeefJeOelee heeF& peeleer nw~ FvHeâuegSbpee JeeFjme kesâ
keâCeeW ceW 1 ØeefleMele vÙetefkeäuekeâ Decue heeÙee peelee nw peyeefkeâ yewkeäšerefjÙeesHesâpe ceW Fmekeâer cee$ee 50 ØeefleMele lekeâ nesleer nw~
 [erSveS Ùee DeejSveS ØeeÙe: ›eâceMe: efÉJeueÙekeâ (Double Stranded-ds) leLee Skeâ JeueÙekeâ (Single Stranded- ss) neslee nw~
heeohe JeeFjme - TMV keâer mebjÛevee
 Ùen KeesKeues oC[ kesâ Deekeâej keâe neslee nw~ Fmekeâer uecyeeF&
3000A JÙeeme ueieYeie 180A neslee nw~
 Øeesšerve DeeJejCe (Capsid) kewâhmeesefceÙeme& (Capsomeres)
keâe yevee neslee nw peesefkeâ Skeâ kegâC[ueer (helix) kesâ ®he ceW
JÙeJeefmLele jnles nQ~
- ØelÙeskeâ kewâhmeesefceÙej ceW Devoj keâer Deesj Skeâ KeebÛee neslee
nw~ kewâhmeesefceÙejeW kesâ KeebÛeeW mes efceuekeâj JeeFjme keâer hetjer
uecyeeF& ceW Skeâ kegâC[ueekeâej KeebÛee yeve peelee nw~
- RNA keâer JeueÙe (Strand) pees efkeâ 6340 vÙetekf eäueÙeesšeF&[eW
keâer yeveer nesleer nw~ Fme uecyes kegâC[ueekeâej KeebÛes ceW Oebmeer
jnleer nw~
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pevleg JeeFjme - S[dme mebjÛevee

 S[dme (AIDS - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) JeeFjme Éeje HewâueeS peeves Jeeuee Skeâ YeÙeevekeâ
meb›eâecekeâ jesie nw pees efkeâ Øeeflej#ee leb$e (Immune System) keâer kegâÚ keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâes ØeYeeefJele keâjlee nw~ Fmekesâ
Deefleefjkeäle Ùen ceefmle<keâ keâes Yeer vegkeâmeeve hengbÛee mekeâlee nw~
 S[dme efJe<eeCeg Øeesšerve DeeJejCe mes efIejs Skeâ JeueÙe Deej.Sve.S. (Single Stranded RNA) keâe yevee neslee nw~ mecetÛee
JeeFjme keâCe Skeâ Deewj DeeJejCe ceW efueheše jnlee nw~

peerJeeCegYeespeer Ùee yewkeäšerefjÙeesHesâpe (Bacteriophage)

 yewkeäšerefjÙeesHesâpe ØeeÙe: šw[heesue kesâ meceeve jÛeves Jeeues efJe<eeCeg nesles nw~
- Fvekeâe Thejer Yeeie efpemes Meer<e& (head) keânles nQ, <ešdYegpeekeâej (hexagonal) leLee yengheeMJe&®he (polyhedral)
neslee nw~
- veerÛes Jeeuee Yeeie hetbÚ keâer lejn (tail-like) yesueveekeâej (cylindrical) neslee nw~
- Meer<e& kesâ Devoj efÉkegâC[efuele (efÉJeueÙekeâ) [er.Sve.S. heeÙee peelee nw pees efkeâ Øeesšerve kesâ Keesue, efpemes kewâefhme[
(capsid) keânles nQ, mes efIeje jnlee nw~ ØelÙeskeâ kewâefhme[ FkeâeFÙeeW kewâhmeesefceÙeme& (capsomeres) keâe yevee neslee
nw~ hetbÚ (tail) Skeâ KeesKeueer veeruevegcee keâesj (core) keâer yeveer nesleer nw~
(i) efpemekesâ ÛeejeW Deesj Øeesšerve keâe DeekegbâÛeveMeerue DeeJejCe (contractile sheath) neslee nw~
(ii) hetbÚ keâe Skeâ efmeje Skeâ keâe@uej Éeje Meer<e& mes pegÌ[e jnlee nw~
(iii) hetbÚ kesâ otmejs Úesj hej Skeâ <ešdYegpeekeâej huesš ueieer nesleer nw efpemes DeeOeejerÙe huesš (base plate) keânles nQ~
(iv) Fmekesâ veerÛes mes hegÛÚ efheve (tail pins) leLee hegÛÚ met$e (tail fibres) keânles nQ, pees efJe<eeCegDeeW keâes hees<eer (host)
keâer keâesefMekeâeDeeW hej efÛehekeâeves ceW meneÙekeâ nesles nQ~
(v) hetbÚ keâer uecyeeF&, GheefmLeefle Je DevegheefmLeefle leLee hegÛÚ met$eeW keâer GheefmLeefle SJeb mebKÙee keâes ueskeâj efYevve-
efYevve yewkeäšerefjÙeesHesâpeeW ceW efJeefYevveleeSb heeF& peeleer nQ~
Øepeveve/iegCeve (Reproduction/Multiplication)
 efJe<eeCegDeeW keâe iegCeve (multiplication) kesâJeue hees<eer keâer keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ Devoj ner neslee nw~ henues efJe<eeCeg keâCe kesâ
efJeefYevve IeškeâeW keâe Deueie-Deueie mebMues<eCe neslee nw Deewj efHeâve Fve IeškeâeW keâes hetCe& efJe<eeCegDeeW kesâ ®he ceW peesÌ[ efoÙee

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peelee nw~
 efJe<eeCegDeeW Éeje hees<eer keâesefMekeâeDeeW keâe meb›eâceCe leLee GveceW efJe<eeCeg keâCeeW kesâ iegCeve keâer hetjer Øeef›eâÙee keâes efvecveefueefKele
ÛejCeeW ceW efJeYeeefpele efkeâÙee pee mekeâlee nw~
 efJe<eeCeg keâCe keâe hees<eer keâesefMekeâe keâer melen hej DeefOeMees<eCe (adsorption) DeLee&led efÛehekeâevee (attachment);
 hetjs efJe<eeCeg keâCe DeLeJee kesâJeue vÙetefkeäuekeâ Decue keâe hees<eer keâesefMekeâe kesâ Devoj hengbÛe peevee, Fme ÛejCe keâes JesOeve
(penetration) keânles nQ~
 Ùeefo hetje JeeFjme keâCe Devoj Ûeuee ieÙee nw lees Øeesšerve DeeJejCe keâe nšvee (uncoating)
 JeeFjme kesâ vÙetefkeäuekeâ Decue keâe leLee DevÙe IeškeâeW keâe mebMues<eCe~
 meYeer IeškeâeW Deewj vÙetefkeäuekeâ Decue kesâ keâCeeW keâes Fkeâšd"e keâjkesâ Deveskeâ hetCe& JeeFjme keâCe yeveles nQ~
 veS Glhevve JeeFjme keâCe Skeâ SbpeeFce, ueeFmeespeeFce, ueeFmeespeeFce (lysozyme) Glhevve keâjles nQ lees keâesefMekeâeefYeefòe
keâe ueÙeve (lysis) keâj oslee nw, meeLe ner JeeFjme keâCeeW keâes oyeeJe kesâ keâejCe hees<eer keâesMee Heâš peeleer nw leLee JeeFjme
keâCe yeenj efvekeâeue peeles nw - keâCeeX keâe efJeceesÛeve (release)~
efJe<eeCegDeeW kesâ keâejCe nesves Jeeues jesie (diseases caused by viruses)
 Ûetbefkeâ efJe<eeCeg hejpeerJeer nesles nQ, Fvekesâ meb›eâceCe kesâ HeâuemJe®he hees<eer peerJeeW ceW Deveskeâ jesie Glhevve nes peeles nQ~ efJe<eeCeg
pevÙe kegâÚ jesie efvecve Øekeâej nQ :
 ceveg<ÙeeW ceW : FvHeäuetSbpee, pegkeâece, Kemeje, ÛesÛekeâ, uemetpee, heerefueÙee, heesefueÙees FlÙeeefo~
 pevlegDeeW ceW : efcekeâmeescesšesefmeme (KejieesMe ceW), jsyeerpe (kegâòeeW ceW), kesâ.SHeâ.[er. (yebojeW ceW), heMegDeeW ceW ’Hegâš SC[ ceeGLe’
jesie~
 heewOeeW ceW : lecyeeketâ ceespeskeâ (tobacco mosaic), heheerles keâe ceespeskeâ (Papaya mosaic), heheerles keâe kegbâefÛele heCe& (Leaf
curl of Papaya), efYeC[er keâe heerueer veeÌ[er ceespeskeâ (Yellow vein mosaic of Bhindi) FlÙeeefo~
efJe<eeCeg Je keQâmej :
 meved 1911 ceW Decesefjkeâve efJe<eeCegefJeod [e@.hesÙešve jeGme (Dr. Peyton Rous) ves yeleeÙee efkeâ ÛetpeeW ceW meekeâexcee
(Sarcoma) veecekeâ keQâmej jesie kesâ efueS efJe<eeCeg GòejoeÙeer nQ~ Gvekeâer jeÙe keâes leye keâesF& cenlJe veneR efoÙee ieÙee hejvleg
yeeo ceW KeespeeW mes Ùen mhe<š nes ieÙee efkeâ Deveskeâ Øekeâej kesâ keQâmej, efJe<eeCegDeeW kesâ keâejCe nesles nQ~
 Gme keâer Keespeer keâer cenòee leye mecePe ceW DeeF& Deewj 1966 ceW GvnW veesyesue hegjmkeâej mes mecceeefvele efkeâÙee ieÙee~
 heef#eÙeeW ceW meekeâexcee Glhevve keâjves Jeeues efJe<eeCeg keâe veece Yeer jeGme meekeâexcee JeeFjme (Rous Sarcoma Virus, RSV)
jKee ieÙee~
efJe<eeCegDeeW keâe mebÛejCe (Transmission of Viruses)
 efJe<eeCeg-pevÙe jesie meb›eâecekeâ nesles nQ DeLee&led Skeâ hees<eer mes otmejs heesef<eÙeeW hej Hewâueles peeles nQ~ efJe<eeCegDeeW keâe mebÛejCe
Deveskeâ efJeefOeÙeeW mes neslee nw efpeveceW mes kegâÚ efvecve Øekeâej nw -
 Jem$eeW, FpeWkeäMeve keâer metF& (Syringes), GhekeâjCeeW, Ùev$eeW, meecetefnkeâ ØemeeOeveeW (toilets) FlÙeeefo kesâ Éeje~
 jesheCe (grafting), yeerpeeW, hejeie keâCeeW Éeje~
 jesieJeenkeâeW (vectors) Éeje GoenjCele: Deveskeâ keâerš mJemLe peerJeeW mes Yeejer cee$ee ceW efJe<eeCeg keâCeeW keâes ueskeâj peekeâj
mJemLe peerJeeW ceW #esefhele (inject) keâj osles nQ~
 JeeFjme jesie mes «emle peerJeOeejer SJeb mJemLe peerJeve kesâ yeerÛe ueQefiekeâ DeLeJee DeueQefiekeâ mecheke&â mes~
 jeseif eÙeeW Éeje Keebmeves DeLeJee Úerkeâves hej Glhevve cÙetkeâme keâer met#ce yetob eW (droplets) keâes meebme kesâ meeLe Devoj ues uesves mes~
 efJe<eeCeg Jeeues otef<ele peue keâes heerves mes~

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efJe<eeCegDeeW (SJeb yewkeäšerefjÙeesHesâpe) keâer Øeke=âefle (Nature of Viruses)

efJe<eeCegDeeW ceW peerJeeW kesâ ue#eCe
 DeevegJebefMekeâ heoeLe& (RNA and DNA) keâer GheefmLeefle
 iegCeve
efJe<eeCegDeeW ceW efvepeeaJeeW kesâ ue#eCe
 peerJe õJÙe Je keâesefMekeâebieeW keâe DeYeeJe~
 Deveskeâ pewefJekeâ ef›eâÙeeDeeW - MJemeve, Glmepe&ve Deeefo keâe DeYeeJe~
 efvepeeaJeeW kesâ meceeve Fvekesâ Yeer ef›eâmšue yeveeS pee mekeâles nQ~
 iegCeve kesâJeue hees<eer keâesefMekeâe kesâ Devoj~
peerJeeCegDeeW Éeje nesves Jeeues jesie
jesie keâejCe jesieeCeg mebÛejCe keâe lejerkeâe Deewj jesie kesâ cegKÙe ue#eCe
G<heeÙeve DeJeefOe
mewefhškeâ ieues mš^shšeskeâeskeäkeâme (peeefle) eEyeogkeâeW Deewj meerOes mebheke&â Éeje ieues ceW KejeMe efpemekesâ meeLe ØeeÙe: yegKeej Deewj Keebmeer
keâer KejeMe peerJeeCeg ieues Deewj veeefmekeâe keâuee keâe Yeer nesleer nw~
meb›eâceCe keâjles nQ~ (3-5 efove)
ef[hLeerefjÙee DeefveÙeefcele Mueekeâe (rod) jesieJeenkeâ Éeje efJe<eeCeg MJemeve veueer ieuee Kejeye, yegKeej, Gušer, ieues ceW Oetmej efPeuueer
(keâesefjvesyewkeäšerefjÙece keâes meb›eâefcele keâjlee nw, meerOee mebheke&â, pewmee heoeLe& pecee nes peelee nw~ meebme uesves ceW keâef"veeF&
ef[hLesjer) Keevee Ùee eEyeogkeâeW Éeje meb›eâceCe~ nesleer nw~
1 mes 7 efove~

efveceesefveÙee ef[hueeskeâeskeâme vÙetceesveer peerJeeCeg keâe mebÛejCe MJemeve veueer Deewj "b[, Úeleer ceW oo&, ceesmJeeYe keâHeâ (rusty sputum)
HesâHeâÌ[eW lekeâ meb›eâecekeâ yetboeW Éeje, peuoer-peuoer meebme uesvee, hesš oo&, heerefueÙee~
heefjJeleea (Variable)
lehesefokeâ DeefveÙeefcele Mueekeâe peerJeeCeg keâe mebÛejCe HesâHeâÌ[eW, nef[d[ÙeeW ue#eCe jesie«emle Debie kesâ Devegmeej Deueie-Deueie nw,
(ceeFkeâesyewkeäšerefjÙece Je DevÙe DebieeW ceW meerOes mebheke&â mes leLee Keebmeer, Meece keâes yegKeej, Lekeâeve, Jepeve Iešvee,
šdÙetyejkegâueesmece) meb›eâecekeâ efyevogDeeW, Keevee Je otOe Éeje Skeämejs Éeje HesâHeâÌ[eW ceW meb›eâceCe keâe helee Ûeuelee nw~
heefjJeleea nw~
huesie Ùee Úesšer Meueekeâe Ùen jesie Ûetne efhemmet Éeje Deeoceer ceW DeÛeevekeâ Meg®Deele, lespe yegKeej, Gušer, iece& metKeer
yegJeesefvekeâ huesie hejmeerefveÙee hesefmšme Hewâuelee nw~ 2-10 efove lJeÛee, hÙeeme, lJeÛee hej keâeues Oeyyes, G® cetue (groin)
ceW uemeerkeâe heJeeX (nodes) ceW metpeve~
efššveme Ùee keäueesmš^eref[Ùece efššsveer efcešdšer ceW ceewpeto peerJeeCeg IeeJe Éeje hesefMeÙeeW ceW SW"ve, Dee#eshe nvegmlecYe Deewj yebo peyeÌ[e~
nvegmlecYe Mejerj ceW Iegmelee nw.~ 2-40 efove
(lock jaw)

šeF&HeâeF[ Ùee meeuceesvewuee šeFHeâer
Deeb$e pJej nwpee efJeefyeÇÙees keâesuesjer
yewefmeuejer hesefÛeMe Úesšer Meueekeâe
(ef[mesvš^er) (efMeiewuee ef[mesvš^er)
ceefkeäKeÙeeb, Keevee, ceue, heeveer Deewj
jesieJeenkeâ: 10-14 efove ceefkeäKeÙeeb,
Keevee, ceue, heeveer Deewj jesieJeenkeâ;
1-2 efove
ceefkeäKeÙeeb, Keevee, ceue, heeveer,
Jeenkeâ : 1-4 efove
yegKeej, efceÛeueer, Gušer, YeÙebkeâj Goj heerÌ[e, "b[
Deewj ØeJeeefnkeâe (Diarrhoea)
leer›e YeÙebkeâj ØeJeeefnkeâe (omle); ÛeeJeue kesâ heeveer pewmeer
šefšdÙeeb, Gušer, lespeer mes efvepe&ueerkeâjCe, hesMeerÙe SW"ve
Deewj cet$e yebo nes peevee (anuria)
yegKeej, peer efceÛeueevee, Gušer, YeÙebkeâj Goj heerÌ[e,
ššdšer ceW Ketve Deewj ØeJeeefnkeâe~

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keâeueer Keebmeer Úesšer Meueekeâe Keebmeer Deewj ÚeRkeâ kesâ oewjeve efvekeâueves pegkeâece Deewj metKeer Keebmeer mes Meg®Deele, yeeo ceW
(nerceesefHeâueme Jeeues eEyeogkeâ; 7-14 efove Keebmeer G«e ®he OeejCe keâj uesleer nw~ Keebmeer kesâ 10 mes
heš&dÙetefmeme) 12 lespe DeeIeele heÌ[ves kesâ yeeo ceW meebme Yeerlej Deewj
jJeebkeâvee (Whoop)
megpeekeâ ef[hueeskeâeskeäkeâme mebYeesie Éeje : 2-8 efove ueeefuecee, metpeve Deewj cet$eceeie& Éeje hetÙe (ceJeeo)
(ieesveesefjÙee (veermesefjÙee m$eeJe, yeej-yeej hesMeeye Deevee Deewj hesMeeye ceW peueve~
(keäuewhe)) ieesveesefjÙeSF&)
efmeHeâefueme meefhe&ueekeâej peerJe meerOee mebheke&â, cegKÙe ®he mes mebYeesie Éeje : peveveebiee hej Skeâ meKle, heerÌ[ejefnle IeeJe Ùee leCe
(efš^heesveercee hewefue[ce) 10-90 efove (Deumej), efJeefYevve Øekeâej kesâ Ûece& mHegâšve (erup-
tions) Deewj Mejerj kesâ efkeâmeer Yeer Yeeie ceW Tlekeâ keâe
YeÙebkeâj ®he mes ve<š nesvee~
keâesÌ{ (uewØeesmeer) ceeFkeâesyewkeäšerefjÙece uewhjer efkeâmeer meb›eâefcele Deeoceer kesâ meeLe leCe ieeb"s, Meukeâer Kegjb[ (Scaly scab), DebiegefueÙeeW
efvekeâš Deewj uecyeer DeJeefOe lekeâ mebheke&â Deewj Debiet"eW ceW efJeke=âefle, Mejerj DebieeW keâe ve<š nesvee~
yeešgefuemce keäueesmš^eref[Ùece yeewšgefuevece peerJe KeeÅeeW ceW efJe<e Glhevve keâjles nQ; pe"j Deeb$e ceW yengle ieÌ[yeÌ[, Gušer, ØeJeeefnkeâe, Lekeâeve,
18-66 Iebšs Âef<š ceW efJekeâej, uekeâJee~

Deeefopevleg (Protozoans) Éeje Glhevve jesie

jesie keâejkeâ peerJeeCeg DeeJeeme mebÛejCe keâe lejerkeâe cegKÙe ue#eCe
ceuesefjÙee hueemceesef[Ùece Ùeke=âle ceW Skeâ heefjJeOe&ve meb›eâefcele ceeoe SveesefHeâueerpe leerve ÛejCe-"b[ DeJemLee, efmejoo&, kebâheve Deewj
(Plasmodium) ØeeJemLee mes iegpejlee nw, ceÛÚj kesâ keâešves mes~ leeheceeve yeÌ{vee, yegKeej DeJemLee, yegKeej
ueeue ®efOej keâefCekeâeDeeW DeefOekeâlece nes peelee nw, lespe efmej-oo&, keâcej
kesâ Deboj jnlee nw Deewj Deewj peesÌ[ oo&, Gušer, hemeervee DeJemLee,
jkeäle Éeje meYeer DebieeW ceW DelÙeefOekeâ hemeervee, leeheceeve ceW keâceer, oo& ceW
peelee nw~ keâceer~
Deceerefyekeâ hesefÛeme Ssvšeceeryee yeÌ[er Deeb$e heerves kesâ heeveer, meypeer Deewj Deefle [eÙeefjÙee, ššdšer ceW Mues<cee Deewj jHeâe
Ùee Deceeryelee efnkeäšesefueefškeâe Keeves kesâ meeLe hegefšÙeeW Deewj hesš oo& meskeâC[jer ue#eCe nQ~ Ùeke=âle,
(DeceerefyeSefmeme) (cysts) keâes efveieueves mes, HesâHeâÌ[W, ceefmle<keâ, mLeueerve ceW HeâesÌ[s Deewj lJeÛee,
Deeoceer mes Deeoceer ceW Ùeesefve, efMeMve ceW Deumej~
mebÛeejCe neslee nw~
efveõeueg JÙeeefOe š^eF&hesveesmeescee yeÇtmeeF& uemeerkeâe jkeäle Éeje meermeer cekeäKeer (Tsitsi Fly) yegKeej, yengle lespe efmejoo&, ieo&ve kesâ heerÚs
(mueereEheie ueefmekeâe ieeb" ceW hengbÛelee kesâ keâešves mes~ keâer «ebefLeÙeeW keâe yeÌ{vee, keâcej Úeleer hej
efmekeâvesme) nw Deewj ceefmle<keâ keâes Kegpeueer, peesÌ[ oo&, heuekeâeW šKeveeW Deewj neLeeW
(š^eFhesceesmeesefce meb›eâefcele keâjlee nw~ hej metpeve, kebâheve, YetKe ve ueievee, keâece
Ùeeefmeme) keâjves keâer FÛÚe veneR, yeme yew"s jnves Deewj
meesves keâer FÛÚe, ceeveefmekeâ Demeblegueve, keâescee
Deewj ce=lÙeg~
ØeeLÙe oen uesMecesefveÙee [^esefhekeâe peeefuekeâe Deble:mJej meb›eâefcele ce®-ceef#ekeâe peneb ce®-ceef#ekeâe keâešleer nw Jeneb Deumej
(DeesefjceWCšue (jsefšyeÙetueer-Sv[erLeer- (send fly) mes ceveg<Ùe ceW yevevee~ Deumej pÙeeoelej Ûesnjs Deewj šebieeW
meesj) Ùee efueÙeue) keâesefMekeâeSb~ mebÛeefjle Deewj yeebneW hej~
’’osnueer HeâesÌ[e’’
keâeueeoej Ùee uesMecewefveÙee peeefuekeâe Deble: mlej ce®-ceef#e he#eer kesâ keâešves hueerne (Spleen) Ùeke=âle keâe yeÌ{vee, yegKeej,

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keâeuee jesie [esveesyesveeF& keâesefMekeâeSb mes ceveg<Ùe keâes meb›eâceCe nes heerefueÙee, JeCe&keâlee Éeje lJeÛee keâeueer heÌ[
peelee nw~ peeleer nw~
ØeJeeefnkeâe efieDeeef[&Ùee efoue veefuekeâe, «enCeer Deewj Deeoceer mes Deeoceer lekeâ ceue Jemee keâe DeJeMees<eCe "erkeâ veneR, DeebleeW keâe
efpeDeeef[&Ùelee FvšmšeFvesefueme De«e#egõeb$e (pespegvece) keâe mes mebote<f ele heerves kesâ heeveer, mLeeÙeer {erueeheve efpememes DelÙeefOekeâ Jemee Jeeuee
(giardiasis) Thejer efnmmee~ Keeves Deeefo ceW ceewpeto hegefšÙeeW heerueeheve efueS ceue efvekeâuelee nw, pJej,
keâes efveieueves mes ceveg<Ùe mes Dejkeälelee Deewj Suepee&r DeefYeJÙeefkeäle~
ceveg<Ùe keâes mebÛejCe~
Ùeesefve MeesOe š^eF&keâesceesveepe m$eer keâer peveveebie veueer, mebYeesie kesâ meceÙe m$eer keâer Ùeesefve keâer Kegpeueer Deewj metpeve leLee Peeieoej
(Vaginaitis) Jewefpevesefueme m$eer Deewj heg®<e oesveeW Ùeesefve ceW mKeueve kesâ meeLe Ùee heeruee Ùeesefve m$eeJe~
keâer cet$eer veueer~ mebÛeeefjle, Skeâ-otmejs kesâ
šeJeue ØeÙeesie keâjves mes Ùee
še@Ùeuesš meeršeW Éeje~

JeeFje@F[ (Viroids)
 ef[Ùevej Je jsÙecej (Diener and Raymer) ves 1967 ceW DelÙeefOekeâ meeOeejCe meb›eâecekeâ keâejkeâeW keâes Keespee Je Fvekeâes
JeeFje@F[dme veece efoÙee~
- JeeFje@F[dme cee$ee Úesšs RNA kesâ Keb[ nesles nQ leLee Fve hej Øeesšerve keâe DeeJejCe Yeer veneR neslee nw hejvleg FveceW meb›eâefcele
keâj, jesie Glhevve keâjves keâer #ecelee nesleer nw~ Ùes heeohe jesie kesâ meb›eâceCe nsleg meyemes Úesšs keâejkeâ nesles nQ~
 veeefjÙeue ceW ’keâobie-keâobie’ veecekeâ jesie ef›eâmesevf LeÙece mšvš (Chrysanthemum Stunt-CS), efmeš^me (Citrus Execortis
Virus CEV) leLee Deeuet ceW ’lekeg&â kebâo’ (spindle tuber) jesie GvneR kesâ keâejCe nesles nQ~

efØeDee@ve (Prions)
 1950 kesâ oMekeâ ceW vÙet efieveer (New Guinea) kesâ «eeceerCe FueekeâeW ceW Skeâ efJeMes<e jesie osKee ieÙee efpemes kegâ® (Kuru)
jesie keânles nQ~
ke=âefceÙeeW Éeje Glhevve jesie
jesie keâejkeâ jesieeCeg Deewj mebÛejCe keâe lejerkeâe cegKÙe ue#eCe
Gmekeâe DeeJeeme
šerefveÙelee šerefueÙee meesefueÙece, peerJeve Ûe›eâ keâe kegâÚ Yeeie megDej Goj ceW ieÌ[yeÌ[, efÛejkeâejjer DeheÛe, Dejkeälelee,
(šerefveÙeeefmeme) Deeoceer keâer #egoeb$e ceW, Deeoceer keâes metDej keâe ceebme Demle Deewj keâype Skeâ kesâ yeeo Skeâ~
Keeves mes, meb›eâceCe DeJemLee megDej
kesâ ceebme ceW heefjhekeäJe hegšer (hegšerhegÛÚkeâ)
efMemšesmeesefceÙeeefmeme efMemšesmeescee nercesšesefyeÙece, peerJeve Ûe›eâ keâe kegâÚ Yeeie ceer"s peue mekexâefjÙee kesâ Iegmeves keâer peien hej lJeÛeeMeesOe,
Ùee ßeesCeer efMeje peeuekeâ DeeMeÙe, kesâ IeeWIee yegefueveme ceW~ cet$e Éeje Deb[s yegKeej, efheòeer (Deeefš&kesâefjÙee), Ùeke=âle Deewj hueerne
efyeunejefpeÙeeefmeme Øeesmšwefškeâ Deewj ieYee&MeÙeer~ peue ceW Deekeâj IeeWIes ceW Iegme peeles nw~ keâe yeÌ{vee, heerÌ[enerve jkeälecesn (nerceeš^efjÙee),
efÉMeejer ef[cYekeâ (mekeWâefjÙee) IeeWIes mes meb›eâceCe kesâ 3-9 cenerves ceW pevevecet$e Debie keâe
heeveer ceW hengbÛe peeles nQ~ Deeoceer leye kesâumeerkeâjCe Deewj jsMeeceÙelee (HeâeFyeÇesefmeme)
meb›eâefcele neslee nw peye mekexâefjÙee lJeÛee
ceW Iegme peeles nQ~
SvmeeFueesmšesefceÙeeefmeme SvmeeFueesmšescee [dÙes [sveesue Deeoceer mes Deeoceer lekeâ mebÛejCe, ceue lJeÛeejesie, ueeue Kegpeueer Jeeues IeeJe, peneb-peneb
Ùee ’’DebkegâMe jesie’’ ceeveJe keâer Úesšer Deeb$e mes HeâeFuesefjÙee ®he ef[cYekeâ efvekeâueles ef[cYekeâ Ûeuelee nw Jeneb Kegpeueer Jeeueer efheefškeâeheSb,

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(Bookworm disease) nQ, Deeoceer keâes meb›eâceCe leye neslee nw leer›e Deejkeälelee, «enCeer keâe YeütCe, keâype~ jesieer
peye vebies hewj ceue-mebotef<ele efcešdšer hej keâe Ûesnje heeruee, Hetâuee, efveÛeueer heuekeWâ metpeer,
Ûeuelee nw~ hewjeW Deewj šKeveeW ceW MeesHeâ (oedema)
Smkesâefjmelee Ssmkewâefjme uecyeÇerkeâesF[; mebÛejCe Deeoceer mes Deeoceer lekeâ, Deb[s HesâHeâÌ[eW ces ef[cYekeâeW ceW efveceesefveÙee~ šeFHeâeF[
(SmkewâefjÙeeefmeme) ceeveJe keâer Úesšer Deeb$e ceue Éeje yeenj Deeles nQ, keâÛÛeer pewmee yegKeej Yeer nes mekeâlee nw, Øeesšerve Deewj
meefypeÙeeW kesâ meeLe Ssmkewâefjme kesâ hekesâ efJešeefceve ’S’ keâer vÙetvelee efpemekesâ keâejCe ›eâceMe:
Deb[s Keeves mes meb›eâceCe~ Øeesšerve kewâueesjer kegâhees<eCe Deewj jleeQOeer nesleer nw~
heefjMeesefOekeâe (appendix) Deewj efheòeJeeefnveer keâer
DeJekeâesefMekeâe (Lumen) kesâ DeJe®æ nes peeves mes
heefjMeesef<ekeâe MeesOe (Appendictis) Deewj heerefueÙee
nes peelee nw~
SvšsjesefyeÙesefmeme SvšsjesefyeÙeme Jeceeakegâuesefjme; mebÛejCe Skeâ mes otmejs JÙeefkeäle ceW, iegoe kesâ Deemeheeme Skeäpeercee pewmeer efmLeefle, jele
Ùee DebOeveeue (meerkeâce) Deewj mebotef<ele Keeves Ùee hesÙe ceW Deb[eW kesâ ceW efyemlej ieeruee keâjvee, ke=âefce heefjMesef<ekeâe keâer
’’efheveke=âefce jesie’’ ke=âefce®he heefjMeesefOekeâe Deble«e&nCe mes neslee nw, mJeÙeb keâes meb›eâceCe metpeve~
iegoe (Anus) Kegpeeves hej, KegjÛeves hej
GbieefueÙeeW ceW hekesâ Deb[eW keâe Keeves ceW
DeblejCe leLee Ssmes Keeves kesâ Deble«e&nCe
mes~
HeâeFuesefjielee JegÛesjsefjÙee yeQ›eâesHeäšer, peerJeve Ûe›eâ keâe kegâÚ efnmmee ceÛÚj HeâerueieebJe (Elephentiasis) DeLee&led kegâÚ efnmmeeW
(HeâeF&uesefjÙesefmeme) uemeerkeâe JeeefnefveÙeeb Deewj ceW efpemeceW ef[cYekeâ heefjJeefOe&le neskeâj keâe DelÙeefOekeâ yeÌ{vee pewmes šebie, Je=<eCe-keâesMe,
uemeerkeâe ieeb"W Deeoceer keâes meb›eâefcele keâjles nQ, efMeMve Yeiees<" (Lebia), YeieMesHeâ (Clitoris) mleve
ceÛÚj kesâ keâešves mes ef[cYekeâ lJeÛee Deewj De«eyeeng~
hej Dee peeles nQ Deewj Úso kesâ Éeje
Devoj Iegmekeâj uemeerkeâe JeeefnefveÙeeW
ceW pee hengbÛeles nQ~
- jesie keâer Meg®Deele ceW jesieer yegjer lejn keâebhelee Lee leLee yeeo ceW ceefmle<keâ keâer keâesefMekeâeSb Yeer ve<š nes peeleer LeeR~
 ceeveJe ceW DevÙe DevegJeebefMekeâ jesie CJD - Cruetzfeldt Jacob Disease kesâ ue#eCe Yeer Ssmes ner nQ~
 mšwveues Øetmeervej (Prusiner) ves Fve jesieeW kesâ meb›eâecekeâ keâejkeâeW keâes Keespee Je efØeDee@vme veece efoÙee~
- FmeceW kesâyeue Øeesšerve neslee nw Deewj leLee vÙetefkeäuekeâ Decue keâe DeYeeJe neslee nw~
 Fve Øeesšerve keâejkeâeW ceW iegCeve (multiply) keâer Je meb›eâefcele keâjves keâer #ecelee nesleer nw~ Dele: Deye Jew%eeefvekeâeW kesâ mece#e
ØeMve-efÛendve nw efkeâ DeevegJebefMekeâ heoeLe& lees vÙetefkeäuekeâ Decue ner nesles nQ lees Fve Øeesšerve ceW Ùen #ecelee kewâmes heeF& peeleer nw~
- Fvekeâer Keespe kesâ efueS Øetmeervej keâes 1997 ceW veesyesue hegjmkeâej efceuee~ YesÌ[eW ceW m›esâheer jesie (Scrapie Disease)
FvneR kesâ keâejCe mes neslee nw~ Fme jesie ceW YesÌ[ efJeÛeefuele neskeâj efkeâmeer DeeOeej mes Deheves Mejerj keâes jieÌ[leer jnleer
nw~ Ùen jesie yengle Oeerces-Oeerces neslee nw, Fme keâejCe Fmes Oeercee efJe<eeCeg jesie (slow viral disease) Yeer keânles nQ~

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keâJekeâ Éeje Glhevve jesie

jesie keâejkeâ peerJeeCeg mebÛejCe keâe lejerkeâe cegKÙe ue#eCe
oeo (efšveerÙee) ceeF›eâesmceesjce, ievoer efyeuueer, kegâòee Ùee Jemleg mes IeeJe Meg® ceW Úesšs, ueeue #es$e, LeesÌ[s mes GYejs ngS ueeue efveMeeve
š^eF&keâesHeâeFšesve meerOee mebheke&â nesles nQ pees yeÌ[s Deesj pÙeeoe ueeue nes peeles nQ leLee lJeÛee Deewj
efmej hej Skeâ Ùee DeefOekeâ HeâHeâesues nes peeles nQ~ yeÛÛeeW ceW DeebefMekeâ
Deewj DemLeeÙeer iebpeeheve nes peelee nw~
SsLeueerš Hegâš š^eF›eâesHeâeFšesve hewj keâer meHeâeF& ve jKevee peneb Keeue meb›eâefcele mLeeve hej oo&veekeâ Kegpeueer Ùee peueve, heebÛeJeeR heeoebiegueer
(Trycophyton) pÙeeoe osj lekeâ iece& Deewj ieerueer kesâ leue hej ÛeewLeer Ùee heebÛeer heeoebiegefue kesâ yeerÛe ojej~ {erueer ce=le
jnleer nw~ keâJekeâ kesâ efueS lJeÛee cetue lJeÛee Jeneb hej ueškeâleer jnleer nw Ùee heeoebiegefueÙeeW kesâ yeerÛe lJeÛee
yeenjer hejle hej Dee›eâceCe keâjvee DeefOekeâ ueeue, Meukeâve Deewj ceesšer nes peeleer nw~
DelÙeefOekeâ Devegketâue~
cegoje Hegâš ceeGjwuee ceeFmesšesceer keâJekeâ efkeâmeer Úesšer meer Ûeesš mes lJeÛee efveÛeues neLe-hewjeW ceW efÛejkeâejer, oevesoej meb›eâceCe nes peelee nw
kesâ Devoj Iegme peeles nQ~ efpememes Jes Yeeie yeÌ{ peeles nQ Deewj GveceW keâF& ienjs IeeJe yeve peeles
nQ, nef[d[ÙeeW keâe efJemle=le veeMe efpememes DeMekeäle efve®helee nes
peeleer nw~
Oeerveer Kegpeueer keâF& efJeefYevve keâJekeâ meb›eâefcele JÙeefkeäleÙeeW Éeje GheÙeesefielee Skeâ Øekeâej keâe oeo meb›eâceCe keâer pÙeeoelej peebIeeW keâer Devo®veer
JemlegDeeW kesâ meerOes mebheke&â~ melen hej neslee nw~ ueeue ooesje pees yengle Kegpeueer keâjles nQ~
 iele Je<eeX ceW ieeÙeeW kesâ heieueeves (mad cow) jesie kesâ heerÚs FvnW keâes keâejCe ceevee pee jne nw~
 DeYeer neue ner ceW efmJeme Jew%eeefvekeâeW ves Ùen oeJee efkeâÙee nw efkeâ GvneWves ceeveJe keâes meb›eâefcele keâjves Jeeueer efØeDee@ve keâer
ef$eefJeceerÙe (3D) mebjÛevee keâe helee ueiee efueÙee nw~ Fme Øekeâej CJD jesie keâer ieglLeer meguePeeves keâer Deesj Skeâ keâoce Deewj
yeÌ{e efueÙee nw~
FvšjHesâje@ve (Interferons)
 Jes heoeLe& pees efJe<eeCegDeeW keâes ve<š keâj osles nQ GvnW Virucide keâns nQ~
 efueC[vecewve (Lindenmann) 1997 ves Ùen DevegYeJe efkeâÙee efkeâ peye efJe<eeCeg efkeâmeer hejhees<eer keâesefMekeâe keâes meb›eâefcele
keâjlee nw lees keâYeer-keâYeer hees<eer keâesefMekeâe mes kegâÚ heoeLe& keâes Glhevve neslee nQ pees efJe<eeCegDeeW mes j#ee keâjles nQ~
- efueC[vecesve ves Fve heoeLeeX keâes FvšjHesâje@ve (Interferons) veece efoÙee~ Ùes Øeesšerve nesleer nw~
 efJe<eeCegDeeW mes meb›eâefcele keâesefMekeâeSb Fvekeâes Glhevve keâjleer nw~ Ùes Deeme-heeme keâer keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW Hewâueekeâj GvnW efJe<eeCeg
meb›eâceCe kesâ efueS jesOeer yevee osleer nw~
mcejCeerÙe leLÙe
 peerJeeCegYeespeer (Bacteriophage) keâer Keespe šdyeeš& (Twart) SJeb nsefjues (Herily) ves keâer Leer~
 Ssmes efJe<eeCeg (Viruses) pees peerJeeCegDeeW ceW ØeJesMe keâjkesâ yengiegCeve (Multiplication) keâjles nQ GvnW peerJeeCegYeespeer Ùee
yewkeäšerefjÙeesHesâpe keânles nQ~
 efJe<eeCeg kesâ Øeesšerve keâesš keâes kewâefhme[ (capsid) keânles nQ~
 yee@[ve (Bawden) Je [eefuebiešve (Darlington) ves yeleeÙee efkeâ efJe<eeCeg vÙetefkeäueÙeesØeesšerve mes yeves nesles nQ~
 JeeÙeje@F[dme (viroids) efJe<eeCeg kesâ Úesšs jesiepevekeâ nQ~ FveceW efJe<eeCeg kesâ meceeve Øeesšerve keâesj veneR heeÙee peelee~ kesâJeue
RNA mes yeveer Fve jÛeveeDeeW keâes cesšeJeeÙejme (Metaviruses) Yeer keânles nQ~
 jsyeerpe Ùee neF[^esHeâeefyeÙee kesâ JeeÙejme ceW efmebieue mš^sv[s[ RNA heeÙee peelee nw~
 ÛesÛekeâ (Small Pox) kesâ JeeÙejme ceW [yeue mš^sv[s[ DNA heeÙee peelee nw~

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 JeeÙejme keâe meb›eâecekeâ Yeeie vÙetefkeäuekeâ Decue nw~

 meyemes peefšue efJe<eeCeg Megkeâ pJej efJe<eeCeg (Parrot fever virus) nw~
 JeeÙejme keâes ef›eâmšue kesâ ®he ceW meyemes henues he=Lekedâd keâjves keâe ßesÙe mšsveues (Stanley) keâes nw~
 efJe<eeCegDeeW hej ØeeflepewefJekeâeW (Antibiotics) keâe ØeYeeJe veneR neslee keäÙeeWefkeâ efJe<eeCegDeeW ceW mJeÙeb keâer GheeheÛeÙeer ef›eâÙeeSb veneR
nesleer leLee Ùes meowJe hees<eer keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW jnles nQ~ Dele: ØeeflepewefJekeâ keâe penjeruee ØeYeeJe hees<eer keâesefMekeâe hej ner neslee
nw~
 meeceevÙe ®he mes nesves Jeeuee pegkeâece (common cold) rhinovirus kesâ keâejCe neslee nw~
 S[dme efJe<eeCeg (AIDS) - AIDS keâe hetCe& veece Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome nQ Ùen jesie efJe<eeCeg Éeje
neslee nw~
 Human T lymphotropic Virus III (HTLV-III) Ùee Lymphadenopathy Associated Virus (LAV) Ùee AIDS -
related retrovirus (ARV)
 iebiee veoer kesâ peue ceW DemebKÙee peerJeeCegYeespeer GheefmLele nesles nQ~ Ùes veoer kesâ Øeotef<ele peue ceW GheefmLele jesiepevekeâ
peerJeeCegDeeW (Pathogenic bacteria) keâes ve<š keâj osles nQ~ Dele: Ùes Deheceepe&keâ (Scavanger) keâe keâeÙe& keâjkesâ iebiee
veoer kesâ peue keâes Megæ yeveeÙes jKeles nQ~

mcejCeerÙe leLÙe :
 Mejerj kesâ efkeâmeer Yeer Debie ceW efkeâvneR keâejCeeW mes kegâmebef›eâÙee keâe nesvee jesie keânueelee nw~
 jesieeW kesâ cegKÙele: oes Øekeâej nw - meb›eâecekeâ leLee meb›eâecekeâ jesie~
 meb›eâecekeâ jesie (Communicable Disease) met#ce peerJeeW (jesieeCegDeeW) kesâ keâejCe neslee nw~ GoenjCe - peerJeeCeg,
efJe<eeCeg, keâJekeâ DeLeJee ØeesšespeesDee FlÙeeefo~
 Demeb›eâecekeâ jesie (Non-Communicable Disease) jesie meb›eâefcele JÙeefkeäle mes mJemLe JÙeefkeäle keâes mLeeveebleefjle veneR
neslee nw~ GoenjCe - peerJeeCeg, efJe<eeCeg, keâJekeâ DeLeJee ØeesšespeesDee FlÙeeefo~
 ceuesefjÙee keâe keâejkeâ hueepceesef[Ùece (Plasmodium) veecekeâ hejpeerJeer ØeesšespeesDee nw~
 jsyeerpe (Rabies) meb›eâefcele kegâòee leLee DevÙe mleveOeeefjÙeeW pewmes efkeâ yeboj, efyeuueer DeLeJee MeMekeâ kesâ keâešves mes neslee
nw~
 S[dme Skeâ Ieelekeâ jesie nw, efpememes Mejerj keâer Øeeflej#eer #ecelee ØeYeeefJele nesleer nw~ Fme jesie keâe Keespe meved 1981 ceW
Decesefjkeâe ceW ngDee Lee~
 Øeesšerve-Tpee& kegâhees<eCe mes oes Øekeâej kesâ jesie nesles nQ - cejemceme lelee keäJeeefMeDeesjkeâj~
 Dejkeälelee (Anaemia) Mejerj ceW ueesns keâer nervelee kesâ keâejCe neslee nw~


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Ìã¶ãÔ¹ããä¦ã ãäÌã—ãã¶ã (Plant Biology)

heewOeeW mes mebyebefOele meYeer Øekeâej keâe DeOÙeÙeve Jevemheefle efJe%eeve kesâ Debleie&le efkeâÙee peelee nw~ heewOeeW keâer yeeÿe SJeb Deebleefjkeâ
Deekeâej keâe DeOÙeÙeve, heewOeeW ceW MJemeve ef›eâÙee, peue DeJeMees<eCe ef›eâÙee, ieefle, ØekeâeMe mebMues<eCe ef›eâÙee Éeje Yeespeve keâe efvecee&Ce
SJeb Gmekeâe mLeeveeblejCe, Øepeveve, efJekeâeme, peerJeve Ûe›eâ, JeeleeJejCeerÙe Devegketâueve, heewOeeW keâer DeevegJebefMekeâer, heeohe Øepeveve
efJe%eeve, heewOeeW ceW Glhevve nesves Jeeues jesie SJeb Gvekesâ GheÛeejeW keâe DeOÙeÙeve, heewOeeW keâe Yeewieesefuekeâ efJelejCe Deeefo keâe DeOÙeÙeve
heewOeeW keâe Yeewieesefuekeâ efJelejCe Deeefo keâe DeOÙeÙeve Jevemheefle efJe%eeve keâe Debleie&le efkeâÙee peelee nw~
 heewOeeW SJeb pevlegDeeW ceW efvecve DeeOeejeW hej Deblej efkeâÙee pee mekeâlee nw -
(i) heeoheeW ceW keâesefMekeâeefYeefòe heeÙeer peeleer nw peyeefkeâ pevlegDeeW ceW veneR~
(ii) heeoheeW ceW heCe&nefjle heeÙee peelee nw peyeefkeâ pevlegDeeW ceW veneR~
(iii) njs heewOes Dehevee Yeespeve ØekeâeMe-mebMues<eCe keâer ef›eâÙee Éeje yeveeles nQ peyeefkeâ pevleg Deheves Yeespeve kesâ efueS heewOeeW hej
efveYe&j jnles nQ~
(iv) pevleg keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW ueeFmeesmeesce heeÙee peelee nw, peyeefkeâ heeFhe keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW Ssmee yengle keâce osKeves keâes efceuelee
nw~
(v) heeohe keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW jmeOeeveer heeÙeer peeleer nw peyeefkeâ pevleg keâesefMekeâe ceW Ssmee veneR neslee~
(vi) Fmekesâ DeueeJee mesCš^esmeesce, Glmepe&ve lelJe, keâesefMekeâe-efJeYeepeve ieefle, KeefvepeeW keâe DeJeMees<eCe leLee Je=efæ keâes ueskeâj
Deblej efkeâÙee peelee nw~
 mecemle peerJeOeeefjÙeeW keâes efJnšskeâj (R.H.Whittaker) ves efvecveefueefKele 5 peieleeW ceW efJeYeeefpele efkeâÙee ieÙee nw -
- ceesvesje (Monera) : peerJeOeejer SkeâkeâesMeerÙe, ØeeskewâefjÙeesefškeâ keâesefMekeâe Jeeues nesles nQ~ pewmes peerJeeCeg, meeÙevees
yewkeäšerefjÙee Deeefo~
- Øeesefšmše (Protista) : hetCe& efJekeâefmele kesâvõ heeÙee peelee nw~ Ùes Yeer SkeâkeâesMeerÙe nesles nQ~ pewmes Deceeryee, Ùetiueervee
Deeefo~
- keâJekeâ (Fungi) : Fme peiele kesâ meomÙe yengkeâesMeerÙe hejhees<eer nesles nQ~ FmeceW ØekeâeMe mebMues<eCe veneR neslee nw~ Ùes
ÙetkesâefjÙeesefškeâ nesles nQ, pewmes jeFpeeshece, mueeFce, ceesu[, Ùeermš Deeefo~
- hueevšer (Plantae) : yengkeâesMeerÙe peerJeOeejer efpevekeâer keâesefMekeâeDeeW kesâ ÛeejeW Deesj mesuegueesme keâer keâesefMekeâe efYeefòe
nesleer nw leLee keâesefMekeâeDeeW ceW efjefkeälekeâe heeÙeer peeleer nw~ Ùes mJehees<eer nesles nQ, pewmes njs MewJeeue, ceeme (Mosses),
Heâve&, yeerpe Jeeues heewOes Deeefo~
- SsefvecesefueÙee (Animalia) - yengkeâesMeerÙe pevleg efpemeceW ØekeâeMe mebMues<eCe veneR neslee Deewj ve ner keâesefMekeâe efYeefòe
nesleer nw~ Ùes ÙetkesâefjÙeesefškeâ nesles nQ~
ceesvesje keâe efJeYeepeve yeeo ceW ÙetyewkeäšerefjÙee :
 ceesvesje keâe efJeYeepeve yeeo ceW ÙetyewkeäšerefjÙee (Eubacteria) leLee DeekeâeayewefkeäšefjÙee (Archaebacteria) ceW efkeâÙee ieÙee~
’Jetpe’ ves 6 peieleeW keâes 3 cegKÙe JeieeX ceW (1) [escesve peerJeeCeg (2) [escesve Dee@keâea (Archae) (3) [escesve ÙetkesâefjÙee ceW yeebše~
 hegjeveer heæefle kesâ Devegmeej heeohepeiele keâe JeieeakeâjCe Fme Øekeâej efkeâÙee ieÙee nw -
- ef›eâhšesiewcme (Cryptogamae)- FvnW Yeer leerve YeeieeW ceW yeebše ieÙee nw
- LewueesHeâeFše (heeohe Mejerj keâe JeemleefJekeâ peÌ[, levee leLee heòeer ceW efJeYeepeve ve nesvee) pewmes MewJeeue, keâJekeâ,
yewefkeäšjerÙee leLee ueeFkesâve
- yeÇeÙeesHeâeFše (Fve heewOeeW ceW oe® (xylem), hees<eJeen (Phloem), melÙe heòeer (True leaf) Je leves keâe DeYeeJe neslee

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nw~ peÌ[W Yeer veneR heeÙeer peeleer nQ, pewmes DeeÅe GYeÙeÛej heewOes
- šsefj[esHeâeFše (Fvekeâe heeohe keâeÙe peÌ[, levee Je heefòeÙeeW ceW efJeYesefole jnlee nQ, Fve heewOeeW ceW heg<he Je yeerpe keâe efvecee&Ce
veneR neslee nw) pewmes Heâve&~
 Hewâvesjesiewcme (heg<heer heewOes) - FvnW oes YeeieeW ceW yeebše ieÙee nw -
- DeveeJe=leyeerpeer heewOes (Gymnosperms) : veive yeerpeer, DeC[eMeÙe keâe DeYeeJe, HeâueeW keâe efvecee&Ce veneR neslee~ yeerpe
meerOes ner heewOes mes ueies nesles nQ~ pewmes ÛeerÌ[, osJeoej Deeefo~
- DeeJe=òeyeerpeer heewOes (Angiosperms) : DeC[eMeÙe SJeb yeerpeeC[ oesveeW GheefmLele, efve<esÛeve kesâ heMÛeeled DeC[eMeÙe
Heâue ceW leLee yeerpeeC[ yeerpe ceW yeoue peeles nQ~ Fve heewOeeW keâes YeütCe ceW GheefmLele yeerpehe$eeW keâer mebKÙee kesâ DeeOeej hej
oes GheefJeYeeieeW Skeâ yeerpehe$eer SJeb efÉyeerpehe$eer ceW yeebše ieÙee nw~
DeeJe=leyeerefpeÙeeW keâer Deekeâeefjkeâer (Morphology of Angisperms)
 Deekeâeefjkeâer (Morphology) : Fmekesâ Debleie&le efJeefYevve heeohe YeeieeW pewmes - peÌ[, levee, heòeer, heg<he, Heâue Deeefo kesâ ®heeW
leLee iegCeeW keâe DeOÙeÙeve efkeâÙee peelee nw~
 peÌ[ (Root) : heewOeeW keâe Jen Yeeie pees yeerpeeW kesâ DebkegâjCe kesâ meceÙe cetueebkegâj (Radicle) mes yevelee nw Deewj Øekeâeme kesâ
efJehejerle uesefkeâve peue SJeb Yetefce keâer Deesj yeÌ{lee nw, peÌ[ keânueelee nw~ peÌ[ peceerve mes peue SJeb Keefvepe ueJeCe DeJeMeesef<ele
keâjlee nw~
- peÌ[ keâer efJeMes<eleeSB (Characteristics of Root) -
1. peÌ[ meowJe ØekeâeMe mes otj Yetefce ceW Je=efæ keâjleer nw~
2. Yetefce ceW jnves kesâ keâejCe peÌ[eW keâe jbie meHesâo Ùee cešcewuee neslee nw~
3. peÌ[eW hej keâefuekeâeSB (Buds) Glhevve veneR nesleeR~
4. peÌ[eW hej leveeW kesâ meceeve heJe& SJeb heJe& mebefOeÙeeB (Node and Internodes) veneR heeÙeer peeleer nw~
- peÌ[ kesâ Øekeâej (Type of Root) - Glheefòe SJeb Deekeâej kesâ DeeOeej hej peÌ[s oes Øekeâej keâer nesleer nQ -
1. cemetuee peÌ[ (Tap Root) : Fme Øekeâej keâer peÌ[ ceW cetueebkegâj (Radicle) efJekeâefmele neskeâj Skeâ cegKÙe peÌ[ keâe
efvecee&Ce keâjlee nw~ Fme Øekeâej keâer peÌ[ efÉyeerpehe$eer heewOeeW ceW heeS peeles nQ~
cetmeuee peÌ[eW kesâ ®heevlejCe (Modification of Tap Root) :
(i) Mebkegâ Deekeâj (Concial) : Ùen DeeOeej keâer Deesj ceesšer leLee efkeâveejs hej heleueer nesleer nw, pewmes - ieepej
(Carrot)~
(ii) kegâcYeer®he (Napiform) : Ùen DeeOeej hej DeefOekeâ Hetâue keâj ieesueekeâej leLee Meer<e& hej Skeâoce heleueer nes
peeleer nw, pewmes - Meueiece (Turnip), Ûegkeâvoj (Beet) Deeefo~
(iii) legke&â®heer (Fusiform) : Ùen ceOÙe ceW Hetâueer ngF& Deewj DeeOeej Je Meer<e& keâer Deesj heleueer nesleer nw~ pewmes - cetueer
(Radish) ~
(iv) MJemeve-cetue (Pneumatophores) : MJemeve kesâ efueS, efÉleerÙekeâ peÌ[W, $e+Ceelcekeâ ieg®lJeevegJeleea, mecegõ kesâ
ueJeCeerÙe ce=oe ceW heeS peeles nQ, pewmes - jeFpeesHeâesje (Rhizophora), heeohe megbojer (Sundari) Deeefo~
2. DehemLeeefvekeâ peÌ[ (Adventitious Root) : kegâÚ heewOeeW ceW DebkegâjCe kesâ kegâÚ meceÙe heMÛeeled cetueebkegâj keâer Je=efæ ®keâ
peeleer nw leLee Øeebkegâj (Plumule) kesâ DeeOeej Ùee leves keâer efveÛeueer heJe&-mebefOeÙeeW mes jsMes kesâ ®he ceW Yeer efJekeâefmele nes peeleer
nQ, efpevnW DehemLeeefvekeâ peÌ[W keânles nQ~
 levee (Stem) : heewOeeW keâe Jen Yeeie pees yeerpe kesâ DebkegâjCe kesâ meceÙe Øeebkegâj (Plumule) mes yevelee nw leLee ØekeâeMe keâer
Deesj ieefle keâjlee nw levee keânueelee nw~
- levee keâer efJeMes<eleeSB (Characteristics of Stem) -
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1. levee heewOes keâe Deejesner Yeeie nw, pees Yetefce kesâ efJehejerle ØekeâeMe keâer Deesj ieefle keâjlee nw~
2. leves keâer De«e efmejs hej keâefuekeâeSB (Buds) heeÙeer peeleer nw, efpememes levee Je=efæ keâjlee nw~
3. leves hej MeeKeeSB SJeb heefòeÙeeB heeÙeer peeleer nQ~
4. leves keâe Deekeâej yesueveekeâej, Ûeheše DeLeJee keâesCeerÙe neslee nw~
- leveeW keâe Øekeâej (Type of Stems) - Yetefce hej efmLeefle kesâ Devegmeej leves leerve Øekeâej kesâ nesles nQ :
1. Yetefceiele leves (Underground Stems) : heewOes kesâ leves keâe Jen Yeeie, pees Yetefce kesâ Deboj heeÙee peelee nw,
Yetefceiele levee keânueelee nw~ Fme Øekeâej kesâ leves ceW heJe&, heJe&-mebefOeÙeeB, keâefuekeâeSB SJeb Meukeâ he$e heeS peeles nQ,
pewmes - kesâuee, Deeuet, efpeceerkebâo Dejyeer Deeefo~
2. DeOe&JeeÙeJeerÙe leves (Subaerial Stems) : peye leves keâe kegâÚ Yeeie Yetefce kesâ Deboj leLee kegâÚ Yeeie Yetefce kesâ
yeenj heeÙee peelee nw, leye Fme Øekeâej kesâ leves keâes DeOe&JeeÙeJeerÙe levee keânles nQ~ GoenjCe - otye, hewmeerHeäueesje,
peuekeggbâYeer FlÙeeefo~
3. JeeÙeJeerÙe leves (Aerial Stems) : peye hetje keâe hetje levee Yetefce kesâ Thej efmLele neslee nw, lees Ssmes leves keâes
JeeÙeJeerÙe levee keânles nQ~ Fme Øekeâej kesâ leves ceW MeeKeeSB, heJe&-mebefOeÙeeB, keâefuekeâeSB, Hetâue-Heâue meYeer kegâÚ heeS
peeles nQ~
- leveeW kesâ ®heevlejCe (Modification of Stems) - kegâÚ efJeefMe<š keâeÙeeX keâes keâjves kesâ efueS peye levee Deheves
meeceevÙe keâeÙeeX mes nškeâj Deheves Deekeâej ceW heefjJele&ve keâj ueslee nw, lees Gmes leves keâe ®heevlejCe keânles nQ~ leves
ceW efvecveefueefKele leerve Øekeâej kesâ ®heevlejCe heeS peeles nQ -
1. Yetefceiele ®heevlejCe (Underground Modification) : Øeefleketâue heefjefmLeefleÙeeW ceW Yetefceiele levee Yeespeve
meb«en kesâ keâejCe ceesše SJeb ceebmeue nes peelee nw~ Ùes efvecveefueefKele Øekeâej kesâ nesles nQ –
(i) mlebYe keâvo (Stem Tuber), pewmes - Deeuet~
(ii) Meukeâ keâvo (Bulb), pewmes - hÙeepe, uenmetve, efueueer~
(iii) Ieve keâvo (Corm), pewmes - yeC[e, Dejyeer, efpeceeRkeâo, kesâmej~
(iv) Øekeâvo (Rhizome), pewmes - nuoer, Deojkeâ~
2. DeOe&JeeÙeJeerÙe ®heevlejCe (Subaerial stems Modification) : DeOe&JeeÙeJeerÙe leves efvecveefueefKele Øekeâej kesâ
nesles nQ –
(i) TheefjYetmleejer (Runner), pewmes - yeÇÿeer yetšer, otye Ieeme~
(ii) mšesuee@ve (Stolon), pewmes - heesoervee, pewefmceve, mš^e@yesjer~
(iii) Yetmleejer (Offset), pewmes - peuekegbâYeer, efheefmšÙee~
(iv) Deble: Yetmleejer (Sucker), pewmes - iegueoeGoer, iegueeye~
3. JeeÙeJeerÙe ®heevlejCe (Aerial Modification) : JeeÙeJeerÙe leves efvecveefueefKele Øekeâej kesâ nesles nQ -
(i) mlebYe Øeleeve (Stem Tendril), pewmes - Debietj~
(ii) mlebYe Metue (Stem Thorn), pewmes - veeRyet, iegueeye, yesj~
(iii) heCee&Ye mlebYe (Phylloclade), pewmes - veeieHeâveer~
(iv) he$e-Øekeâeefuekeâe (Bulbils), pewmes - MeleeJej, jmkeâme~
 heòeer (Leaf) : leves leLee MeeKeeDeeW keâer heJe&mebefOeÙeeW (Nodes) mes efvekeâues heeMJe&-Demeceeve Yeeie keâes heòeer keânles nQ~
keäueesjesefHeâue kesâ GheefmLeefle kesâ keâejCe heòeer keâe jbie nje neslee nw~
- heefòeÙeeW kesâ keâeÙe& (Functions of Leaves) -
1. heefòeÙeeB heewOeeW kesâ efueS Yeespeve yeveeleer nw~

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2. heefòeÙeeB jbOeÇeW keâer meneÙelee MJemeve ceW meneÙelee keâjleer nw~

3. Ùes YeespÙe-heoeLeeX keâe mebJenve SJeb Glmepe&ve keâjleer nw~
4. heefòeÙeeB JeOeea Øepeveve SJeb hejeieCe ceW ceoo keâjleer nw~
5. kegâÚ heefòeÙeeB Yeespeve meb«en keâjves keâe keâeÙe& keâjleer nw~
- heefòeÙeeB kesâ ®heevlejCe (Modification of Leaves) -
1. hetCe& kebâškeâ (Leaf Spines) : FmeceW heefòeÙeeB keâeBšeW keâe ®he ues uesleer nQ, pewmes - veeieHeâveer, veeRyet Deeefo~
2. heg<heerÙe he$e (Floral Leaves) : Fmekesâ Debleie&le yeeÿeoue hegbpe, ouehegbpe Deeefo meYeer heg<heerÙe keâeÙe& keâjles nQ~
3. menhe$ej (Bract) : FmeceW heòeer jbieerve neskeâj keâeršeW keâes Deekeâef<e&le keâjves keâe keâece keâjleer nw~
4. Meukeâhe$e (Scaly Leaves) : keâYeer-keâYeer heefòeÙeeB keâefuekeâeDeeW leLee DevÙe DebieeW keâer megj#ee kesâ efueS heefjJeefle&le
nes peeleer nQ, efpemes Meukeâhe$e keânles nQ, pewmes - Deojkeâ, Dejyeer Deeefo~ keâYeer-keâYeer Meukeâhe$e YeespÙe heoeLeeX
keâes mebefÛele keâjves keâe keâeÙe& keâjles nQ pewmes - uenmetve, hÙeepe Deeefo~
5. heCe& cetue (Leaf Roots) : FmeceW heefòeÙeeB peÌ[eW ceW ®heevleefjle nes peeleer nQ, pewmes - yeÇeÙeesHeâeFuece Deeefo~
6. heCe& Øeleeve (Leaf Tendril) : FmeceW heefòeÙeeB Øeleeve Ùee uelee keâe ®he OeejCe keâj uesleer nQ, pewmes - cešj Deeefo~
7. meb«enCe he$e (Storage Leaves) : FmeceW heefòeÙeeB YeespÙe heoeLeeX kesâ meb«eefnle keâjves kesâ efueS ceesšer SJeb ceebmeue
nes peeleer nw~
8. IešheCe& (Pitcher) : FmeceW heefòeÙeeB keâeršeW keâes hekeâÌ[ves kesâ efueS Lewues kesâ meceeve Deeke=âefle ceW heefjJeefle&le nes peeleer
nw, pewmes - efveheQefLeÙee (Pitcher Plant)
9. yuew[j (Bladder) : FmeceW heefòeÙeeB peueerÙe keâeršeW keâes hekeâÌ[ves kesâ efueS yuew[j ceW yeoue peeleer nQ, pewmes -
Ùetš^erkegâuesefjÙee~
10. heCe& DebkegâMe (Leaf Hooks) : FmeceW heefòeÙeeB veemetveeW kesâ meceeve cegÌ[ peeleer nQ, pewmes - efyeiveesefveÙee~
11. heCee&YeJe=vle (Phyllode) : Deemš^sefueÙeve yeyetue~
 heg<he (Flower) :
- DeekeâeefjkeâerÙe ®he mes heg<he Skeâ Øejesn nQ, efpeme hej ieeB"s leLee ®heevleefjle heg<heer heefòeÙeeW ueieer jnleer nw~ Ùen leves
Ùee MeeKeeDeeW kesâ Meer<e& DeLeJee heòeer kesâ De#e ceW Glhevve neskeâj Øepeveve (Reproduction) keâe keâeÙe& keâjlee nw leLee
Heâue SJeb yeerpe Glhevve keâjlee nw~
- ØeeÙe: Skeâ heg<he Ûeej Øekeâej keâer ®heevleefjle heefòeÙeeW keâe yevee neslee nw pees efkeâ heg<heJe=le kesâ Hetâues ngS efmejs heg<heemeve
(Thalmus) hej ueieer nesleer nQ~ FvnW (i) yeeÿeouehegbpe (Calyx), (ii) ouehegbpe (Corolla), (iii) hegcebie (Androecium)
leLee (iv) peeÙeebie (Gynoecium) keânles nQ~
- efpeve heg<heeW ceW ÛeejeW Øekeâej kesâ Ûe›eâ nesles nQ, GvnW hetCe& heg<he (Complete Flower) keânles nQ~
- efpeve heg<heeW ceW Skeâ Ùee Skeâ mes DeefOekeâ Ûe›eâ nesles nQ, GvnW DehetCe& heg<he (Incomplete Flower) keânles nQ~
- yeeÿeouehegpb e SJeb ouehegpb e keâes heg<he keâes meneÙekeâ Debie SJeb hegcegbie leLee peeÙeebie keâes heg<he keâe DeeJeMÙekeâ Debie keânles nQ~
 yeeÿeouehegbpe (Calyx) : Ùen heg<he keâe meyemes yeenjer Ûe›eâ neslee nw~ ØeeÙe: Ùen njs jbie kesâ yeeÿeoueeW (Sepals) keâe Ûe›eâ
neslee nw~ Fmekeâe cegKÙe keâeÙe& keâefuekeâe DeJemLee ceW heg<he kesâ DevÙe YeeieeW keâer j#ee keâjvee SJeb ØekeâeMe mebMues<eCe keâjvee
neslee nw~ kegâÚ heg<heeW ceW Ùen jbieerve neskeâj hejeieCe kesâ efueS keâeršeW keâes Deekeâef<e&le keâjlee nw~
 hegcebie (Androecium) : oueeW mes efIeje Ùen heg<he keâe leermeje Ûe›eâ neslee nw, pees efkeâ hegbkesâmejeW (Stamens) keâe yevee
neslee nw~ hegbkesâmej heg<he keâe vej peveveebie nw~ ØelÙeskeâ hegbkesâmej kesâ leerve Yeeie nesles nQ - (i) heglebleg (Filament), (ii)
hejeiekeâes<e (Anther), (iii) Ùeespeer (Connective), heglebvleg heleuee met$evegcee Yeeie neslee nw, pees hegbkesâmej keâe heg<heemeve mes
peesÌ[lee nw~ hejeiekeâes<e ceW hejeiekeâCe (Pollen Grains) heeÙes peeles nQ~
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 peeÙeebie (Gynoecium) : Ùen heg<he keâe keWâõerÙe Yeeie Je ÛeewLee Ûe›eâ neslee nw~ heg<he kesâ Ùes ceeoe peveveebie nesles nQ~ ØelÙeskeâ
peeÙeebie Skeâ Ùee Deveskeâ DeC[heeW (Carpels) keâe yevee neslee nw~ peeÙeebie ceeoe yeerpeeCeg Glhevve keâjlee nw~ DeC[he leerve
YeeieeW keâe yevee neslee nw - (i) Deb[eMeÙe (Ovary), (ii) Jeefle&keâe (Style), (iii) Jeefle&keâe«e (Stigma)
1. DeC[eMeÙe (Ovary) : heg<heemeve kesâ Thej Skeâ Hetâueer ngF& jÛevee nesleer nw, efpemes Deb[eMeÙe keânles nw~ Fmekesâ Yeerlejer
melen hej Úesšs-Úesšs oeves pewmeer jÛeveeSB heeÙeer peeleer nQ, efpevnW yeerpeeC[ (Ovule) keânles nQ~ FvneR yeerpeeC[eW ceW
ceeoe Ùegicekeâ Deb[eCeg nesles nQ~ efJeefYevve heeoheeW ceW yeerpeeC[eW keâer mebKÙee efveefMÛele nesleer nw~
2. Jeefle&keâe (Style) : Ùen Deb[eMeÙe kesâ Thej keâe uecyee Je heleuee Yeeie neslee nw~
3. Jeefle&keâe«e (Stigma) : Ùen Jeefle&keâe keâe meyemes Thej keâe efÛeheefÛehee Yeeie neslee nw~
 hejeieCe (Pollination) : hejeiekeâCeeW kesâ hejeiekeâes<e mes cegkeäle neskeâj Gmeer peeefle kesâ heewOes peeÙeebie kesâ Jeefle&keâe«e lekeâ
hengBÛeves keâer ef›eâÙee keâes hejeieCe keâne peelee nw~
- mJehejeieCe : peye Skeâ heg<he kesâ hejeiekeâjCe Gmeer heg<he kesâ Jeefle&keâe«e hej Ùee Gmeer heewOes hej efmLele efkeâmeer DevÙe heg<he
kesâ Jeefle&keâe«e hej hengbÛelee nw, lees Fmes mJehejeieCe (Self Pollination) keânles nQ~
- hej-hejeieCe (Cross Pollination) : peye hejeiekeâCe Gmeer peeefle kesâ otmejs heewOes hej efmLele heg<he kesâ Jeefle&keâe«e hej
hengbÛelee nw, lees Ùen hej-hejeieCe (Cross Pollination) keânueelee nw~ hej-hejeieCe keâF& ceeOÙeceeW mes neslee nw~
hejeieCe keâer ØecegKe efJeefOeÙeeB -
1. JeeÙeg hejeieCe (Anemophilous) - nJee Éeje hejeieCe
2. keâerš hejeieCe (Entophilous) - keâeršeW Éeje hejeieCe
3. peue hejeieCe (Hydrophilous) - peue Éeje hejeieCe
4. pevleg-hejeieCe (Zoophilous) - pevleg Éeje hejeieCe
5. he#eer-hejeieCe (Ornithophilous) - heef#eÙeeW Éeje hejeieCe
6. cesueskeâesefHeâueme (Malacophious) - IeeWIes Éeje hejeieCe
7. efÛejeshšsefjefHeâueme (Chiropteriphilous) - ÛeceieeoÌ[ Éeje hejeieCe
 efve<esÛeve (Fertilization) : hejeieCe kesâ heMÛeele efve<esÛeve keâer ef›eâÙee nesleer nw~ hejeieveueer yeerpeeC[ ceW ØeJesMe keâjkesâ
yeerpeeC[keâeÙe keâes Yesoleer ngF& YeütCekeâes<e lekeâ hengbÛeleer nw Deewj hejeiekeâCeeW keâes Jeneb Úes[ osleer nw~ Fmekesâ yeeo Skeâ vej
Ùegicekeâ Skeâ Deb[keâesefMekeâe mes mebÙeespeve keâjlee nw, Fmes efve<esÛeve keânles nQ~
- Deye efve<esefÛele Deb[ Ùegicevepe (Zygote) keânueelee nw~ Ùen Ùegicevepe yeerpeeCegefYeod keâer henueer FkeâeF& nw~ efve<esÛeve kesâ
yeeo yeerpeeC[ mes yeerpe, Ùegicevepe mes YeütCe leLee Deb[eMeÙe mes Heâue yevelee nw~
- DeeJe=efòeyeerpeer (Angiosperm) ceW efve<esÛeve keâes ef$ekeâ mebueÙeve (Triple Fusion) keânles nw~
 Heâue keâe efvecee&Ce (Formation of Fruit) : Heâue keâe efvecee&Ce Deb[eMeÙe (Ovary) mes neslee nw~ Deb[eMeÙe keâer efYeefòe mes
HeâueYeefòe (Pericarp) yeveleer nw~
- HeâueefYeefòe ceW leerve mlej nesles nQ - meyemes yeenjer mlej keâes yeeÿeHeâueef%eefYeefòe (Epicarp), ceOÙe mlej keâes ceOÙe
HeâueefYeefòe (Mesocarp) leLee Yeerlejer mlej keâes Deble: HeâueefYeefòe (Endocarp) keânles nQ~
- efve<esÛeve kesâ yeeo heg<he ceW nesves Jeeues heefjJele&ve -
1. yeeÿeoue hegbpe - ØeeÙe: cegjPeekeâj efiej peeles nQ~
2. oue - cegj#eekeâj efiej peeles nQ~
3. hegbkesâmej - PeÌ[ peeles nQ~
4. Jeefle&keâe«e - cegj#ee peeleer nw~
5. Jeefle&keâe - cegj#ee peeleer nw~
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6. Deb[eMeÙe - Heâue ceW yeoue peelee nw~

7. Deb[eMeÙe efYeefòe - HeâueefYeefòe yeve peeleer nw~
8. ef$emebÙeespekeâ kesâvõkeâ - YeütCehees<e ceW yeoue peelee nw~
9. Deb[ keâesefMekeâe - YeütCe yeveeleer nw~
10. yeerpeeC[ - yeerpe ceW heefjJeefle&le nes peelee nw~
Heâue kesâ Øekeâej (Types of Fruit) - Heâue oes Øekeâej kesâ nesles nQ -
1. ketâš Heâue (False Fruits) : kegâÚ heewOeeW ceW Heâue kesâ efvecee&Ce ceW heg<he kesâ DevÙe Yeeie pewmes - heg<heemeve, ouehegbpe Deeefo
Yeeie uesles nQ~ Ssmes Heâue keâes ketâš Heâue (False Fruits) keânles nQ, pewmes - mesye, keâšnue, veeMeheeleer, Debpeerj Deeefo~
2. melÙe Heâue (True Fruit) : Deb[eMeÙe mes yeveves Jeeues Heâue keâes melÙe Heâue (True Fruit) keânles nQ~
 Deefve<eskeâHeâueve (Parthenocarpy) : kegâÚ heewOeeW ceW efyevee efve<esÛeve kesâ ner Heâue yeve peeles nQ~ Fme lejn efyevee efve<esÛeve
ngS HeâueeW kesâ efJekeâeme keâes Deefve<eskeâHeâueve keânles nQ, pewmes - yeerpejefnle kesâueee, Devevveeme, Debietj, heheerlee Deeefo~
 DeeJe=òeyeerefpeÙeeW kesâ HeâueeW ceW yengle efJeefYevveleeSB heeÙeer peeleer nQ, ceesšs leewj hej Ùes leerve ßesefCeÙeeW ceW jKe peeles nQ -
1. mejue Heâue (Simpe Fruit) : pewmes - mesce, mejmeeW, Deece, veeRyet Deeefo~
2. hegbpe Heâue (Aggregate Fruit) : pewmes - mš^e@yesjer, keâceue, jmeYejer, MejerHeâe Deeefo~
3. meb«eefLele Heâue (Composite Fruit) : pewmes - keâšnue, Menletle, yejieo, Debpeerj, Menletle Deeefo~

Heâue SJeb Gvekesâ Keeves ÙeesiÙe Yeeie

Deece ceOÙe HeâueefYeefòe Debietj HeâueefYeefòe
mesye heg<heemeve keâšnue menhe$e, heefjoue SJeb yeerpe
veeMeheleer heg<heemeve iesntb YeütCehees<e
ueerÛeer Sefjue Deveej yeerpeÛeesue
veeefjÙeue YeütCehees<e OeefveÙee heg<heemeve SJeb yeerpe
Dece®o HeâueefYeefòe MejerHeâe HeâueefYeefòe
heheerlee ceOÙe HeâueefYeefòe efmebIeeÌ[e yeerpehe$e
cetbieHeâueer yeerpehe$e SJeb YetÇtCe veeRyet jmeerues jesce
keâepet yeerpehe$e yesue ceOÙe SJeb Deble: HeâueefYeefòe
yesj yeeÿe SJeb ceOÙe HeâueefYeefòe šceešj HeâueefYeefòe SJeb yeerpeeC[meve
Deveej jmeerueW yeerpeÛeesue Menletle menhe$e, heefjoue SJeb yeerpe

Jevemheefle efJe%eeve keâer MeeKeeSb

 Tlekeâ efJe%eeve (Histology) ceW TlekeâeW keâe DeOÙeÙeve
 keâesefMekeâe efJe%eeve (Cytology) ceW keâesefMekeâe keâe DeOÙeÙeve
 Meejerefjkeâer (Anatomy) ceW heewOeeW keâer mechetCe& Deebleefjkeâ mebjÛevee keâe DeOÙeÙeve
 Jeefie&keâer (Taxonomy) ceW ue#eCeeW kesâ DeeOeej hej heewOeeW keâe JeieeakeâjCe~
 heeefjefmLeeflekeâer (Ecology) ceW heewOes Je Gmekesâ mecegoeÙe hej JeeleeJejCe keâe ØeYeeJe Je Fmekesâ efJehejerle heewOes Je Gmekesâ
mecegoeÙe keâe JeeleeJejCe hej ØeYeeJe SJeb JeeleeJejCe kesâ Devegmeej heewOeeW ceW Devegketâuelee keâe DeOÙeÙeve~
 kesâvõkeâ efJe%eeve (Karyology) kesâvõkeâ mebyebOeer jÛevee Je keâeÙeeX keâe DeOÙeÙeve~
 heeohe Mejerj ef›eâÙee efJe%eeve (Plant Physiology) meYeer pewefJekeâ ef›eâÙeeDeeW keâe DeOÙeÙeve~
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 heeohe Yetieesue (Plant Geography) ceW YetceC[ue kesâ efJeefYevve YeeieeW ceW heewOeeW kesâ efJelejCe Je Gmekesâ keâejCeeW keâe DeOÙeÙeve~
 heeohe Øepeveve efJe%eeve (Plant Breeding) - DeÛÚs Øekeâej kesâ yeerpeeW SJeb HeâmeueeW keâes Gieeves keâe DeOÙeÙeve~
 met#ce pewefJekeâer (Microbiology) ceW met#ce peerJeeW keâe DeOÙeÙeve~
 heeohe jesie efJe%eeve (Plant Pathology) ceW heewOeeW kesâ jesie, jesieeW kesâ keâejCe Je GheÛeej keâe DeOÙeÙeve~
 peerJeeMce Jevemheefle efJe%eeve (Palaeobotany) ceW ØeeÛeerve meceÙe kesâ heewOes, pees Deye peerefJele veneR, Gvekeâer Deeke=âefleÙeeb
helLejeW keâer ÛešdševeeW ceW Úehe kesâ ®he ceW nw~ Fme MeeKee kesâ Debleie&le Gvekeâe DeOÙeÙeve neslee nw~
 peerJe-jmeeÙeve (Biochemistry) ceW peerJeOeeefjÙeeW ceW heeÙes peeves Jeeues heoeLeeX Je Gvekeâer jemeeÙeefvekeâ Øeef›eâÙeeDeeW keâe
DeOÙeÙeve~
 peerJe Yeeweflekeâer (Bio-Physics) ceW Yeeweflekeâer kesâ efmeæebleeW kesâ mevoYe& ceW pewefJekeâ-ef›eâÙeeDeeW keâe DeOÙeÙeve~
 DeCeg-pewefJekeâer (Molecular Biology) ceW pewJe jmeeÙeve keâe DeeefCJekeâ DeeOeej hej DeOÙeÙeve~
 pewJe meebefKÙekeâer (Biometrics) ceW pewefJekeâ ef›eâÙeeDeeW kesâ heefjCeeceeW keâe meebefKÙekeâer Je ieefCele kesâ efmeæebleeW Éeje DeOÙeÙeve~
 jemeeÙeefvekeâ Jeefie&keâer (Chemotaxonomy) ceW ØeeefCeÙeeW ceW GheefmLele efJeMes<e jmeeÙeveeW kesâ DeeOeej hej JeieeakeâjCe~
 keâesMeerÙe-Jeefie&keâer efJe%eeve (Cytotaxonomy) ceW keâesMeerÙe mebjÛevee keâe GheefmLele iegCemet$e keâer mebjÛevee kesâ DeeOeej hej
JeieeakeâjCe~
 peerve-heeefjefmLeeflekeâer (Genecology) ceW efkeâmeer Deeyeeoer Ùee meceef<š kesâ peerveer mebie"ve keâe Jeeme mLeeve Ùee JeeleeJejCe kesâ
mebyebOe keâe DeOÙeÙeve~
 KeeÅe ØeewÅeesefiekeâer (Food technology) ceW YeespÙe heoeLeeX keâe Jew%eeefvekeâ {bie mes mebj#eCe, YeC[ejCe leLee mLeeveevlejCe~
 DeevegJeebefMekeâer FbpeerefveÙejer (Genetic Engineering) - ceW DeevegJeebefMekeâ heoeLe& keâes peesÌ[vee, Deueie keâjvee DeLeJee efkeâmeer
Øekeâej yeouevee efpememes Gme peerJe ceW DeÛÚs ue#eCeeW keâe meceeJesMe nes Deeefo keâe DeOÙeÙeve~
 DeesuejerkeâuÛej (Olericulture) meefypeÙeeb Øeoeve keâjves Jeeues heewOeeW keâe DeOÙeÙeve~
 HeäueesjerkeâuÛej (Floriculture) heg<he Øeoeve keâjves Jeeues heewOeeW keâe DeOÙeÙeve~
 efmeuJeerkeâuÛej (Silviculture) - JeveeW kesâ efJekeâeme Je osKejsKe keâe DeOÙeÙeve~
 DejyeesjerkeâuÛej (Arboriculture) - mepeeJešer Je=#eeW leLee PeeefÌ[ÙeeW kesâ mecyeæ&ve mes mebyebefOele DeOÙeÙeve~
 heesceesueepeer (Pomology) - HeâueeW kesâ mebJeOe&ve keâe DeOÙeÙeve~
 Heâjcewkeâesueepeer (Horticulture) - Deew<eefOeÙeeB osves Jeeues heewOeeW keâe DeOÙeÙeve~
 hes[esueepeer (Pedalogy) - ce=oe keâe efvecee&Ce, ce=oe kesâ Øekeâej keâe DeOÙeÙeve~
 nešeakeâuÛej (Horticulture) - ceW heg<he Je Heâue osves Jeeues Je=#eeW Je yeeieeW keâe DeOÙeÙeve~
 ceeFkeâesueepeer (Mycology) - keâJekeâeW keâe DeOÙeÙeve~
 yewkeäšerefjÙeesuee@peer (Bacteriology) - ceW efJeefYevve Øekeâej kesâ heg<heeW keâe DeOÙeÙeve~
 mheceeXueepeer (Spermology) - yeerpeeW keâe DeOÙeÙeve~
 JeeFjesuee@peer (Virology) - efJe<eeCegDeeW keâe DeOÙeÙeve~
 SvLeesuee@peer (Anthology) - ceW efJeefYevve Øekeâej kesâ heg<heeW keâe DeOÙeÙeve~
 ›eâeÙeesueepeer (Cryology) - ceW mebpeerJeeW ceW Meerle ØeYeeJe keâe DeOÙeÙeve~
 efuec>eesueepeer (Limnology) - ceW mJeÛÚ peue ceW heeÙes peeves Jeeues heewOeeW keâe DeOÙeÙeve~


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ÀÔãã¾ã¶ã ãäÌã—ãã¶ã
foKku dhog ' kk[ kk ft l dsv UrxZ r i nkFkksZ
adsHkkS
frd jl k; fud xq . kk]sal a
?kVu] l a
j puk rFkk ml esagksusokys
HkkS
frd , oajkl k; fud i fjorZ uksadk v è; ; u gksrk gSjl k; u foKku dgykrk gS A^dsfeLVªh* ' kCn dhmRifÙk fel zns'k
dsçkphu uke ^dhfe; k* l sgq bZgSbl dk v FkZgS µdkykja xAysokfl , dksjl k; u foKku dk t ud ekuk t krk gS A
orZ
eku es ajl k; u foKku ekuo dsHkkS frd t hou esaegÙoi w . kZHkfw
edkfuHkkjgkgS Ajl k; u foKku [ kk| i Q l yksa
dh mRikndrk esaof̀¼] LokLF; j{kk] chekfj; ka sl scpko] fuek.kZl kexzh , oav U;kU; ekuoksi; ksxh l kexzh dsfuekZ .k
, oaj[ kµj[ kko esal a
y Xu gS Aekuo t hou dk dkb sZughagS aft l sjl k; u foKku çHkkfor u dj jgk gS A
j l k; u foKku dh ' kk[ kk, a
v d kcZfud j l k; uµ dkcZ fud ; kSfxdksadksNksM+d j “ks"k l HkhrÙoksav kSj muds; kS fxdksadscukusdhfofèk] xq . kµèkeZ ]
mi; ksx , oal a?kVu dk v è; ; u fd; k t krk gS A
d kcZfud j l k; uµ bl esadkcZ u o ml ds; kS fxdksadk v è; ; u fd; k t krk gS A
1- HkkS fr d j l k; uµ bl esaHkkS frd vfHkfØ; kv ksadsfu; eksarFkk fl ¼ka r ksadk v è; ; u fd; k t krk gSA
2- fo' y sf. kd j l k; u ( Anatytical Chemistry) µ bl esai nkFkksZ adh i gpku rFkk mudh ek=kk fuèkkZ fjr djusdk
v è; ; u fd; k t krk gS A
3- v kS | ksfxd j l k; uµ bl esai nkFkka sZdk O ; ki kfjd ek=kk esafuekZ . k djusokysm| ksxksal sl EcfUèkr fu; eksa ]
v fHkfØ; kvksafofèk; ksav kfn dk v è; ; u fd; k t krk gS A
4- t ho j l k; u ( Bio-Chemistry) µ bl esat hoèkkfj; ksaesagku ssokyh jkl k; fud v fHkfØ; kv ksarFkk çkf.k; ksarFkk
ouLi fr; kasl sçkIr i nkFkksZ
adk v è; ; u fd; k t krk gS A
5- Ñf"k j l k; u ( Agricultural Chemistry) µ bl esaÑf"k l sl EcfUèkr jl k; uka sdk vè; ; u gksrk gSA
6- v kS "kfèkj l k; uµ bl esaçkf.k; ksadsç; ksx es
av kusokyhv kS "kfèk; ka
]smudsl a ?kVu o cukusdhfofèk; ksadkv è; ; u
fd; k t krk gS A
7- ukfHkd h; j l k; u ( Nuclear Chemistry) µ bl esaukfHkdh; fØ; kv ksa ] jsfM+
; ka
s, fDVo rÙo] rFkkbudsvuq ç; kxsksa
dk v è; ; u gksrk gS A
nzO
; (Matter)
osl Hkh oLrq, aft l esaHkkj gksrk gS
arFkk LFkku ?kjsrh gS
anzO
; dgykrk gS Agekjspkjka
sv ksj t ksdqN fn[ kkbZnsrk
gS
al c nz
O; dsv UrxZ r v krk gS Afdl hoLrqdk nzO;eku l nS o fuf” pe jgsxk bl sdghaHkhi k; kt k; kAnzO; dksu rks
fufeZ
r fd; k t kl drk gSv kjSu rksfou"V fd; k t k l drk gs Afu"d"kZLo#i dgk t k l drk gSfd l Ei w . kZczg~
ek.M
dk nzO;eku v i fjofrZr jgrk gS A
nzO
; dk oxhZ
d j . k (Classification of Matter)
nzO
; dsokg~ ; laj pukdsv kèkkj i j bl srhu Hkkxka sesack¡Vkx; k gS ABkls] nzo] xS
l ( pkSFkhv oLFkk IykTekHkh
ekuk t krk gSt ksv fr rki i j nzO; dh v oLFkk gS A)
1- Bksl ( Solid) µ v .kq, d nw l jsdsl kFk n‘ <+ r k l scaèksgksusdsdkj.k ; g dBksj gksrk gS abl dk nzO
; eku rFkk
v k; ru fuf” pr gksrk gS
At S l sµ ykg sk] i RFkj] ydM+ h] ued v kfnA
2- nzO ; ( Liquids) µ budk v k; ru fuf' pr gkrsk gS ai jUrqv kdkj v fuf” pr gksrk gSft l Hkh crZ u esaj[ kst krs
gSaml dk v kdkj xzg.k dj ys r sgS
At S
l sµ t y] nw èk] ' kgn] i sVªksy v kfnA
3- xS l ( Gases) µ budk v kdkj o v k; ru nksuksav fuf' pr gksrk gS aft l crZu esaj[ kst krsgSml dk v kdkj o

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v k; ru nkusksaèkkj.k dj ysr sgS

At S
lµs ok; ]q t yok"i ] èkq
v k]¡ v kDl ht u v kfnA
[ t y ] xa èkd ( Sulphur) ] i QkLi Qksjl µ r huksav oLFkkv ksaesai k; k t kr k gSt cfd µ d i w
j ] ukS
l knj ]
v k; ksMhu Bksl l sxS l v oLFkk esai fj ofr Z
r gkst kr sgS
A
4- Iy kTekµ nzO ; dh og v oLFkk gSft l esamPp rki i j i jek.kqv k; fur v oLFkk esajgrsgS A; g v oLFkk fo| qr
dh l q pkyd gksrh gS A
j kl k; fud oxhZ
d j . k ( Chemistry Classfication)
1- fo"keka x i nkFkZ( Heterogemeous Substan-ces) µ , slsi nkFkZft uesafHkUuµfHkUu i nkFkksZdsnks; knksl sv fèkd
Hkkx gksrsgS afo"keka
x i nkFkZdgykrsgS At lSsµ nw èk] jDr] èkvqk¡] ckny] ck#n v kfnA
2- l ekax i nkFkZ( Homogeneous Substances) µ , slsi nkFkZft l dk çR;sd Hkkx l eku çdkj dk gksrk gSl eka x
i nkFkZdgykrk gS At lSsµ yksgk] rk¡ck] v kDl ht u] ukbVªktsu v kfnAl eka x i nkFkZnksçdkj dsgksrsgS µ
1- foy ; u ( Solution) µ nks; k nksl svfèkd i nkFkksZ adsl eku feJ.k dksfoy; u dgrsgS Abl dk dksbZ
a
fuf' pr l ?akVu ughagksrk gS A
2- ' kq ¼ i nkFkZ( Pure Substances) µ ft u l eka x i nkFkksZ
adk l a ?kVu fuf' pr v kS j fLFkj gksrk gS ] ' kq
¼ i nkFkZ
dgykrsgS Al Hkh rÙo v kS
a j ; kSfxd ' kq
¼ i nkFkZgS A
1- r Ùo ( Element) µ l eku çdkj dsi jek.kvqksal scus' kq ¼ i nkFkZdksrÙo dgrsgS At Sl sl ksuk] pk¡nh] rkc¡ k] yksgk
v kfnArÙo Hkh nksçdkj dsgksrsgS µ èkkrq, oav èkkrq
a A
2- èkkr q( Metal) µ çÑfr esai kjsdksNkM s+d j yxHkx l Hkhèkkrq , aBksl v oLFkkesai kbZt krhgS Ai kjk, d , slhèkkrq
gSat ksfd nzo v oLFkkesai kbZt krhgS Aèkkrq
v ksadsfuEu l kekU; xq . kgksrsgS
aµ pkydrk] rU;rk] v ?kkron~ è
Zkuh; rk]
lq?kV~; rk v kfnAv Eyka sl sfØ; k djdsgkbMªkstu xS l foLFkkfi r djrh gS AfofHkUu èkkrq v ka
sdksi jLi j feykusl s
cuusokyh èkkrqdksfeJèkkrqdgrsgS A
3- v èkkr q( Non Metal) µ èkkrq v ksadsfoi jhr xq . kksaokysrÙoka sdksv èkkrqdgrsgS a; sHka
xqj gkrssgS A; sBksl] nz oo
xSl µ rhuksav oLFkkv ksaesai kbZt krh gS al kekU;r%dq pkyd gkrsh gS arFkk budsxyuk¡d èkkrq v ksal sde gksrsgS A
4- mi èkkr q( Semimetal) µ osrÙo t ksèkkrq v ksa, oamièkkrq v ksadschp dsxq . k j[ krsgSamièkkrqdgykrsgS At lSsµ
t esfu; e] v kl Z
Z fsud] , .Vheuh v kfnA
5- ekuo ' kj hj esafofHkUu r Ùoksadh v kS l r ek=kk fuEuor ~gS µ
v kDl ht u 65 çfr' kr
dkcZ u 18 çfr' kr
gkbMªkst u 10 çfr' kr
ukbVªkst u 3 çfr' kr
dS fY' k; e 2 çfr' kr
iQ kLi Q ksjl 1 çfr' kr
i kV
sSf' k; e -35 çfr' kr
l Yi Q j -25 çfr' kr
l kfsM; e -15 çfr' kr
Dyksjhu -15 çfr' kr
eSXuhf' k; e -05 çfr' kr
yksgk 0-4 çfr' kr
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v U; -46 çfr' kr
1- Hkw iiZr h esai k; sat kusoky sr Ùoksad k çfr ' kr fuEu gS µ
v kDl ht u 49-9 çfr' kr
fl fydkW u 26-0 çfr' kr
, sY; w
fefu; e 7.3 çfr' kr
yksgk 4-1 çfr' kr
dS fY' k; e 3-2 çfr' kr
l kfsM; e 2-3 çfr' kr
i kVsS
f' k; e 2-3 çfr' kr
eS Xuhf' k; e 2-1 çfr' kr
v U; rÙo 2-8 çfr' kr
1 fxd ( Compound) µ rÙo v ki l esafuf' pr v uq
; kS i kr esafeydj ; kS fxd dk fuekZ . kdjrsgS Anw l js' kCnksaesa
dgkt k; rksµfHkUuµfHkUu çdkj dsi jek.kq v ksads, d fuf' pr] v uq i kr esal ;akst u l scus' kq
n~
/ i nkFkZdks; kfSxd
dgrsgS At S
l sµ i kuh gkbMªktsu v kjSv kDl ht u ds2% 1 dsv uq i kr es afeyusl scurk gS A; kfSxd nksçdkj ds
gkrssgS
µ
a
2 d kcZfud ; kSfxdµ dkcZ u] gkbMªkstu dsO ;qRiUu bl Js . kh es
av krsgS A
2 v d kcZfud ; kSfxdµ gkbMªksd kcZ u dksNkM s+d j ' ks"k l Hkh ; kS
fxd bl dsv UrxZ r v krsgSA
r Ùoksadsfof' k"V xq
. k (Spicific Properties of Elements)
1- uehd j . k ( Diliquescence) µ dq N ; kSfxd t c ok; q e.My esa[ kq y sj[ kfn; st krsgS at ksosuehdksvo” kksf"kr
dj ysrsgS a; g xq . k uehdj.k dgykrk gS A
1- l kèkkj . k ued ( l ksfM; e Dy ksjkbM) esa; g xq . k ughai k; k t kr k gS ai j UrqeS Xuhf' k; e DyksjkbMd h
v ' kq¼ d sd kj . k ; g ue gkst kr k gS A
2- çLi Q iQ Vu ( Efflorescence) µ dq N fØLVyh; i nkFkZv i usfØLVyh; t y dksok; q e.My esafudky dj
pw . kZ#i esai fjofrZ r gkst krs gS At S l sµ i Q sjl l Yi QV
s] l kfsM; e dkcku sZsV v kfnA
3- v k?kkr oèkZ uh; r k ( Mallebility) µ dq N Bksl i nkFkZi hVusi j Vw VusdsLFkku i j i ryh pknj ds#i esa
i fjofrZ r gkst krsgS ABkslksaes
ai k; st kusokysbl xq . kdksv k?kkroèkZuh; rkdgrsgS At S lµs l ksuk] pkn¡ h] rk¡ck
v kfnAl ksuk l okfZèkd vk?kkroèkZ uh; èkkrqgS A
4- v knzZ r kxzkgh( Hygroscopic) µ i nkFkksZesaok; q e.My dhuehdksxzg.kdjusdh{kerkdksdgrsgS Ai nkFkksZ
dsbl xq . k dksgkbxzksLdksih ( Hygroscopy) dgrsgS A
2- r U;r k ( Ductility) µ dq N i nkFkksZ
aesa, slsxq . k i k; st krsgSaft ul si rysrkj cuk; st k l drsgS ai nkFkZdsbl
xq. k dksrU;rk dgrsgS A
3- y phy ki u ( Elasticity) µ i nkFkksZdsosxq . k ft l ds}kjkosyxk; sx; sfo#i d cy dkfojkè sk dj i qu%vi uh
LokHkkfod v oLFkk dksçkIr dj ysrsgS Aml syphyki u dgykrk gS A
4- d ksey r k ( Plasticity) µ i nkFkZdkog xq . kft l dsdkj.ki nkFkZi q u%vi uhLokHkkfod fLFkfr esaughav ki krs
dke syrk dgykrk gS A
5- Hkaxqj r k ( Brittleness) µ dq N Bksl i nkFkksZ adksgFkkS M+
sl si hVusi j NksVµs NksVsVqd Mk+saesai fjofrZ r gkst krsgS Abl
xq. k dksHka xqj rk dgrsgS A

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6- d Bksjr k ( Hardness) µ fofHkUu i nkFkZ, d nw

l jsdhrq y ukesade ; kv fèkd dBkjs gksrsgS AdBksjrkdheki
ekg
s Ldsy ( Mohs Scale) }kjk dht krhgS Al okZfèkd dBksj i nkFkZghjk gS Aeksg Ldsy i j bl dh dBksjrk 10
gS
A
7. feJ . k ( Mixturess) µ nks; k nksl svfèkd ; kSfxdksa; k rÙoka
sdksv fuf” pr v uq i kr es
afeykusi j çkIr nzO;
dksfeJ.k dgrsgS A; g nksçdkj dk gksrk gSµ
• l ekx ahfeJ . k ( Homogeneous Mixture) µ bl esaçR;sd Hkkx dsxq . kèkeZ, d l eku gksrsgSAt S
l sµ ued
dk t yh; foy; uA
• fo"keka xhfeJ . k ( Heteogeneous Mixture) µ bl esaçR;sd Hkkx dsxq . kèkeZ, oal a
?kVu fHkUuµfHkUu gksr
gS
At S l sµ ck#nA
8- feJ èkkr q( Alloy) µ nks; k nksl sv fèkd rÙoksadks, d l kFk nzfor v oLFkk es afeykdj i uq%Bksl esai fjofrZ
r
dj ysusi j çkIr mRikr dksfeJ èkkrqdgrsgS Abl es aèkkrqdsl Hkh xq. k l fUufgr jgrsgS A
feJ . kksadksv yx d j uk (Separation of Mixtures)
1- fØLVy u ( Gystallisation) µ bl fofèkesav ' kq ¼ Bksl dks; kfeJ.kdksmfpr foyk; d dsl kFk?kksy dj Nku
ysrsgS ANkuusdsi ' pkr~Bksl i nkFkZvyx gkst krk gS a
2- v kl ou ( Distillation) µ t c feJ.k esamifLFkr nzoka sdsDoFkukd a ksesav fèkd v a r j gkrsk gS arksbudsfeJ.k
dksv kl ou fofèk l si F̀kd djrsgS Av kl ou l sde DoFkuka d okyk rÙo i gysokf"i r gku ssyxrk gS Abl s
la?kfur djdsvyx dj fy; k t krk gS A
• mèoZ i kr u ( Sublimation) µ Bkls i nkFkksZ adksxeZdjusi j l kekU;r%osnzo v oLFkk esav kS j Å"ek nsusi j
ok"i v oLFkk esai fjofrZ r gkst krsgS ] i jUrqdq N i nkFkZxeZdjusi j Bksl v oLFkk l snzo v oLFkk esavk; s
fcuk xS l esai fjofrZ r gkst krsgS A, lssi nkFkka
sZdksmèoZ i krt rFkk bl fØ; k dksmèoZ i kru dgrsgS A
mèoZ i kru çfØ; k }kjk nks, lssBksl feJ.kksadksi F̀kd djrsgS ] ft l esa, d Bkls mèoZ
a i krt gksrk gS Anw
l jk
ughaAbl sxeZdjusi j mèoZ i krt Bksl l hèksok"i esai fjofrZ r gkst krkgS Abl dksB.Mkdjdsnksuksadksi F̀kd
dj ysrsgS A
1- çHkkt hv kl ou ( Fractional Distillation) µ bl ds}kjkmu fefJr nzoksadksi F̀kd djrsgS Aft udsDoFkuka d ksa
esacgq r de v a r j gkrsk gSAHkw
xHkZl sfudkysx; s[ kfut rsy l si sVªksy ] Mht y feV~ Vh dk rs y v kfn bl fofèk
n~Okjk i F̀kd fd; k t krk gS A
2- o. kZy s[ku ( Chromatography) µ ; fn fdl h feJ.k dsfofHkUUk ?kVdksadh v fèk' kks"k.k {kerk ( Absoption
Capacity) fH kUuµfHkUu gksrh gS ArFkk osfdl h vfèk' kks"kd i nkFkZesafofHkUu nw fj; ksai j v o' kksf"kr gksrsgS
avkSj
osv yx gkst krsgS At S l sµ gjh l fCt ; ka
sl sjaxhu nzO;ka
sdk vyx gku skA
3- Hkki v kl ou ( Steam Distillation) µ Hkki v kl ou ds}kjk , lssdkcZ fud i nkFkkZ
a
sdk' kq ¼dj.k fd; k t krkgS a
t kst y es av ?kyqu' khy i jUrqHkki dsl kFk ok"i ' khy gksrsgS A
v . kq
] i j ek. kq, oai j ek. kql a
j puk
v . kq( Molecule) µ v .kqfdl hi nkFkZdk og NkV sk l sNksVk Hkkx gSaft l esai nkFkZdsl Hkh xq
. k mifLFkr gksrs
gS
a; g ; D
qr v oLFkk es ajg l drk gS A; snksçdkj dsgksrsgS µ
• l ei j ek. kq d ( Homoatomic) µ ; sv .kqrÙoksal sfeydj cusgkrssgS At S lµs H2
^^fd l h v . kqesami fLFkr d q
y i j ek. kq
v ksad h l a
[ ; k d ksi j ek. kq
d r k dgr sgS A**
• fo"kei j ek. kq d ( Hetero Atomic) µ ; sv .kqfofHkUu çdkj dsi jek.kq v ksal sfeydj cusgksrsgS A
a t lSsµ
Hcl, Co2, H2So4 v kfnA

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i j ek. kq( Atom) µ i jek.kqfdl hrÙo dkog l {we Hkkx gSt ksfdl hHkhjkl k; fud i fjorZ
u es aHkkx ysl drk
gS
]a i jUrqeq DrkoLFkk esaughajg l drkAl Hkh rÙoksadsi jek.kqv R;kfèkd fØ; k' khy gksrsgS
aysfdu ; seq Dr voLFkk esa
u jgdj] vi usgh; kS fxd dsfdl hnw l js; kl eku rÙo dsl kFkl a
;q
Dr v oLFkkesajgrsgS Adsoy v kn' kZxSl ksadsi jek.kq
v fØ; k' khy gksrsgS av kS
j eq
Dr v oLFkk esajg l drsgS A
MkYVu d k i j ek. kq
okn
Hkkjrh; Ñf"kd.kkn (800 b-Z) usl oZ çFke i jek.kqfl ¼kUr fn; kft l s; uwkuhnk' kfZudkµ
a
s yw fl i l rFkkfMekØ s kbfVl
usvkxsc<+ k; k vkjS1808 bZ - esat ku MkYVu usç; kxska s}kjk bl dhi qf"V dhAMkYVu dk i jek.kq okn fuEuor~gS µ
• çR ; sd i nkFkZv R;ar l {we d.kksal sfeydj cuk gksrk gS aft Ugsai jek.kqdgrsgS Ai jek.kqv foHkkT; gksrk gS
a A
• i jek.kqu rksmR i Uu fd; k t k l drk gSv kS j u gh u"VA
• , d gh rÙo dsl Hkh i jek.kqvkdkj] nz O;eku rFkk jkl k; fud xq . kksaesal eku gksrsgS afdar qnw l jsrÙo ds
i jek.kql sfHkUu gksrsgS A
• jkl k; fud i fjorZ uksaesai jek.kqv i uh fut h l Rrk cuk; saj[ krsgS A
• fdl h Hkh ; kS fxd dsl eLr ; kS fxd i jek.kq( v .kq) v ki l esal eku gksrsgS avkS
j rÙo dk l a ; kstu Hkkj gh
i jek.kqv ksadk l a
; kstu Hkkj gksrk gS A
MkYVu dsi jek.kq okn dhdfe; ksadksnw j dj vkèkq fud i jek.kq okn dkfl ¼kUr fn; kAt ksi jek.kqdhfoHkkT; rk]
l eLFkkfud] l eHkkjh v kfn dksO;kf[ ; r dj l dkA
i j ek. kqd h l a
j puk (Structure of Atom)
20 ohal nh dsi w oZrd ekuk t krk Fkk fd i jek.kqvfoHkkT; gS ai jUrqt s-t -s Vkel u] jnji Q
kM
sZ
] pS Mfod vkfn
usfl ¼ dj fn; k fd i jek.kqfoHkkft r fd; k t k l drk gS Ai jek.kqesabysDVªku] çksVªku , oaU;V wªku vkfn LFkkbZrFkk
i kft Vªku] U;w fVªuk]sa , fUVU;w
fVªuksarFkk eslku v kfn vLFkkbZd.k gksrsgS A
by sDVªku ( Electron)
bys DVªku dh [ kkst t -st s- Vkel u usdhFkhAbl i j bdkbZÍ .kkos'k gksrk gS Abl dk fojke nzO; eku 9-1X10µ19
dw y kW
e v kos'k gksrk gS a; si jek.kqdsukfHkd dspkjksav ksj vi uh fuf' pr d{kkv ksaesapDdj dkVrsgS A
1- çksVªkW u ( Protron) µ bl dh [ kkts jnji Q ksMZusdh FkhAbl i j bysDVªku dsvkos”k dscjkcj èkukos”k gksrk gS A
bl dk v kos'k 1-6X10 dw µ19
y kW
e gksrk gS A; g i jek.kqdsukfHkd esaU;w Vªku dsl kFkµl kFk fLFkr gksrk gS A
2- U;w u ( Neutron) µ bl dh [ kkts pS
VªkW Mfod usdh FkhAog fo| q r mnkl hu d.k gS Abl dk Hkkj çksVkuWdsHkkj
( 1-6748X10 ) dscjkcj gksrkgS
µ24
açksVªkW
u dsl kFkukfHkd esaU;w Vªku LFkk; hgkrskgSi jUrqukfHkd dsckgj Lora =k
v oLFkk es av LFkk; h gksrk gSA
i j ek. kqekW My ( Atomic Model)
(a) FkkW el u ekW Myµ 1903bZ - esal oZçFke Fkkel u usi jek.kqekW My çLrq r fd; k( ft l dsv uq l kj i jek.kqBksa
l
xkys kdkj v kÑfr dsl eku gSft l esaèkukosf” kr rFkkÍ .kkos f” kr d.k l eku #i l sforfjr jgrsgS Ai jek.kq
dk nzO;eku i jek.kqdspkjksav kjs v l eku #i l si Q ySk jgrk gS AFkkel u dsi jek.kqekW My usi jek.kqdh
fo| rq mnkl hurkdksrksLi "Vdj fn; ki jUrqv Yi Q kd.k( ±) dsjnji Q ksMZdsç; ksx dksLi "Vughadj l dkA
(b) j nj i Q ksMZd k ekW My µ jnji Q ksMZus1911bZ - ( ±) d.kksadsçdh.kZ u ç; ksx l sçkIr fu"d"kksZl si jek.kqekWMy
çLrq r fd; kA
1- i jek.kqvfrl w {e] xksy kdkj] fo| qr mnkl hu d.kgS At ksèkukosf' kr ukfHkd v kS j bl dsckgjhHkkjx ft l esabysDVªku
jgrsgS al scuk gS A

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2 i jek.kqdk dq y èkukos'k v kS j yxHkx l eLr nzO ; eku dsUnzesal fapr jgrk gSft l sukfHkd dgrsgS A
3 i jek.kqesabys DVªku ukfHkd dspkjksav ksj èkw ersjgrsgS A
4 i jek.kqesabys DVªkuksadhl a [ ; ki jek.kqukfHkd i j fLFkr èkukos”kka sdhl a [ ; k dscjkcj gkrsh gS Abl hfy, i jek.kq
mnkl hu gksrsgS A
5 bys DVªkuksai j ukfHkd v kd"kZ . k cy v kjksfi r djrkgS Abys DVªkuksadsi fjØe.kl smRiUu v i dsUnz cy ukfHkd ds
v kd"kZ . k cy dksl Urq fyr djrk gSbl l sbysDVªku ukfHkd esaughafxjrk gS A
uhYl cksj us1913bZ - esajnji Q kM
sZdsnks"kksadksnw j dj u; k ekW My DokV ae fl ¼kUr ekW My fn; kA
( c) uhYl cksj ekW Myµ ckjs usgkbMªktsu Li D sVªe dh O;k[ ; k dj Doka Ve eS d sfudy ekW My çLrq r fd; kµ
• i jek.kqdsds Unzesa, d ukfHkd gksrkgS ] t gkaçkV
sªkW
u rFkkU;w Vªku fLFkr gksrsgSAukfHkd dkvkdkj cgq r NksVk
gksrk gSA
• bys DVªku ukfHkd dspkjksav ksj , d fuf' pr xksy kdkj i Fk esapDdj yxkrsjgrsgS aft Ugs
aÅt kZLrj dgrs
gSAukfHkd o bysDVªku dschp esa, d v kd"kZ . k cy dk; Zdjrk gS ] t ksbysDVªku dsv fHkdsUnzh; cy ds
cjkcj gksrk gS A
• çR ; sd Åt kZLrj dh , d fuf” pr Åt kZgksrh gS A
• Åt kZLrjs adksØe' k%K, L, M, N ( 1- 2- 3- 4) dgrsgS A
• t c , d bys DVªku mPp Åt kZLrj l sfuEu Åt kZLrj esav krk gS; k fuEu Åt kZLrj l smPp Åt kZLrj esa
t krk gSArksbl esaÅt kZi fjorZ u gksrk gS afuEu d{kk l smPp esat kusi j Åt kZdk vo' kks"k.k rFkk mPp l s
fuEu esat kusi j Åt kZdk mRl t Z u gksrk gS A
• bys DVªku ukfHkd dspkjksav ksj dsoy mUghad{kkv ksaesaèkw e l drk gS Aft uesaml dk dks.kh; l a osx ( m v r)
n/2À dk l jy xq . kka
d gksrk gSA
v FkkZr ~µ m v r ¾n n/2À
t gkaµ
n eq [ ; Doka Ve l a[ ; k ¾1] 2] 3 ; k 4
v bys DVªku dk osx] r d{kk dh f=kT; k
m bys DVªku dk nzO ; eku] n Iykd a fu; rka dA
by sDVªkfud foU;kl
i jek.kqesabysDVªku ukfHkd dspkjksav ksj fofHkUu d{kkvksaes aèkw
ersjgrsgS AuhYl cksj rFkk cjh usi jek.kqdh
fofHkUu d{kkv kasesabysDVªkuksadh l [a; k Kkr djusdsdq N fu; e cuk; sft l scksj cjh ; kst uk dgrsgS µ
• fdl h d{kk es abysDVªkuksadh v fèkdre l a [ ; k 2n2 gkrsh gSAt gkan d{kk dh l a [ ; k gS A
• i jek.kqdh l cl sckgjh d{kkes a8 l svfèkd rFkk bl l si gyh okyhd{kk esa18 l sv fèkd bysDVªku ugha
gksl drsgS A
• v ko” ; d ughagSfd fdl h d{kk es abysDVªkuksadh l a
[ ; k 2n2 ds v uq l kj i w
. kZgksusi j gh bysDVªku ml l s
v xyh d{kk esat k; sxa]s v fi rqt c ckg~
; d{kk esa8 bysDVªku gkst krsgS ArksbysDVªku u; h d{kk esaços'k
djuk çkjEHk dj nsrsgS A
• l cl sckgjh d{kk es a2 l sv fèkd rFkk ml l si gysokyhd{kk esa9 l sv fèkd bysDVªku rc rd ughagks
l drst c rd fd ckgj l srhl jh d{kk esabysDVªku dh l a [ ; k 2n2 dsvuq l kj i wj h u gkst k; sA
bl fu; e l sfdl hrÙo dki jek.kqØeka d rFkk i jek.kqHkkj Kkr gksusi j ml rÙo dhi jek.kql a j pukKkr dh
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t k l drh gS Abl fu; e dsdq N rÙo vi okn gS At lSsµ dkW i j] fl Yoj] l ksuk] Øksfe; e v kfnA
1 d ks"k ( Shell) µ bys DVªku ukfHkd dspkjksavksj fuf” pr d{kkv ksaesapDdj yxkrsjgrsgS AbysDVªku rc rd bu
d{kkv ksaesapDdj yxkrsjgrsgS At c rd osÅt kZdkmRl t u Z ; kvo” kks"k.kughadjrsgS Abu d{kkv ksadkseq [;
Åt kZLrj ( Major Energy Level) ; kdks'kdgrsgS Abu d{kkv ksadksK L M N 1] 2] 3] 4 l sçnf' kZ r fd; kt krk
gSAçR;sd dks”k esav fèkdre bys DVªkuksadh2n l a
2
[ ; k gksrh gSAt gkan dks'k l [a; k gS Av kèkq fud i jek.kqekWMy
dsv kèkkj i j bUgsaeq [ ; DokaVe l a[ ; k dgrsgS A
2 mi dks"k( Sub Shell) µ çR;sd dk'sk; keq [ ; Åt kZLrj dhÅt kZ , al eku ughagksrhgS ] dks"kksadksi q
a u%NksVsµNksVs
dk"skksaesafoHkkft r fd; k x; k gS Aft Ugsamidks"k dgrsgS abUgs aØe' k%s, p, d, f v {kjksal sçnf"kZ r djrsgS AçFke
dk"sk dks, d] f}rh; dksnks] r‘ rh; dksrhu rFkk prq FkZdkspkj midks”kksaesafoHkkft r fd; k x; k gS A
3 d {kd ( Orbital) µ fdl h i jek.kqdsukfHkd dspkjka sv ksj dk og f=kfoeh; {ks=k t gkabysDVªku i k; st kusdh
l EHkkouk v fèkdre gkrsh gSd{kd dgykrk gS A
ukfHkd dspkjka sv ksj bysDVªku rhozxfr l si fjØekdjrsgS Abl dkj.k ukfHkd dsv kl µi kl Í .kkRed fo| q r
v kos”k dk , d èkq èkyk ckny l k cu t krk gS
a ] ft l s^bysDVªku esèk* ( Electron Cloud) dgrsgS AbysDVªku es?k es agh
bysDVªku dsi k; st kusdh çkf; drk v fèkd gksrh gS A
vkW
iQ
ckÅ fu; e (Aufbou Principle)
v kW
iQckÅ t eZu Hkk"kkdk' kCn gSft l dkv fHkçk; cukuk; kjpukdjukgS ArÙoksadsbys DVªkfud foU;kl cukus
dkfu; e vkWi QckÅ fu; e dgykrkgS Abl fu; e dsv uq l kj fdl hHkhi jek.kqesamifLFkr fofHkUu d{kdksaesabysDVªku
Åt kZdsc<+r sØe esaços'k djrk gS AbysDVªku l oZ
çFke 1s d{kd esaços'k djrsgS avkSj t c 1s d{kd i w . kZgkst krk
gS
ArksbysDVªku 2s d{kd esaços'k djrsgS at c 2s d{kd Hkh i w . kZgkst krk gSrksbysDVªku 2p d{kd esaços'k djrs
gS
Abl çdkj bys DVªku Åt kZdsc<+ r sgq
, Øe esafjDr d{kdksaesaços'k djrsgS AÅt kZdk c<+ r k Øe fuEu çdkj gS µ
i kmyh d k v i ot Z
u fu; e
bl dsv uq
l kj fdl hi jek.kqdsfdl hHkhnksbysDVªkuksadsfy, pkjksaDokV ae l a [ ; kv ksadk eku , d l eku ugha
gksl drkA; fn fdl h i j ckdh rhukasDokVe l a
[ ; kv ksadk eku l eku gksHkh t k; ] fi Qj Hkh fLi u DokaVe l a
[ ; k dk
eku ( $1@2 o µ1@ 2) l eku ughagksl drkA
gq
. M dk fu; e
bl dsv uq l kj fdl hHkhv kfcZ Vy es abysDVªku bl çdkj HkjrsgS afd v ; q
fXer bysDVªkuksadhl a[ ; kft udsfLi u
l eku gksl cl svfèkd gSv FkkZ r ~fdl h Hkh v kfcZ Vy dsmidk'skksaesabysDVªku l oZçFke , dµ, d djdst krsgS arFkk
ckn esa; q
Xe cukrsgS A
a
osi jek.kqft uesabys DVªku v ; q fXer jgrsgS aosi jkpqEcdh; rFkk osi jek.kqft uesabys DVªku ; q
fXer jgrsgS a
v uq
pqEcdh; dgykrsgS A
fdl h èkkrqdh l rg dksçdk' k dsl e{k j[ kusi j gksusokyk bysDVªkuksadk mRlt Z u çdk' k fo| rq çHkko
dgykrk gS ] mRl ft Zr bysDVªkuksadksi Q kV
sksabysDVªku dgrsgS A
og U;wure foHko ft l i j i Q kV
sksafo| q
r èkkjk ' kw
U; gkst krh gS
] çfrjksèkd foHko dgykrk gS A
j sfM; ks,fDVfoVh (Radioactiviy)
çÑfr esaçkIr i nkFkZt S l sµ ; w
j sfu; e] Fkksfj; e] jsfM; e v kfn Lor%Hksnh( Penetrating) fdj.kasmRl ft rZ djrs
jgrsgSA, slsi nkFkkZa
sdksjsfM; ks,fDVo i nkFkZv kS j i nkFkksZ
adsbl xq . kdksjs
fM; ka
,sfDVork dgrsgSAÚkal hl hoS
Kkfud gs ujh
cS
dqj y us1896 bZ - es
av pkud jsfM; ks,fDVork dh [ kskt dh FkhA
jsfM; ksa
, fDVo i nkFkZdh ml ek=kk dks, d cS d jqy ( ek=kd) dgk t krk gSt ksçfr l sd .sM , d fo?kVu ; k
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fodj.k dk mRl t u
Z djrh gS A1975 bZ - dsi w
oZjsfM; ks,fDVork dhbdkbZdksD; w
j hdgk t krk FkkAfdl h jsfM; ks,fDVo
i nkFkZdh og ek=kk t ksçfr l sd s.M 3-70X10 fo?kVu djrh gSD; w
10
j h dgykrh gS
A
j sfM; ks,fDVor k d h [ kskt
l oZ
çFke gsujh cS dq j y usç; ksx djrsgq , i k; k fd ; w
j sfu; e dsfudV dkysdkxt es afyi Vh i Q
ksVksxkzi Q
h IysV
dkyhi M+x; hAbl l sbUgksusfu"d"kZfudkyk fd ; w j fu; e l s, Dl fdj.kksat S
l hv n‘ ” ; fdj.ksafudyrhjgrhgSft u
i j rki , oankc dk çHkko ugh i Mr+k gS AbUghadsuke i j çkjEHk esabu fdj.kksadkscS dq j y fdj.ksav kjS ckn esa
jsfM; ks,fDVo fdj.ksadgk t kusyxkAeS Me D; w
j h o f' eV usLor%fo?kVu dk xq . k Fkksfj; e esaHkhi k; kAeSMe D; w j ho
i sjhD; wj husfi pCyS . Ml s; w
j sfu; e l s30 yk[ kxq ukv fèkd jsfM; ks,fDVo rÙo jsfM; e dh[ kkst dhAbl dsi ” pkr~eS Me
D; jwh usi ksy kfsu; e uked jsfM; k,sfDVo rÙo dh [ kkst dhA orZ eku esayxHkx 40 çkÑfrd rFkk vusd Ñf=ke
jsfM; ks,fDVo rÙoksadh [ kkst gkspq d h gSA
j sfM; ks,fDVo fd j . ksa( Radioactive Rays)
1902 bZ - esajnji QksMZusjsfM; k,sfDVo rÙo dks' kh' ksadsçdks"B ( Lead Chamber) esaj[ kdj fudyusokyh
fdj.kksadksfo| q r {ks=kl sxq
t kj dj fudyusokyhfdj.kksadkv è; ; u fd; kv kS j bUgsa, sYi Qk( ±) chVk ( ²) xkek( ³)
uke l sv fHkfgr fd; k x; kA
, sYi Q
k fd j . k
1 ; sèkukos f"kr gksrh gS
abu i j nksbdkbZèku v kos"k gksrk gS; sghfy; e ukfHkd gh( He2$) gksrsgS
abudk nzO;eku
gkbMªkst u i jek.kqnzO ; eku dk pkj xq uk gksrk gS
A
2 ; sfo| q r pq Ecdh; {k= sk esaÍ .kkosf"kr IysV dh v ksj eq
M t krh gS
A
3 budk osx 2-3X 10 l e 9
sh@l sd s.M (çdk"k dsos x dk 1@10) gksrk gS
A
4 nzO; eku vfèkd gksusdsdkj.k xfrt Åt kZv fèkd gksrh gS A
5 budhHksnu {kerk xkek , oaxhVk fdj.kksadhv i s{kkde gksrhgS Av r%1 feehekVsh, ywfefu; e pknj dksHksn
ughai krh gS A
6 iQ ksVksxkzi Qh IysV dksv R;fèkd çHkkfor djrh gS A
7 , Yi Q k fdj.ksadq N i nkFkkZ
sl sVdjkdj Li Q j nhfIr mRiUu djrh gS
q A
8 xSl ksadksv k; uhÑr djusdh çcy {kerk gksrh gS; schVk fdj.kksadh v i s{kk 100 xq uk o xkek dh rqy uk esa
10]000 xq uk v k; uu {kerk j[ krh gS A
chVk fd j . ksa
9 rhozosx l spyusokyk bysDVªku i q t gksrh gS
a Abu i j Í .kkos"k gksrk gS
A
10 iQksVksxkzi Q
h IysV i j , Yi Qk fdj.kksadh v i s{kk vfèkd çHkko Mkyrh gS A
11 budh Hksnu {kerk , Yi Q k fdj.kksal s100 xq uk v fèkd gksrh gSa
12 budk osx 2-79X 1010 l e sh@l sd s.M ( yxHkx çdk"k dsosx dscjkcj) gksrk gS A
13 xS
l ksadksv k; fur djusdk xq . k gksrk gS
A
14 dqN i nkFkksZ al sVdjkusi j , Yi Q k fdj.kksal sde Li Q j nhfIr mRiUu djrh gS
q A
xkek fd j . k
15 xkek fdj.ksafo| qr pqEcdh; rjaxsgksrh gSAbudh rjax nS
è; Zl cl sde gksrh gS A
16 ; sv kos"k jfgr gksusdsdkj.k fo| q
r {ks=k , oapq
Ecdh; {ks=k esafo{ksfi r ughagksrh gS
A

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17 ; si Q
ksVksxzki Q
h Iys
V dks, Yi Q
k , oachVk fdj.kksadh v i s{kk v fèkd çHkko Mkyrh gSA
18 budh Hksnu {kerk v fèkd gkrsh gS; s100 l seh eksVh , Y; w fefu; e pknj dksHkh Hksn l drh gS
A
19 budk osx çdk' k dsosx cjkcj gksrk gS A
Ñf=ke j sfM; ks,fDVor k
20 Ñf=ke fofèk; ksa}kjk LFkk; h rÙoka
sdksjsfM; ks,fDVo rÙoksaesai fjofrZ r djuk Ñf=ke js fM; ks,fDVo dgykrk gS A
l oZ çFke 1934 b-Zesav kbjhu D; w
j h( eS
Me D; w j hdhi q
=kh) o mudsi fr , i Q - t ksfy; ksV usÑf=ke jsfM; ks,fDVork
dh [ kkst dh FkhA
Ñf=ke j sfM; ks,fDVo r Ùo budk mi ; ksx
v k; ksMhu µ131 FkkbjkW
; M jksx esa
iQ kLi Qksjl v fLFkjkxsksaesa
dkcskYV &60 efLr"d V~ ;w
ej , oadS l j dsbykt esa
a
l kfsM; e &24 jDr çokg dk osx uki usesa
ukfHkd h; fo?kVu (Nuclear Decay)
fdl hrÙo dsi jek.kqukfHkd dsfo?kfVr gku
ssdksukfHkdh; fo?kVu dgrsgS
Ajs
fM; k,sfDVo rÙoka
ses
aukfHkdh; fo?kVu
Lor%gkrsk gS
at cfd vU; rÙoka sesarhoz
xkehd.kka
sdhckNSkj djkdsÑf=ke #i l sukfHkdh; fo?kVu djk; kt krk gS A
ukfHkdh; fo?kVu dsçdkj
, Yi Qk d.k ; k ghfy; e ( He) ukfHkd dsmRlt Z u dhçfØ; kdks , Yi Q k fo?kVu dgrsgS A, Yi Q k d.k esanks
çkV
sku rFkknksU;w Vªku gksrsgS
av r%fdl hukfHkd l s, Yi Q kd.kdsmRl t Z u l sml dsnz O;eku o v kos ” kesanksdehgksrh
gSv FkkZ
r ~rÙo dsi jek.kqØeka d esanksrFkkHkkj esapkj va d ksadhdehgkst k; sxhA± d.kksadkfo?kVu mu HkkjhukfHkdksa
esagksrkgSt gkaçkV sku rFkk ukfHkd dschp dk fo| q r LFkS
frd çfrd"kZ . k cy cgq r v fèkd gksrkgS Abl fØ; kesaÅt kZ
mRiUu gkrsh gS A; g Åt kZxfrt ds#i esai fjofrZ r gkst krh gSA
1 chVk ( ²) fo?kVuµ ; g Í .kkos f"kr bysDVªku d.kgSvr%bl dsfo?kVu dsi ' pkr~ukfHkd dki jek.kqØeka d
,d ;w fuV c<+t krkgSi jUrqi jek.kqnz O;eku v i fjofrZ r jgrk gSAbl çfØ; kesal eHkkjh( Isobars) mRiUu gksrs
gSAbl çfØ; k esaukfHkd dk nzO;eku c<+jgk gS ] vr%v kba l Vhu dsfl ¼kUr dsv uq l kj nz O;eku Åt kZesa
i fjofrZ r gksxk v kSj Åt kZmRiUu gksxhA
2 xkek fo?kVu ( ³) fo?kVu µ ; sfo| q r pq
Ecdh; fofdj.kgSt ksukfHkdh; v kos"kdsi q ufoZr j.kl smRiUu gksrh
gSAxkek fdj.ka sÅt kZi QkV
skW
u gksrh gSAi jUrqxkek fdj.kksadh rja x nSè; Z
] iQ
ksVkuksdhrjax nS è; Zl sdki Q
h NksVh
gkrsh gS Axkek d.kksadsmRl t Z u l sukfHkd dsv kos ” k rFkk nzO;eku esadkbsZi fjorZu ughagksrk i jUrqbysDVªkfud
foU;kl cny t krk gS A
oxZ; k l ew
g foLFkki u fu; e
t c jsfM; ks,fDVo rÙo dsi jek.kqes al s, d , Yi Q
k( ±) d.k fudyrkgSrksu; si jek.kqdki jek.kqHkkj i gys
i jek.kql s4 bdkbZde gkst krk gSrFkk bl dk i jek.kqØeka d i gysl s2 bdkbZde gkst krk gSA, slsesafufeZ
r rÙo
dk v korZl kj.kh esaLFkku i woZdh v i {skk nksLFkku ck;ah v ksj pyk t krk gS
A
t c jsfM; ks,fDVo rÙo dsi jek.kqes al s, d chVk ( ²) d.k fudyrk gSrksu; si jek.kqdsvkos'k ( i jek.kq
Øekad ) es a, d bdkbZdh of̀¼ gkst krh gS achVk d.k dk Hkkj ux.; gkrsk gSv r%u; si jek.kqHkkj es
adksbZi fjorZ
u
ughagksrk gSAv korZl kj.kh esau; k i jek.kq, d LFkku nk; hav ksj pyk t krk gS
A
v ¼Zv k; q( Half Life Period)

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fdl h jsfM; ks,fDVo rÙo dh çkjfEHkd ek=kk dk v kèkk Hkkx fo?kfVr gksusesaft ruk l e; yxrk gS ] ml srÙo
dhv¼Zv k; qdgrsgS abl s1/2 l sçnf' krZ fd; kt krkgS
t
AjsfM; ks,fDVo i nkFkZdhv ¼Zv k; qdqNl d s s.Mka
sl sysd j
yk[ kksao"kksZrd gksl drh gS AdqN rÙoksadh v ¼Zvk; qfuEuor~gS µ
j sfM; ks,fDVo r Ùo la d sr v ¼Zv k; q
i kys ksfu; e & 212 84
PO212 3X10-7 l a
-s
czksehu µ 80 35
Br80 18 fe-
czksehu & 82 35
Br82 35-9 ?kaVk
l YQ j & 35 16
S15 867 fnu
dkcsky & 60 27
CO60 5-2 o"kZ
gkbMªkst u µ 3 1
H3 12-26 o"kZ
;w j fsu; e µ 235 92
u235 7.04X108 o"kZ
t hok' eksaer̀ i sM+i kS
èkksav kfn dh vk; qdk v a d u ( Dating) dkcZ u ds}kjk rFkk i F̀oh o i q
j kuh pV~Vkuksavkfn
dh v k; qdk v a du ; w j fsu; e ds}kjk fd; k t krk gS A
r Ùoksadk oxhZ
dj. k
v c rd 112 rÙoka sdh[ kkst gkspq d h gSv kS
j u; srÙoksadh [ kkst t kjh gS AbrusrÙoka sdsxq . kka
sdks; kn j[ kuk
l EHko ughagS, slses aoS Kkfudka susvè; ; u dksl jy , oaØec¼ cukusdsfy, rÙoka sdksoxhZÑr djusdkç; kl çkjEHk
fd; kAl eku HkkfSrd , oajkl k; fud xq . k okysrÙoksadks, d gh oxZesaj[ kusdk ç; kl fd; k x; k ft l esamudsxq . kksa
dkv è; ; u l jyrki w oZd gksl dsAbl fn' kkesaot hZ fy; l ] çkmV] M~ ;w
ek] U;wyMa] ykF
S skjes;j , oaesaMyhi Qo cksj vkfn
dk ç; kl l jkguh; jgk ft l l sv kxspydj v kèkq fud v korZ l kj.kh dk fuekZ. k fd; kx; kAmi; q Dr oS
Z Kkfudksaesal cl s
lqO ; ofLFkr oxhdZj.k #l h oS Kkfud esaMyhi Qusfd; kAbUgku ssa, d fu; e fn; k ft l sesa
Myhi Qdk v korZfu; e dgrs
gSAbl fu; e dsv uq l kj] ^^rÙoksadsHkkS frd rFkk jkl k; fud xq . kmudsi jek.kqHkkjksadsv korhZi Q yu gksrsgS ]** v FkkZ
r~
; fn rÙoka sdksmudsi jek.kqHkkjksadsc<+ r sØe esaO;ofLFkr fd; k t k; s] rks, d fu; fer v Urjky dsi ' pkr~l eku
xq. kèkeZokysrÙoksadh i u qjkof̀Ùk gkrsh gS Aft l sv korhZi Q yu dgrsgS A
esa
My hi Qd h v kor Zl kj . kh d h fo' ks"kr k, a
ft l l e; esa Myhi Qusv korZl kj.khdk fuekZ . k fd; k Fkk ml l e; 60 rÙo Kkr Fksv kxsv kjSrÙoksadk i rk
pyusi j mUgksusl a ' kksfèkr v korZl kj.kh çLrqr dhAbl esaukSmèokZ èkj ( oxZ) l kr {kSfrt i afDr; ka( vkorZ ) gS A
v kor ksZd h fo' ks"kr k, a
1 çFke v korZesaek=k nksrÙo gS abl sv fr y?kqv korZdgrsgS A
2 f}rh; , oarr̀h; esa8µ8 rÙo gS abl sy?kqv korZdgrsgS A
3 pkF Skso i k¡posav korZesa18µ18 rÙo gS abl snh?kZv korZdgrsgS A
4 NBsv korZesa32 rÙo gS abl sv fr nh?kZv korZrFkk l krok¡ v korZ20 rÙoka sdsl kFk vi w . kZv korZgS A
la
; kst d r k esai fj or Z
u
1- y?kqvkorksZdsrÙoka
sdhl ;akstdrk] gkbMªktsu dsl ki {sk i gys1 l s4 rd c<+r hgSi u
q%?kVdj , d gkst krhgS
A
2- y?kqv korksaes
arÙoksadh l a
; ktsdrk v kDl ht u dsl ki s{k 1 l s7 rd c<+
r h gS
+ A
èkkfRod v èkkfR
od xq
. k esai fj or Z
u
v korksZesack; hav kjs l snk; h vksj c<+
usi j rÙoka
sdsèkkfRod xq. kksaes
adehgksrh gSv kS
j v èkkfRod xq
. kka
sesao`¼
gksrhgSAbl hçdkj ck; h vksj l snk; hav kjs pyusi j fo| q r èkukRedrk es adeh, oaÍ .kkRedrk esao`¼ gkrshgS A
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r Ùoksad h çÑfr esai fj or Z u

v korZesarÙoka sdsvkDl kbMksadk xq . k ck; sal snk; sat kusi j {kkjh; rk l sv Eyh; rk dh v ksj c<+ r k gSA
r Ùoksad sfod . kZl EcUèk
f}rh; , oarr̀h; v korZdsrÙoksaesa, d çdkj dk fod.kZl a caèk i k; k t krk gS A
l ewgksadh l kekU; fo” ks"kr k, a
v koZ Ùk l kj.khesamèokZ èkj 9 [ kkusagSabUgsal ew g dgrsgS AesaMyhi Qusv i uhl kj.khesadsoy vkB oxZghcuk; s
Fk]s ckn esa' kw U; oxZt kM s+k x; kA' kw
U; rFkk v kBosaoxZdksNksM+ d j v U; l HkhoxZnksmioxksZ a, rFkk chesack¡Vk
x; k gS Abudh l kekU; fo' ks"krk, afuEu gSµ
1- fdl h oxZdh oxZl a [ ; k ml oxZdsrÙoksadh v kDl ht u dsl kFk l a ; kst drk dksçnf' krZ djrh gS Abl dk
v i okn v "Ve oxZgS A
2- , d ghmioxZdsrÙo v ki l esaxq . kksaesayxHkx l eku gksrsgS ai jUrqnwl jsmioxZdsrÙoksadsxq . kka
sl sçk; %fHkUu
gksrsgS A
3- mioxZesai jek.kqHkkj dsc<+ usdsl kFkµl kFk rÙoka sdh èkkfRod çÑfr c<+ r h gS A
4- mioxZesaÅi j l suhpst kusi j v kDl kbMksadk {kkjh; xq . k c<+ r k v Eyh; xq . k ?kVrk gS A
5- fdl h mioxZesaÅi j l suhpspyusi j v kèkrq v ka
sdsgkbMªkbMksadk LFkkf; Ro ?kVrk gS A
6- , d ghmioxZdsrÙoksadsi jek.kqf=kT; k, a ] èku fo| qr xq . kv kfn Åi j l suhpsdhv ksj t kusi j c<+ r sgS
at cfd
fo| q r Í .kkRedrk] xyuka d rFkk DoFkuka d Åi j l suhpsdh v ksj t kusi j ?kVrsgS A
esM
ayhi Qdhv korZl kj.khvè; ; u esal q foèkk] v uqlèakku esal gk; rrk] u; srÙoksads[ kkst dhçsj.kk] i jek.kqHkkj
dk Kku djkusdsl kFkµl kFk =kq fVi w. kZi jek.kqHkkjksaes al a
' kksèku djusesami; ksxh gS A
gkbMªkst u v fuf' pr fLFkfr] l eLFkkfudksadksmfpr LFkku i j u j[ kuk] l eku xq . kksaokysrÙoksadksfHkUu rFkk
v l eku xq . kksaokysrÙoksadks, d gh mioxZesaj[ kk t kuk] nq yZ Hk eǹk rÙoksadksLFkku u nsuk] dgha µdgha
v l kekU; l a ; kst drk dksv fèkd egÙo nsuk esa Myhi Qdh v korZl kj.kh dsnks"k gS A
v kèkq
fud ; k nhèkkZ d kj v kor Zl kj . kh
esM
ayhi Qdh v korZl kj.kh dsnks"kksadksjkx] ouZ j eksTys] cjh v kfn usfeydj nw j fd; kAekT sysusv kèkfqud
v korZfu; e fn; kArÙoksadsHkkS frd] jkl ; fud xq . k mudsi jek.kqØeka d ksadsv korhZi Q yu gksrsgS av FkkrZ~; fn
rÙoksadksmudsi jek.kqØeka d dsc<+ r sgq, Øe es aO;ofLFkr fd; k t k; s] rks, d fuf” pr v Urjky dsckn
l eku xq . k okysrÙoka sdh i qujkof̀Ùk gksrh gS A
1 v kèkq fud v kor Zl kj . kh d h fo' ks"kr k, aµ
7. bl esaHkh l kr {kS frt [ kkus; k v korZgS A
8- çR;sd v korZdkçFke rÙo {kkj èkkrqrFkkv fUre rÙo mRÑ"V xS l gS AçFke v korZes anksrÙo , oal krok¡v korZ
v i .wkZgSA
9- v fØ; xS l ksadksv korZl kj.kh dsnk; havksj v Ur esa' kw U; l ew g esaj[ kk x; k gS A
10- l kj.kh es av fèkd èkkfRod rÙoksadkscka ; h v ksj rFkk v fèkd v èkkfRo rÙoksadksnka ; h v ksj j[ kk x; k gS A
11- l kj.kh dksbys DVªka
fud foU;kl dsv kèkkj i j pkj Cyk¡d ka ss, p, d, f esafoHkkft r fd; k x; k gS A
12- l a Øe.k rÙoksadksd Cykd esaj[ kk x; k gS A
13- v korZVI , oa VII ds14µ14 rÙ oksadksvkorZl kj.khdsuhpsnksJsf.k; ksaesj[ kk x; k gS abUgsaØe' k%ysUFksukbM
, oa, sfDVukbM rÙo dgrsgS A

158
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14- v korZl kj.kh es amèokZèkj [ kkukasdh l a [ ; k 18 i jUrqoxksZ adh l a [ ; k 16 gS

Abu oxka
sZdk Øe Øe' k%I A, II A,
III B ........... VII B, VIII, I B, II B, III A........ VIII A rFkk ' kU
w; l ewgA
v kèkq
fud v kokZl kj . kh d snks"k
es
Mayhi Qdh rjg bl l kj.kh esaHkh ysUFksukbM , oa, fDVukbM rÙoksadksv korZl kj.kh esauhpsj[ kk x; k gS
A
1 bl v korZl kj.kh l sdq
N rÙoksadk bysDVªkfud foU;kl l gh çnf' kZr ughagksrk gSA
2 v kBosaoxZdsrÙoksadksrhu mèokZèkj [ kkuksaesaj[ kuk mfpr ughagS
A
esa
My hi Qdh r q
y uk esav kèkq
fud
v kor Zl kj . kh d sxq
.k
3 bys DVªkW fud foU;kl dh l ekurk dsdkj.k gkbMªkst u dk LFkku oxZI A esafuf' pr gksx; k gSA
4 i jek.kqØeka d dsØe esaj[ kusl sl eLFkkfudksadks, d gh oxZesaj[ kst kusdk nk"sk l ekIr gkst krk gSA
5 v kèkq fud v korZl kj.kh esa, o ch mioxksZdksv yxµv yx dj fn; k x; k gSbl l ses M
ayhi Ql kj.kh esadqN
v l eku rÙoksadks, d gh oxZesaj[ ksat kusdk nk"sk Lor%l ekIr gkst krk gS
A
v kèkq
fud v kor Zl kj . kh esar Ùoksadsçeq
[ k v kor hZxq
.k
rÙoksadksi jek.kqØeka d dsc<+ r sgq, Øe esaj[ kusl smudscká dks'k dsl eku bys DVªfud foU;kl dsrÙo]
v korZl kj.kh es ] fu; fer v Urj l sv krsjgrsgS
a Aft l dsdkj.k rÙoksadsxq . kksaesa Hkh v kofrZr k i k; h t krhgS Abuds
v korhZxq. k fuEu gSµ
1 v korZl kj.kh dsfdl h v korZesack; sal snk; sc<+ usi j i jek.kqdk v kdkj de gksrk t krk gS a
2 fdl hoxZesaÅi j l suhpst kusi j rÙo dsi jek.kqØekd a es at lSµ
s t lSso`¼ gksrhgSoS l sv kdkj c<+ r k t krk gS
A
3 v korZl kj.kh dsfdl hv korZesack; sal snk; sat kusi j fo| q r Í .kkRedrk c<+ r h gSt cfd oxZesaÅi j l suhps
v kusi j fo| q r Í .kkRedrk ?kVrh gS A
4 v korksZ aesack; sal snk; a
sc<+
usai j ukfHkdh; v kos'k c<+ r k t krk gSv kSj i jek.kqv kdkj ?kVrk t krk gSbl l soká
bys DVªkuksai j ukfHkdh; v kd"kZ . k esao`¼ gksrh t krh gSA
5 fdl h oxZesaÅi j l suhpst kusi j i jek.kqv kdkj es ao`¼ gksrh t krh gSbl l sckgjh d{kk esabysDVªkuksai j
ukfHkdh; i dM+det ksj gksrh t krh gS A
ukfHkdh; fo[ k. Mu
HkkjhukfHkd okysi jek.kq v ksadknksyxHkx l eku nzO;eku okysukfHkd esafoHkDr gkst kukukfHkdh; fo[ ka Mu
dgykrk gS Al oZ çFke t eZu oS Kkfud v kW Vkg
skW
u , oaLVªkW
l eS
u us1939 b-Z; w
j fsu; e i jek.kqi j eUn xfr dsU;w VªkW
u dh
ckN
Skj djdsbl dsukfHkd dksnksyxHkx cjkcj nzO;eku okysukfHkdksaesafoHkDr fd; kAbl çfØ; kes av R;fèkd ek=kk
esaÅt kZrFkk nks; k rhu U;w Vªku mRl ft rZ gksrsgSAbl v fHkfØ; k dksukfHkdh; fo[ k.Mu rFkk bl l sçkIr Åt kZdks
ukfHkdh; Åt kZdgrsgS A çR;sd ; wj sfu; e v fèkd dsfo[ k.Mu l syxHkx 200 Mev Åt kZmRiUu gksrh gSft l esa
l okZ
fèkd Å"ekrFkk ' ks"kçdk' k] xkekfdj.ka srFkkmRikfnr ukfHkd , oaU;V
wªkuksadhxfrt Åt kZds#i esagkrshgS A; g
Åt kZnzO;eku {kfr dsdkj.k mRiUu gksrhgS AnzO;eku dh ; g {kfr v kbUlVhu dsnzO;eku Åt kZl ehdj.k ds( E =
” MC ) vuq
2
l kj i fjofrZ
r gksrh gSA
i j ek. kqukfHkd d k v LFkkf; Ro
ukfHkd dsv Unj nkscyµ fLFkj oS | rq cy (çksVkuksaesai jLi j çfrd"kZ
. k) , oaukfHkdh; cy ( çksVkuksarFkk
U;V
wªkuka
sesai jLi j v kd"k.Zk) dk; ZdjrsgS AukfHkdh; cyksadsdkj.k mRiUu v kd"kZ . k dsoy rHkh çHkkoh gksrk gSt c
ukfHkd dsd.k vR;a r U;w u nw
j h i j gksApw
¡fd ; wj fsu; e 235 dsukfHkd esaukfHkd dsd.kksadschp dh nw j h v fèkd
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 SCIECNE

gkrsh gSv r%ukfHkdh; cyka

sdk i fjek.k de gksrk gSAt cfd fLFkjµoS |qr cy dsdkj.k çfrd"kZ . k cy dk i fjek.k
rq
y uk esav fèkd jgrk gS
Abl h dkj.k ; jwsfu; e µ 235 ukt d
q l Urq
y u l sc¡èkk jgrk gSft l dsdkj.k bl dh çof̀Ùk
v LFkkbZcu t krh gS
A
Ük̀a
[ kyk v fHkfØ; k
;wj sfu; e 235 i j U;wVªkWu dhckS Nkj djusi j ukfHkd nkscjkcj Hkkx es aVwV t krkgS
aft l l s200 Mev Åt kZ, oa
rhu u; sU;w Vªku fudyrsgS ] ; su; sU;w Vªku ; jwsfu; e dsv U; rhu i jek.kq
v ksadk fo[ k.Mu djrsgS ai Q yLo#i 9 U;w VªkW
u
mRiUu gkrssgS At ksvU; 9 i jek.kvqksadk fo[ k.Mu djrsgS Abl çdkj ukfHkd dsfo[ k.Mu dh, d k̀Ü [ kyk cu t krh
a
gS
Abl çdkj dh fØ; k dks k̀Ü [ kyk v fHkfØ; k dgrsgS
a A; g fØ; k rc rd gksrh jgrh gSt c rd l Ei w . kZ; w
j sfu; e
fo[ kf.Mr ughagkst krk gS AÜ k̀[akyk vfHkfØ; k nksçdkj gh gkrsh gS aµ fu; a f=kr o v fu; a
f=kd Ü k̀a
[ kyk v fHkfØ; kA
fu; a
f=kr Ük̀a
[ kyk v fHkfØ; k
; fn ; wj sfu; e 235 dsukfHkdh; fo[ k.Mu vfHkfØ; k dsçkjEHk esamRl ft rZ U;w VªkW
ukasdh xfr dksbl çdkj
fu; a
f=kr fd; k t k l dsfd Ü k̀a
[ kyk v fHkfØ; k gksrh jgsi jUrqml dh nj c<+ usu i k; ]sa rks, slh Ü k̀a
[ kyk v fHkfØ; k dks
fu; a
f=kr Ü k̀a
[ kykv fHkfØ; kdgrsgS abl l seqDr Åt kZdksfu; a f=kr nj l sçkIr fd; kt kl drkgS ] ft l dkmi ; ksx ekuork
dsfodkl dsfy, fd; k t krk gS Abl esaeUnd ds#i esaHkkjh t y ( D2O) , oaxzsiQ kbV vkfn dk ç; ksx fd; k t krk
gSAfu; af=kr k̀Ü [ kyk v fHkfØ dk mi; ksx ukfHkdh; fj, DVj ; k i jek.kqHkV~
a Vh es afd; k t krk gS A
v fu; af=kr Ük̀a[ ky k v fHkfØ; k ( Uncontrolled Chain Reaction)
ukfHkdh; fo[ k.Mu fØ; k dh nj dksfdl h Hkh çdkj l st c fu; fa=kr ughafd; k t krk v kjSçkIr Åt kZdks
fouk' kdkjh gksusl scpk; k ughat k l drk rksgksusokyh fØ; k v fu; a f=kr Ü k̀a
[ kyk v fHkfØ; k dgykrh gS AU-235 ds
fo[ k.Mu dh nj çkjEHk gku ssds10 l d
µ5
s s.Mckn 500 xq uk , oa11X10 l d
µ15
s s.Mckn 1000 xq uk rd c<+t krhgS A
i jek.kqce bl h fl ¼kUr i j dk; Zdjrk gS A
ukfHkdh; l a
y; u
t c nks; knksvfèkd gYdsukfHkd] v R;fèkd mPp rki i j i jLi j l ;aksx djdsHkkjhukfHkd dkfuek.Zkdjrs
gSabl çfØ; kdksukfHkdh; l a y ; u dgrsgS AukfHkdh; l a
y ; u dhçfØ; kv fr mPp rki eku yxHkx 2X1070C i j gksrh
gSft l dkj.k bl srki ukfHkdh; vfHkfØ; k Hkh dgrsgS A
pkj çksVkuksadsl ya; u l s, d ghfy; e ukfHkd] nksi kt hVªkW
u] nksU;wfVªuksarFkk 26-7Mev Åt kZçkIr gksrh gS
Al ya; u l s
çkIr Åt kZ ] fo[ k.Mu l sçkIr Åt kZ( 200 Mev) l sde gS AokLro esa, slk ughagS Al eku nzO;eku dsgYdsukfHkdksa
dsl a y ; u l sçkIr Åt kZHkkjh ukfHkdksadsfo[ k.Mu l sçkIr Åt kZl sv fèkd gksrh gSD; ksa fd gYdsi nkFkZds, dka d
nzO; eku esai jek.kqdhl a[ ; kHkkjhi nkFkZds, dka
d nzO;eku es ai jek.kq
v kasdhl a [ ; kl scgq
r v fèkd gksrhgS
AgkbMªkst u
ce ukfHkdh; l a y ; u dsfl ¼kUr i j cuk; k x; k gS
A
ukfHkdh; fo[ k. Mu v kS
j ukfHkd h; l a
y ; u esv U
rj
ukfHkd h; fo[ k. Mu ukfHkd h; l a
y; u
1- ukfHkdh; fo[ k. Mu esaU;w VªkW
u dh ckSNkj djusl sHkkjh 1- ukfHkdh; l ay ; u esanksgYdsukfHkd i jLi j l ;aq
Dr
ukfHkd yxHkx l eku nzO;eku dsnksukfHkdksaesa gksd j , d Hkkjh ukfHkd cukrsgS
A
foHkDr gkst krk gS A
2- ; g v fHkfØ; k l kèkkj. k rki i j gksrh gS
A 2- bl fØ; k dksçkjEHk djusdsfy, mPp rki
( yxHkx 2X107 OC) dh v ko' ; drk i M+
r h gS
A
3- bl fØ; k esav R;fèkd Åt kZ( yxHkx 200 Mev) 3- bl esayxHkx 26-7 Mev Åt kZmRiUu gksrh gS
A
mRiUu gksrh gS
A

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4- ukfHkdh; fo[ k. Mu esaJa [ kyk v fHkfØ; k, agksrh gS

A 4- ukfHkdh; l a y ; u esa Ü
k̀a
[ kyk v fHkfØ; k, aughagksrh gS
A
5- bu v fHkfØ; kv ksadksukfHkdh; fj, DVj esafu; fU=r fd; k 5- bl dkasfu; fU=kr ughafd; t k l drk gS A
t k l drk gS] ft l l smRiUu Åt kZdk mi; ksx jpukRed
dk; ksZesafd; k t k l drk gSA
6- i jek. kqce bl h fl ¼kUr i j dk; Zdjrk gS 6- gkbMªkst u ce dk fuekZ
. k bl h fl ¼kUr i j fd; k x; k gS
A
ukfHkd h; Åt kZ
ukfHkdh; fo[ k.Mu rFkkukfHkdh; l ya; u fØ; kesaeq
Dr Åt kZdksukfHkdh; Åt kZ( Nuclear Energy) dgrsgS
A
ukfHkdh; Åt kZdsmi ; ksx
1- ukfHkdh; Åt kZdk mi; ksx fo| q r ' kfDr i S
nk djuses
afd; k t krk gS A
2- ; kfU=kd Åt kZes
ai fjofrZ
r djdsbl dk mi; ksx eksVj] jsy rFkk t gkt v kfn pykuses afd; k t krk gS
A
3- ukfHkdh; fj, DVj }kjkukfHkdh; fo[ k.Mu dksfu; fU=kr djdsv usd jsfM; ksa µ, sfDVo l eLFkkfud cuk; sx; sgS
]
ft udk mi; ksx fpfdRl k] fofHkUu çdkj dh oS Kkfud [ kkst ksarFkk Ñf"k ds{k=
sk es
afd; k t krk gSA
t hok' e bZ
èku dh r q
y uk esaukfHkdh; Åt kZd sy kHk r Fkk gkfu
1. Åt kZdsy kHk µ
1- ukfHkdh; bZ
èku dh FkksMhµl h ek=kk v R;fèkd ukfHkdh; Åt kZmRiUu djrh gS ] t cfd t hok' e bè
Zku] t S
ls
dk;sysdsngu l sçkIr Åt kZukfHkdh; Åt kZdh rq y uk esacgq
r de gksrh gS A
2- ukfHkdh; Åt kZ}kjk l p
akfyr fo| q
r la; U=k esackjµckj ukfHkdh; bZèku Mkyusdh v ko' ; drk ughagksrh gS]
t cfd t hok' e bZ
èku l spyusokysfct yh ?kjksaesadks;yk ( t hok' e bZèku) ckjµckj Mkyuk i M+r k gS
A
2. t hok' e bZ
èku dh v i s{kk ukfHkdh; Åt kZdh gkfu; kaµ
3- ukfHkdh; Åt kZdsmRiknu esav usd , slsmRikn mRiUu gksrsgS ] ft ul sgkfudkjd jsfM; ksµ, fsDVo fofdj.k( ±µ
fdj.k]sa²µ fdj.k]sa³µ fdj.k)sa fudyrsgS Abu fofdj.kksadhHksnu {kerkcgq r v fèkd gksrhgSA; g v R;fèkd
ek=kkesabu fofdj.kksal sekuo ' kjhj mn~ Hkkfl r ( Expose) gkst k; s] rksekuo ' kjhj dhdksf' kdk, au"Vgkst krh
gSAbl dsfoi jhr t hok' e bZèkuk]sa t S
l sdks;ysdsmi; ksx l smRiUu çnw "k.k bruk v fèkd gkfudkjd ughagkrsk
gSA
4- ukfHkdh; Åt kZdsmRiknu dh çfØ; k dsfofHkUu pj.kksaesamRiUu ukfHkdh; v i f' k"V i nkFkksZ( Nuclear
Wastes) dk fui Vku djuk ( Disposal) vkl ku ughagS ] D; ka
fsd ; sukfHkdh; v i f' k"V i nkFkZjsfM; ksµ, sfDVo
gkrssgS ] t ksgkfudkjd fofdj.k mRiUu djrsgS Abl dsfoi jhr t hok' e bè Zkuksadsmi; ksx l smRiUu v i f' k"V
i nkFkksZ
a( t S
l sdks;ysdsmi; ksx l smRiUu jk[ k) dsfui Vku dh dksbZfo' ks"k l eL; k ughagS A
ukfHkd h; fj , DVj
ukfHkdh; fj, DVj , d fo' ks"k çdkj dh HkV~
Vhgksrh gS ] ft l dh l gk; rk l sukfHkdh; fo[ k.Mu dhfu; fU=kr
k̀a
Ü[ kykv fHkfØ; k ( Controlled Chain Reaction) }kjk Åt kZmRiUu dht krhgS Ai gyk ukfHkdh; fj, DVj l u~1942 esa
f' kdkaxksfo' ofo| ky; esavesfjdu oS Kkfud i QehZv kS
j mudsl kfFk; ksauscuk; k FkkAHkkjr usv i uki gyk fj, DVj l u~
1952 esaeq EcbZdsfudV VªW Ecsesacuk; k] ft l dk uke ^v Il jk* j[ kkA
ukfHkdh; fj , DVj d seq
[ ; Hkkx
1 èku ( Fuel) µ ; g fj, DVj dk og Hkkx gSft l dsfo[ k.Mu l sÅt kZçkIr gksrh gS
bZ Abl dsfy, ; w
j sfu; e
µ 235 ; k IywVksfu; e µ 239 ç; q
Dr fd; k t krk gS
A

161
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2 eUnd ( Moderator) µ osi nkFkZt ksukfHkdh; fo[ k.Mu dh fØ; k dkseUn dj nsrsgS Abl dsfy, Hkkjh
t y ; k xz isQ
kbV ç; q Dr fd; k t krk gS
A
3 ' khr y d ( Coolant) µ fo[ k.Mu dsi ” pkr~fuLr‘ r v R;fèkd ek=kk esaÅ"ek dksfu; a f=kr djusdsfy,
ok; q] t y ; k CO2 dksfj, DVj esaçokfgr fd; k t krk gS A
4 fu; a =kd NM+ sa( Controlling Rods) µ Ü k̀a
[ kykv fHkfØ; kdksfu; fa=kr djusdsfy, dS
Mfe; e dhNM+ saç; ksx
dh t krh gS A
5 i fj j {kd ( Shield) µ fj, DVj l sfudyusokyh rhozgkfudkjd fofdj.kksal sv kl µi kl dke djusokys
ykxsksadh l qj {kk gs
r qdad jhV dh eksVh i fjj{kd nhokj cuk nh t krh gS A
6 ukfHkdh; fj , DVj dsmi ; ksx µ
1- fo| qr mRiknu esa
2- jkds VksadsmMku esa
3- ok; q; ku] l eq
nzh t gkt ] jsy o dkj[ kkuspykusesa
4- jsfM; ks,sfDVo l eLFkkfud cukusesa
5- Iyw Vksfu; eµ239 dk mRiknu djuses aHkh mi; ksx fd; k t krk gSA
a
7. r ki h; r Fkk czzhMj fj , DVj µ , slsfj, DVj ft uesaeUnxkehU;w Vªkuksa}kjk ; w
j sfu; eµ235 dk fo[ k.Mu djds
Åt kZçkIr dh t krh gSmUgsarki h; fj, DVj dgrsgS A
, slsfj, DVj ft uesamRikfnr IywVkfsu; eµ239 rFkk; w j sfu; eµ233 dhek=kkO;; gksusokysi nkFkksZ a; w
j fsu; eµ238
rFkk Fkkfsj; eµ232 l sv fèkd gksrh gScz hMj fj, DVj dgykrsgS A
[ kfut , oav ; Ld
1 [ kfut ( Minerals) µ èkkrq; k muds; kS fxdksal s; qDr osçkÑfrd i nkFkZt ksi F̀oh ry dsuhpsi k; st krs
gSa[ kfut dgykrsgS A
2 v ; Ld ( Ores) µ os[ kfut ft ul sèkkrq v ksadksv kl kuh l sçkIr fd; k t k l drk gS Av ; Ld dgykrsgSA
l Hkh v ; Ld [ kfut gksrsgS
afdUrql Hkh [ kfut v; Ld ughagkrssA
3 èkkr qµ v ; Ldksadk ' kq
f¼dj.k djdsmi; ksx ; ksX; çkIr èkkRr~ fod xq. kksal s; D
qr oLrqdksèkkrqdgrsagS
A
çeq
[ k èkkr q
, a, oamudsv ; Ld
èkkr q ,a v ; Ld
, Y; w fefu; e ckWDl l kbV dkjsaMe iQ sy Li kj
Øk; ksy kbV , Y; uqkbV dkv ksy hu rkack
D; çwkbV dkW i j Xykl dkW ij i k; jkbV
fl Yoj #ch fl Yoj i k; jk xkbZ j kbZ
V
gkuZ fl Yoj ft ad ft da Cysa M dS yeskbu
ft da kbV i kjk fl usckj fVu
dslhVsjkbV ysM xSy uk yksgk
gsekVkbV eSXusVkbV fyeksukbV fl MjskbV
v k; ju i k; jkbV dS YdksikbjkbV dkcskYV
LesYVkbV fufdy feys j kbV Økfse; e
Øke skbV i kbjksY; lqkbV l hyksehfyu ( eS
xukbV)
;wj fsu; e dkusZ VkbV fi pOyS M
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/ kr q
, a, oabuds; kS
fxd ksadk mi ; ksx
; kS fxd mi ; ksx
iQ sjl v kW
Dl kbV gjk dka p cukusesai Q sjl yo.kksadsfuekZ . k esa
A
iQ fsjd ; kS
fxd v kHkw "k.k i kW
fy' k djuses ai Qsfjd yo.kksadsfuekZ . k esa
iQ fsjd gkbMªksDl kbM ç; kxs' kkyk esaçfrdkjd ds#i esa
iQ jsl l Yi QsV jax m| ksx esaeksgj yo.k cukusesaL; kgh cukusesa
v k; ksMhu dhVk.kq uk' kd ds#i es avk"Skf/ ; ka
sdsmRiknu esafVp aj vk; kM shu cukuses jaa
x m| kxs es a
czksehu jax m| ksx esafVa pj xS l cukuses açfrdkjd ds#i esav kS "kf/ cukusesa
gkbMªksDyksfjd v Ey Dyksjhu cukusesav Eyjkt cukuses aja x cukusesa
Dyksjhu gkbMªksDyksfjd v Ey dsfuek.ZkesaeLVMZxS l cukusesa Cyhfpa x i kmMj cukusesadi Mksa
, oadkxt dksfoja ft r djusesa
l YÝ; w fjd v Ey i sVªksfy; e ds' kq f¼dj.k esaLVksjst cS Vjh esa
l Yi Qj Mkbv kW Dl kbV v kWDl hdkjd ds#i esafoja t d ds#i esa
l Yi Qj dhVk.kq uk' kd ds#i es j cj oydsukbt djusesack#n cukusesav kS
a "kf/ ds#i esa
v ekfsu; k v kbl i Q DVªh es
S jas;kW
u cukusesa
ukbVªl v kW Dl kbV ' kY; &fpfdRl k esa
iQkW
Li Q ksjl yky i Q kW
Li Qksjl ] fn; kl ykbZcukusesa' osr i Q kW
Li Qksjl ] pwgsekjusesa' osr i Q kW
Li Qkjsl ]
nok cukusesai Q kW
Li Qksjl czka t cukusesa
çkMs~;wl j xS l HkV~ Vh xeZdjusesal Lrsb/Zku ds#i esa/ krqfu"d"kZ . k esa
okVj xS l bZ/ u ds#i esacsfYMa x dsdk; Zesa
dkcZ u MkbZ v kW
Dl kbM l kMsk okVj cukusesav kx cq >kusesagkMZLVhy dsfuekZ . k esa
dkcZ u eksuksDl kbM COCI2 cukuses at y xS l cukusesa
xzsiQkbV bys DVªksM cukusesayksgsdscusi nkFkZi j i kW fy' k djusesa
ghjk v kHkw "k.k&fuek.Zk esadka p dkVusesa
fi QVdjh t y dks' kq ¼ djusesav kS "kf/ fuekZ . k esapeM+ sdsm| ksx es d
a i Mksadh ja xkbZesa
, Y; qfefu; e l YQ sV dkxt m| kxs esadi Mksadh Ni kbZes av kx cq >kusesa
ejD; w fjd v kW Dl kbM eyge cukusesat gj ds#i esaFkekZ ehVj esafl Unw j cukusesav eyxe cukusesa
ft ad l YQ sV ; k mt yk FkksFkk v k[akksadsfy, yks'ku cukusesadS fydksaNi kbZes apeZm| ksx esa
ft da DykjskbV VSDl Vkby m| ksx esadkcZ fud l a ' ys"k.k esarkez] dkp a v kfn dh l rgksadkst ksM+ usesa
ft ad cS Vjh cukusesagkbMªkst u cukusesa
Cyhfpa x i kmMj dhVk.kq uk' kd ds#i es adkxt rFkk di Mka sdsfoja t u esa
IykLVj v kW i Qi fsjl ew frZcukuses a' kY; &fpfdRl k esai V~ Vj cka / kusesa
dS fY' k; e l Yi Q V
s ; k ft Il e IykLVj v kW i Qi fsjl cukusesav eksfu; e l Yi Q sV cukusesa l hesa
V m| ksx esa
dS fY' k; e dkcku Z
ssV pw uk cukusesaVw Fki sLV cukusesa
v uknzZeS Xuhf' k; e DykjskbM #bZdh l t koV esa

163
 SCIECNE

eSXuhf' k; e dkckZ u
ssV nUr ea t u cukusesanok cukusesaft Il e yo.k cukusesa
eSXuhf' k; e ÝyS ' k cYc cukusesaFkekb ZV osfYMa x cukusesa
eSXuhf' k; e v kWDl kbM jcj i w j d ds#i esack; yjka sdsç; ksx esa
eSXuhf' k; e gkbMªksDl kbM phuh m| kxs esaeksy kfl l l sphuh rS ; kj djusesa
dkW i j l Yi Q
sV ; k uhyk FkkF skk dhVk.kq uk' kd ds#i es afo| q r l sy ksaes adkW
i j ds' kq
f¼dj.k es
aja
x cukusesa
D; w fçd DykjskbM t yµ' kq f¼dj.k es aèkkxsdh ja xkbZesa
D; q fçd v kWDl kbM CywrFkk xzhu Xykl µfuekZ . k esai sVªksfy; e ds' kqf¼dj.k esa
D; w çl v kWDl kbM yky Xykl dsfuekZ . k esai sfLVl kbM ds#i esa
dkW ij fct yh dk rkj crZ u czkl rFkk czha t cukusesa
l ksfM; e ukbVªsV [ kkn ds#i esa
l kfsM; e l Yi Q sV ; k Xykscj yo.kv kS"kfèk cukusesal Lrk dka p cukusesa
l ksfM; e ckbdkckZ u
ssV v fjuked ; a =kcsd jh m| ksx es açfrdka d j ds#i esa
l kfsM; e dkcku sZsV Xykl µfuekZ . k es
adkxt m| ksx esat y dh dBksjrk gVkusesa
gkbMªkst u i jkW
Dl kbM v kWDl hdkjd ds#i esa
l hesa
V
l hesa
V , d v R;fèkd eghu pw . kZgksrk gS
] t ksi kuh dsl kFk feyusi j Bkls cu t krk gSv kS j dBksj #i èkkj.k
dj ysrk gS AçkjfEHkd fel zokfl ; ksausHkou fuekZ . k esaç; ksx fd; k t kusokyk , d , slk i nkFkZcuk; k Fkk ft l esapw uk]
fpduh feV~ Vh ; k ft Il e gksrk Fkk v kS j t ksv kèkq fud l hes V
atS l k gh FkkAjkseokfl ; ksausHkhpq usrFkk Tokykeq [ kh jk[ k
l sl hesa
VrS ; kj fd; k] ft l dkç; kxs ; wj ksi esabZVka
srFkki RFkjksadkst kMs+usdsfy, fd; kt krkFkkAl u~1824 esa, d fczfV” k
btahfu; j t kslsiQ, Li Mhu uspw uk i RFkj rFkk fpduh feV~ Vh l s, d t ksM+
usokyk , slk u; k i nkFkZcuk; k t ksv fèkd
' kfDr” kkyhrFkkt yjkè skhFkkAml usbl si ksVyZS Ml hesa
a V dgk] D; ksafd ; g jax esai ksVyZS
Mdspw
a uki RFkj l sfeyrkµt yqrk
FkkApw uk i RFkj rFkk fpduh feV~ Vh l sl hesa V cukus adsfy, pkj ew y la ?kVdksa
µdS fYl ; e dkckZ u
ssV ( pwuk i RFkj l s)
fl fydk , ys q feuk rFkk v k; ju v kW Dl kbM (fpduh feV~ Vh) dh v ko' ; drk gksrh gS A i kV
sZ
yS M l hes
a V cukusdsfy,
a
pw ukµi RFkj rFkk fpduhfeV~ Vh dkspw . kZds#i esai hl k t krk gS Abl dsi ' pkr~bfPNr v uq i kr esamUgsafeykdj ?kw . khZ
HkV~Vhes amPprki i j xeZfd; kt krkgS A
açkIr mRikn ft l sfDyUdj dgrsgS ] dksl kèkkj.krki i j B.Mkdj fy; kt krk
a
gSAfDyUdj dhFkksMhek=kkesaft Il e feykdj i ha l kt krkgS A; g i kmMj l hes V ns
a j esat erk gS Abl dkmi; ksx v fèkd
lq foèkkt ud gkst krkgS Ai jUrqnjkjksaesaHkjusdsv frfjDr ; g cgq r ghde ç; ksx fd; kt krkgS Al kèkkj.kr; kbl sfdl h
iwj d i nkFkZ] ft l s, xz
hxsV dgrsgS ] dsl kFk feykdj ç; ksx fd; k t krk gS At c bl sct jhdsl kFk feykdj t eusfn; k
t krk gS At c bl sct jh dsl kFk feykdj t eusfn; k t krk gS ] t ks; g dUØhV cukrk gS A
d k¡p
l kèkkj.k dk¡p] fl fydk ( SiO2) ] l ksfM; e fl fyds V ( Na2SiO3) vkS j dS
fYl ; e fl fydsV dk Bksl foy; u
( feJ.k) gksrk gSAv U; çdkj dsdkp ¡ HkhfofHkUu fl fydsVka sdsBksl foy; u gksrsgSAdk¡p] v fØLVyhx Bkls ds#i
es, d v fr' khfrr nzo gSAbl fy, dk¡p dhfØLVyh; l a j puk ughagkrshv kS
j u gh ml dkdksbZfuf' pr xyukd a gksrk
gSAdk¡p dk dkb sZfuf' pr jkl k; fud l a
?kVu ; k l w
=k ughagksrk gS
] D; ka
fsd dk¡p feJ.k gS] ; kS
fxd ughA
a l kèkkj.k dk¡p
dk v kS
lr la ?kVu Na2SiO2. CaSiO3. 4SiO2 gksrk gS A
( x) j a
x nsusokysi nkFkZ
1 dkp
¡ esaja
x ns
usdsfy, v Yi ek=kk esaèkkrq
v ksads; kfSxd ( ja
xhu) feyk; st krsgS
A

164
 SCIECNE

jax nsusoky k i nkFkZ d k¡p d k j a x

1- dkcskYV v kW
Dl kbM xgjk uhyk
2- l kfsM; e ØksesV ; k Qj l v kW
S Dl kbM gjk ja x
3- fl ysfu; e v kWDl kbM ukjaxh yky
4- iQ fSjd yo.k ; k l ksfM; e ; wju
ssV i hyk ja x
5- xksYM DykjskbM i hyk ja x
6- dS Mfe; e l YQ kbM pVd yky
7- D; fw çd yo.k uhyk
d k¡p d k v uhy u
dkp ¡ dh oLrq v ka
sdkscukusdsckn fo' k"sk çdkj dh HkfV~
B; ksaesaèkhjsµèkhjsBa
Mk djrsgS
Abl fØ; k dksdka
p
dk vuhyhdj.k dgrsgS A
d k¡p dsçdkj
dkp ¡ dbZçdkj dsgksrsgS Adq N eq[ ; çdkj dsdk¡p fuEufyf[ kr gS µ
a
1- eǹqd k¡p µ ; g l kM skµpw ukgkrskgS AxeZdjusi j ; g vkl kuhl sde rki i j eǹqi M+t krkgS abl dkmi; ksx
f[ kM+ d h dsdkp ¡ ] ckrsy] i j[ kuyh o v U; midj.k cukusesafd; k t krk gS A
2- d Bksj d k¡p µ ; g i kV sk' kµpw uk dk¡p gkrsk gS Abl dk ueZgksusdk rki eǹqdk¡p l sv fèkd gksrk gS A
3- fÝyUV d k¡p µ ; g l kfsM; e dkcksZ usV] i ksVS
f' k; e dkcksZ uVs] ysMdkcksZ usV] cksfjd v Ey v kS j fl fydkl scuk; k
t krk gS Abl dk mi; ksx fçTe rFkk çdkf' kd rU=kksadsysUl cukusesagksrk gS A
4- Øq Dl d k¡p µ bl dkp ¡ esaçfrfØ; k ughadjusokysèkkrq v ksadsv kW Dl kbMgksrsgS Abl dk mi; ksx p' eksads
ysUl cukusesafd; k t krk gS A
5- i kbj SDl dk¡p µ ; g eq [ ; r%l ksfM; e v kS j , Y; wfefu; e dscksjksfl fydsV dk feJ.k gksrk gS Abl dk çl kj
xq. kka
d cgq r de gksrk gS A; g rki dsvkdfLed i fjorZ u l sVw Vrk ughagS Aç; ksx' kkyk dsmPp dksfV ds
midj.k cukusesa; g dk¡p ç; q Dr gksrk gS A
6- i fV~ Vd k dk¡p µ ; g l kèkkj.k dk¡p l sdki Q h eksVk gksrk gSv kS j bl dk mi; ksx nq d kuka
sdh f[ kM+ fd; ksarFkk
njokt scukusesagksrk gS A
7- Lr fj r d k¡p ; k xksy hj ksèkhdk¡p µ ; g l q j f{kr dk¡p l sHkhv fèkd çcy gksrkgS Abl sl q j f{kr dk¡p dhdbZ
i jrksadksfdl h i kjn' khZvkl a t d }kjk , dµnw l jsl st ksM+ d j cuk; k t krk gS Abl dkp ¡ dkscukusesaft ruh
v fèkd i jrksadk ç; ksx fd; k t krk gS ] og dk¡p mruk gh v fèkd çcy gksrk gS abl çdkj dsdkp ¡ dsi `"B
i j i M+ h njkj v kl a
t d i jr i j l ekIr gkst krh gS Av kS j bl dk i Q y ko #d t krk gS
S ALrfjr dk¡p dk mi; ksx
ok; q ; kuka
s, oadkj dsokr çfrj{kh ' kh' kksavkS j xksy hjkèskh i nksZdsfuekZ . k es
afd; k t krk gS A
8- çd k' kh; dk¡p µ ; g fo' ks"k fofèk; ksa}kjk cuk; k t krk gS Arkfd bl esafdl h Hkh çdkj dh foÑfr v Fkok
nk"sk u jgsAbl çdkj dsdkp a dk mi; ksx p' ek] l w {en' khZ ] nw j n' kZ
d dS ejksa
] fçTeksarFkk v U; çdkf' kd ; a =kksa
dsysUl ka sdsfuekZ . k esagksrk gSA
9- r ki j ksèkh dk¡p µ rki jkè skh dk¡p dk Å"eh; çl kj xq . kka
d de gksrk gS A, slk l ksfM; e v kW Dl kbMxkyd gks
ckfsjd v kW Dl kbM}kjk v kS j dq N pw usdks, sy ; uk }kjk foLFkkfi r djdsfd; k t krk gS Abl fofèk }kjk fufeZ r
dkp ¡ dkscksjkfsl yhdsV dkp ¡ dgrsgS Abl dk xyuk¡d mPp gksrk gSv kS j ; g Å"ek l gusdh{kerkj[ krk gS A
bl çdkj dk dk¡p ç; ksx' kkykvksadkj[ kkuksa ] jl ksbZ
?kjksarFkk HkfV~ V; ksaes
afd; k t krk gS A

165
 SCIECNE

10- iQ fVd dk¡p µ i Q

ksVksØkseS ksVksØksefSVd dk¡p , d fo' k"sk çkdj dk dk¡p gksrk gSt ksçdk' k dh mifLFkfr esa
v LFkk; h#i l sxgjsja x dkgkst krkgS Av r%èkwi l scpusdsfy, ; g cgq r mi; ksxhgSA, slkdk¡p esamifLFkr
fl Yoj v k; ksMkbM dsyo.k dsdkj.k gksrk gS A
11- yS MfØLVy dk¡p µ ; g , d fo' k"sk çdkj dk dk¡p gksrk gS ] ft l dsfuekZ
. k esaysMv kWDl kbM( PbO) dk
ç; ksx fd; k t krk gS
AysM dk¡p dk mPp vi orZ uka
d gS ] ft l dsdkj.k ; g pedrk gS Abl dk mi; ksx mÙke
dykRed oLrq v ka
srFkk dk¡p dsega xsmidj.kksadsfuek.Zk esafd; k t krk gS A
Lej . kh; r F;
2 l okZfèkd çfrfØ; k' khy Bksl rRo — yhfFk; e
3 l okZfèkd çfrfØ; k' khy rjy rRo — l hft ; e
4 l okfZèkd çfrfØ; k' khy xS l h; rRo — Ýyksjhu
5 l okfZèkd fo| q r Í .kkRedrk — Ýyksjhu
6 l okfZèkd vk; uhdj.k {kerk — ghfy; e
7 jsfM; ksal fØ; rk çÑfr okyk rjy rRo — Ýfsal ; e
8 v korZl kj.kh esajsfM; kslfØ; rRoksadh dq y la [ ; k— 25
9 d-Block dsvfLFkj rR o— ft d a ] dS Mfe; e] i kjk
10 og rRo ft l esaU;q VªkWu ughagksrs— 1
H1
11 i F̀oh i j çpq j ek=kk es ai k; st kusokysrRo — v kW Dl ht u
12 i F̀oh dk l okZ fèkd nq yZHk rRo — , LVsVhu
13 i F̀oh i j i k; k t kusokyk çpq j ek=kk es
aèkkrq— , yq fefu; e
14 og rRo ft l esa( Ü k̀[akyk cukusdh) dh l okfZèkd ps"Vk gksrh gS — dkcZ u
15 l okZfèkd gYdk rRo — gkbMªkst u
16 çkÑfrd #i esal cl sHkkjh i k; k t kusokyk rRo — U238
17 fo| qr dk U;w ure l q pkyd — ysM ( èkkrq ) ] l Yi Qj ( v èkkrq
)
18 Amphoteric v èkkrqrR o— fl fydu
19 v èkkrqt ksns[kusesaèkkrql n`' k gS a
— v k; ksMhu] xzsiQ kbV
20 i nkFkZt ksxeZdjusi j mèoZ i frr gkst krsgSa
— v k; ksMhu] di q j ] uS
ÝFkyhu] xa èkdA
21 v fØ; èkkrq — IyS fVue] l ksuk
22 mPp xyukd a , oamPp DoFkukd a okyk v èkkrq— ghjk
23 v R;fèkd i Q y ko {kerk okyk rRo —
S csjkW u
24 ukfHkdh; l a ;=ak esaç' khrd — D2O ( H kkjh t y)
25 l cl suohu [ kkstk x; k rRo— Hahnium (Ha, atomic no-105) Eka (Eka mercury
atomic no. 112)
26 i kuh esaj[ kk t kusokyk rRo — i hyk i QkW
Li Q ksjl
27 fdjksfl u rsy es aj[ kk t kusokyk rRo— l kfsM; e] i ksVfs' k; e] v k; kM
shu] l hft ; e ( Cs)
28 ' k"qd ci Q
Z— Bkls dkcZ u Mkbv kW Dl kbM
29 Ñf=ke foLi Q kV
sd — Mk; ukekbV
166
 SCIECNE

30 jl k; u foKku esaukscys i q j Ldkj i kusokysçFke oS Kkfud — okV a gksiQ

31 Vhpaj v k; ksMhu — , Ydksgy es av k; ksMhu
32 l kèkkj.kr; k ç; q
Dr gksusokysv kW Dl hdkjd — H2O2, SO2, SO3, Cl2, H2SO4, HNO3
33 dq N cgq v kÑfrd rRo — v kW
Dl ht u] l Yi Q j] i Q
kW
Li Q
ksjl
• l kèkkj.k rki i j i kjk] xsfy; e v kS j l hft ; e èkkrq, anz
o gSav kS
j ' ks"k èkkrq
, aBksl gS A
• l kèkkj.k rki i j v èkkrq, aesacz ksehu nzo gSrFkk ' ks"k v èkkrq
, aBksl ; k xS l gSA
• èkkrq
v ksaesafl Yoj l cl svPNk l q pkyd v kS j l hl k dqpkyd gksrk gS A
• dkcZ u dksNksM+ d j v èkkrq , auje gksrh gS A
• ghjk l Hkh çkÑfrd oLrq v ksaesal cl svfèkd dBksj gksrk gS A
j l k; u foKku l sl EcfU
èkr [ kkst s
j l k; u oS Kkfud mudh [ kkst
• ckjs ( Bohr) i jek.kqekW My] v korZl kj.kh dk foLrr̀ Lo#i
• ct Z fsy; l ( Burxelius) dS Vsfyfl l
• csd jsy (Becquerrel) jsfM; ksèkfeZ
rk
• pS Mfod (Chadwick) U;VwªkW
u dh [ kkst
• Mh czkW xyh(de Broglie) bysDVªku dh rja x çÑfr
• iQ j kMs(Faraday)
S fo| q r v i ?kVu dsfl ¼kUr
• eSMe D; w j h, a
M , i Qt ksfyvkW
V Ñf=ke jsfM; ksèkfeZ rk
• fych(Libby) jsfM; ksèkehZMfsVa
x
• ykjsUl (Lawrence) l kbDyksVªkWu
• esa
Mfyi Q(Mendeleef) v korZl kj.kh
• fefydu (Mulliken) bys DVªkWuµv kos'k
• ekW Lys(Modley) v kèkqfud vkorZl kj.kh
• v kW LokYM(Ostwald) det ksj fo| q r v i ?kVdkasdsfu; e
• IyS d (Planck)
a çdk” k dk rja xh; fl ¼ka r
• jnji Q ksMZ( Rutherford) U;VwªkW
u dh [ kkst
• jkUsVt u ( Roentzen) , Dl µfdj.kksadh [ kkst
• jsy s&jkel s(Rayleigh-Ramsay) v kxZ u dh [ kkst
• jkel s&Vsªol Z(Ramsay-Travers) fu; ksu] fØIVkW u , oat sukW
u dh [ kkst
• l kjssUlu (Sorenson) pH
• ' kYt &gkMyZs(Schulze-Hardly) fo| qr h; v i ?kVu l st eko
• FkkWel u (Thomson) bys DVªkW
u dh [ kkst
• VhUMy (Tyndall) Bkls d.kksal sçdk” k dk çdh.kZ
u
• ;wd kck(Yukawa) eslkWu dh [ kkst

167
 SCIECNE

v Ey ] {kkj , oay o. k
1 v Ey ( Acid) µ v Ey osi nkFkZgS aft uesagkbMªkstu i k; kt krk gS, oat yh; foy; u esaosgkbMªkst u vk; u
mRiUu djrsgS Av Ey l kèkkj.kr; %[ kV~ Vsi Q yksat S
l suhcw
] beyhv kfn esai k; sat krsgS
Auhcwesal kbfVªd v Ey
o beyh es aVkjVS fjd vEy i k; st krsgS A
2 {kkj ( Base) µ {kkj osi nkFkZgS aft ues agkbMªkfDl y l ew g i k; k t krk gSrFkk ft udst yh; foy; u esa
gkbMªkfDl y v k; u mifLFkr jgrsgS A{kkj yky fyVªel i sij dksuhyk dj nsrsgS AdkfLVd l ksMk ( l ksfM; e
gkbMªkDl kbM) o dkfLVd i ksVk' k ( i ksVsf' k; e gkbMªkDl kbM) çeq [ k {kkj gSA
3 y o. k ( Salt) µ v Eyksao {kkjksadhi jLi j fØ; kl syo.k cursgS Al kèkkj.kued] ft l sl ksfM; e DyksjkbM
dgrsgS ] gkbMªksDykfsjd v Ey o l ksfM; e gkbMªkDl kbM dh i jLi j v fHkfØ; k l scurk gS A

v Ey çkÑfr d l zksr mi ; ksx

l YÝ; w
fjd v Ey gjkdl ksl i sVªksfy; e ds' kksèku es ]a dbZçdkj dsfoLi Q ksVd cukusesa ]
ja
x o v kS "kfèk; kacukusesa ]lapk; d cS Vfj; ksaesaA
ukbfVªd v Ey fi QVdjh o ' kksjk v kS "kfèk; ka] moZ j d] cukusesa ] iQ
ksVksxzki Q
hesa ] foLi QksVd i nkFkZ
cukusesa A
gkbMªksDyksfjd v Ey ç; ksx' kkyk esav fHkdeZ d ds#i esa ] jax o v k"Skfèk cukusesa
v Eyjkt cukusesa A
, l hfVd v Ey iQ ykasdsjl ksesa]lqxfUèkr rsy ka
sesa foyk; d ds#i esa, l hVku s cukusesao [ kV~ Vs[ kk| i nkFkZ
cukusesa A
iQ
kfeZ
d v Ey yky phfV; ksaesa ] cjkZ
so fcPNwesa t hok.kquk' kd ds#i esai Q yksadksl a j f{kr o jcj ds
LdUnu esa ] peMk O;ol k; esa A
v kDt sfyd v Ey l kjsy dk o`{k iQ ksVksxzki Q
h esa] di Mka sdh Ni kbZo ja xkbZesa] peM+ sds
foja t d ds#i esa A
csUt kb
sd v Ey ?kkl ] i Ùkso ew=k nok o [ kk| i nkFkksZdsl ja{k.k ds#i esa
l kbfVªd v Ey [ kV~Vsi Qyka
sesa èkkrq v ksadksl ki Qdjusesa[ kk| i nkFkksZo nokv ksadscukus
esao di M+ k m| ksxksaesa
A
pH eku µ fdl hfoy; u dhv Eyh; rk; k{kkjh; rkdksO;Dr djusdsfy, pH eki na M; kpH Ldsy dkmi; ksx gksrk
gSAbl l st y , oafeV~Vh dh mi; ksfxrk dk i rk pyrk gS
AjDr , oai ”skkc dspH eku esacnyko l s' kjhj esa
jksxksadk i rk yx l drk gS
A
dq
N l keU
; i nkFkksZd spH eku
i nkFkZ pH
mnkl hu t y 7
v Eyh; foy; u 7 l sde
{kkjh; foy; u 7 l sv fèkd
fl jdk 2-4µ3-4
' kjkc 2-8µ3-8
nwèk 6-4µ6-6

168
 SCIECNE

l eqnzh t y 8-4
ykj ( euq "; dk) 6-5µ7-5
ew=k ( euq"; dk) 4-8µ8-4
jDr ( euq "; dk) 7-4
uhacw 2-2µ2-4
funsZ
' kd ; k l w
p d ( Indicator)
oS
l k jkl k; fud ; kS
fxd t ksv i usja
x esai fjorZ
u ykdj ; g l fwpr djrk gSfd foy; u v Eyh; gS; k {kkjh;
v Fkok mnkl hu] l wpd dgykrk gS Abl dh v R;a r v Yi ek=kk gh mnkl huhdj.k v fHkfØ; k es
ami; ksx gh t krh gS
A
d kcZ
u r Fkk bl ds; kS
fxd
dkcZu , d v èkkrqrRo gS ] dkcZu i jek.kqdspkj l a ; kst hbysDVªkW
uksadsdkj.k; g v ko” ; d gSfd LFkk; hl a j puk
dhçkfIr gsrq; k rkspkj bysDVªkW u xzg.k djs; k pkj bysDVªkW uksadkR;kx djsa AdkcZu l nS
o v U; rRoksadsl kFkl k>snkjh
djdsl gl ;akst d ; kSfxd cukrkgS AdkcZu dksTetravalent HkhdgrsgS AdkcZ u es
a; g xq
. k i k; k t krk gSfd ; g vi us
; kfSxdksaesaoy; ; kdbZdfM+ ; ka( Chains) cukrkgS ] dkcZ u dsbl xq . kdks^^Catenation** dgrsgS AdkcZ u , d v fØ;
rRo gS Avr%; seq DrkoLFkk, oal ;aqDrkoLFkknksukasesai k; kt krkgS Al a;qDrkoLFkkesadkcZu fofHkUu #i esai k; st krsgSµ
a
1- dkcksZ
usV ds#i esa( l a
xejej , oaMksy ksekbV)
2- i sVªksfy; e , oaçkÑfrd xS
lA
3- dkcZ
u ; kfSxd t lSsçkV
shu , oaol k ds#i esa
A
4- dkcZ
uµMkbZ
v kW
Dl kbM ( gok esa
) ds#i esa
A
l Hkh t hoka
sesadkcZ
u mifLFkr jgrk gS
A
dkcZ
u dsv i #i
çÑfr esa' kq
¼ dkcZ u nks#i ksaesai k; k t krk gSµ ghjk , oaxzsiQkbV ds#i esa At c ghjsrFkk xz siQ kbV dksok; q
esav R;fèkd xeZdjrsgS at ks; g i w
. kZ#i l st y t krkgSvkS j dkcZ
uµMkbZ v kW
Dl kbMcukrkgS at c ghjsrFkkxz siQ
kbV dh
l eku ek=kk ngu dh t krh gSrc dkcZ uµMkbvZkW Dl kbMdhcjkcj ek=kk mRiUu gksrhgSrFkk dkb sZv o' ks"k ughacprkA
; | fi ghjkrFkkxzsiQ
kbV jkl k; fud #i l s, d l eku gS ] i jUrqmudsHkkS
a frd xq . kcgq
r ghfHkUu gSA
a, slsxq. kksadksçnf' kZ
r
djusokysrRoksadksv i #i ( Allotropy) dgrsgS A
1- ghjk ( Diamond) µ ghjk , d i kjn” kZ d i nkFkZgS AghjsdsmPp v i orZ u xq. kka
d dsdkj.k ; g pedhys, oa
dherhv kHkw"k.krFkkt sojkasdkscukusdsdke esayk; k t krkgS Al cl sv fèkd dBkjs Kkr i nkFkZgksusdsdkj.k
dsoy ghjkgh, d , slki nkFkZgS ] t ksv U; i nkFkksZdksi hl usrFkkdkVusdsfy, ç; q Dr gksrkgSAbl dkmi ; ksx
i F̀oh dh pV~Vkuh i jrksadksosfèkr djusgs r qHkh fd; k t krk gS A
2- kbV ( Graphite) µ xzsiQ
xzsiQ kbV fo| rq dk l qpkyd gksusdsdkj.k ' k"qd l sy rFkk fo| q
r v kdZesabys
DVªksMksa
ds#i esami; kxs gkrsk gS
Abl dk mi; kxs i sfUly rFkk dkysja
x dk i U sV cukuses aHkh gksrk gS
A
C12 l eLFkkfud dh vèkZ µv k; q5770 o"kZgksrh gS ] ft l dk ç; ksx jsfM; ks,fDVo MfsVa
x esafd; k t krk gS
] t ks
iq
j krRo oLrq v ka
sdh v k; qt kuusdsç; ksx esav krk gSA

169
 SCIECNE

d kcZ
u d smi ; ksx
d kcZu d h v oLFkk mi ; ksx
1. ghjk (Diamond) Gemstone, dkVuses ]a i hl usesa
] i kW
fy” k es
] m| ksx es
a ]aDrilling
2. xzsQ
kbV(Graphite) LVhy m| kxs] i fsUl y] mPp rki Øq fl cy] rRoksadsfo| q r
v i ?kVu es
aç; kxs fd, t kusokysfo| q r v i ?kV~
; ds#i esa
3. dkds (Coke) LVhy m| ksx] ba
è
Zku
4. dkcZu CyS
d (Carbon Black) jcj m| ksx] L; kgh es
] iV
a sa rFkk IykfLVd
5. l fØ; dkcZu phuhm| kxs esajax gVkusesa
] jl k; uka
sds“kksèku esa
] mRçs
j d bZ
èku]
v i pk; d
d kcZ
u MkbZ
µ v kW
Dl kbM
dkcZ u MkbZµv kW
Dl kbM , d ja xghu] xa
èkghu xSl gS Aok; qe.My esadkcZ u MkbµZv kWDl kbM v k; rukuq
l kj 0-03
çfr' kr i k; h t krhgS
Abl dk t yh; foy; u v Eyh; gksrk gS Aok; e q.Myh; nkc i j ; g µ78 C rki i j Bksl v oLFkk
0

esai fjofrZr gkst krh gS] ft l s^” kq

"d ci Q* dgrsgS
Z A ^” kq
"d ci Q * dk ç; ksx js
Z fÝt js'ku esafd; k t krk gSA dkcZu
MkbZ
µv kWDl kbM mPp nkc i j “khry i ;s i nkFkksZ
adsl kFk ckrsyksaesaHkj nh t krh gS
Ackrsy dks[ kksy usi j ; g >kx ds
#i esafudyrh gS A
d kcZ
fud ; kS
fxd
dkcZu dsi jek.kqdki Q h cMh +l a[ ; k esa, dµnw l jsdsl kFk l gl a; kst h vkca
èk }kjk t qM+
sjgrsgSA; ghdkj.k gS
fd dkcZ u ds; kfSxdksadh cgq r la [ ; k gkrsh gS
AehFku s ( CH4) ] , Fksu ( C2H6) ] çksisu ( C3H8) ] C;w
Vsu ( C4H10) ] i sUVsu
( C5H12) ] bFkkbyhu ( C2H4) ] , l hfVd v Ey ( CH3COOH) , fFky , Ydksgy ( C2H5OH) bR;kfn dkcZ u ds; kS fxd gS a
v kjS; scgqr l jkl k; fud m| ksxksaesadke v krsgS A
a bl dsv ykok nokbZ ; ka
] iQ kbcj] fl UFksfVd dkWVu] IykfLVd] jcj]
ysnj bR;kfn Hkh dkcZ fud ; kfSxd l scuk; st krsgS A
feFksu
; g , d ja xghu] xa èkghu] o Loknghu xS l gS A; g v fèkdrj nynyh{ks=kksaesai k; ht krhgS %ft l dsdkj.kbl s
ek” kZxSl Hkh dgrsgS A; g xS l t y esav Yi foys; gSi jUrq, Ydksgy esav fèkd foys; gS Abl dk mi; ksx esfFky
, sYdksgy] i QkekZfsYMgkby o DyksjksiQ keZv kfn dscukusesafd; k t krk gS Abl dsv frfjDr dkysja x] eksVj Vk; j] Nki s
[ kkusdhL; kgh] i sa V] dkcZu NMa sv kfn cukusesaHkhbl dk ç; ksx fd; k t krk gS
+ Abl dsl a ?kusi j O
w ; fDr ew fNZ
r gkst krk
gS A; g bèZkj] , Ydksgy v kfn esafoys; gS A, fFkyhu l Yi Qj eksukD
syksjkbMl sfØ; k djds, d fo"kS y k nzo MkbZ
µDykjsks
, fFky Mkbµl Yi Q kbM] ft l seLVMZxS l HkhdgrsgS ] cukrhgSA, fFkyhu cgq y dhdj.kdh fØ; k }kjk IykfLVd cukrh
gS Abl xS l dk mi; ksx eq [ ; #i l sdPpsi Q yksadksi dkuses afd; k t krk gS
A
, ls sfVyhu
, slsfVyhu dh [ kkst v esfjdh oS
Kkfud foYl u usdh FkhAbl xS l dk mi; kxs eq
[ ; r%di wj cukus] çdk' k
mRiUu djus] Ñf=ke jcj cukus ] osfYa
Mx djuses] js”keh di M+
a s] , l hfVd v Ey vkfn cukuses afd; k t krk gS
A
bZ
Fkj
bZ
Fkj ja
xghu o l q xfUèkr nzo gS
A; g v R;fèkd ok"i ' khy gksrkgS
A; g , Ydksgy esafoys; gksrkgS
Abl dkç; ksx
fu' psrd ds#i esa ] ol k] rs
y v kfn dsfoyk; d ds#i esa ] B.Md i n Sk djusdsfy; s] , Ydksgy cukusv kfn esafd; k
t krk gS
AO;kol kf; d #i esabZ Fkj , Ydksgy dksl kUnzl YÝ; wfjd v Ey dsl kFk xeZdjdscuk; k t krk gS A

170
 SCIECNE

, sfFky , Ydksgy
, sfFky , Ydksgy , d ja xghu nz
o gSrFkk vR;kfèkd Toyu' khy gksrk gS Abl si husl s' kjhj es
amÙktsuk mRiUu
gkrsh gS] bl fy; sbl seknd nzo ds#i esabLrseky fd; k t krk gS A, sfFky , Ydksgy i Q
yksao LVkpZ ;q
Dr v ukt ksat lSsµ
t kSv kfn esai k; kt krkgSav kS
| ksfxd fofèkesabl sfd.ou ( Fermentation) fofèkl scuk; kt krkgS Abl dkç; ksx ' kdZ j k]
fl jdko ' kjkc cukusesa ] eksVj o gokbZt gkt esabaè
Zku ds#i esa
] i kjn' kd
Z l kcq
u cukuses]ab=ko v U; l qxfUèkr i nkFkZ
cukusesarFkk foyk; d ds#i esafd; k t krk gS A
esfFky , Ydkg
sy
esfFky , Ydksgy dksl cl si gysydMh +dsHka t d v kl ou ds}kjk cuk; k x; k FkkA; g yk¡x dsrsy o dbZ
iQyksaes
ai k; kt krkgS
Aes fFky , Ydksgy , d fo"kS
y knzo gSo bl dhxUèk' kjkc dhrjg gkrshgS Abl si hysusl sO;fDr
vaèkk gkst krkgSAv kt dy ns”k dsfofHkUu Hkkxksaesa' kjkc i husokyksadhv fèkdka
” keR̀;qesfFky , Ydksgy dsghdkj.k
jghgS Abl dk mi; ksx i sVªksy dsl kFk feykdj bZ
èku ds#i esa
a ] Ñf=ke ja
x cukuses] rFkk okfuZ
a ' k v kfn dsfoyk; d ds
#i esafd; k t krk gSA
Xy d
wkst
bl sv a
xwj dk ' kDdj Hkh dgrsgS A; g v xaw
j k]saehBsi Q
yksao ew
=k esai k; k t krk gSAeèkq eg
s dsjksfx; ksadsew=k esa
bl dhek=kkv fèkd i k; ht krhgS A; g pk¡nh] dsyo.k] v eksfu; e fl Yoj ukbVªsV dsl kFkfeydj pkn ¡ hdhrjg l i Q sn
i rZcukrk gS ] ft l spk¡nh dk ni Z
. k dgrsgS
Abl dk ç; ksx ' kjkc cukuses ai Qyksadksl q j f{kr j[ kuses
] v k"Skfèk ds#i esa
a
rFkk ' kfDroèkZd v kfn ds#i esafd; k t krk gS A
, fuyhu
; g rsy dsl eku nzo gS ] t ksfd v R;Ur fo"kS
y k gksrk gS
A, Ydksgy] bZ Fkj v kfn esa; g foys; i jUrqt y esa
v foys; gksrk gS
abl dk mi; kxs jcj cukusesao fofHkUu çdkj dh vkS "kfèk; ksao ja
xksv kfn dscukuses afd; k t krk gS
A
l eko; or k
dkcZ
u dsi jek.kqbruhl qxerkl sca
èkcukrsgS
afd mul s, d ghv kf.od l w
=kokysçk; %nks; knkµ
s l sµv fèkd
fHkUu ; kfSxd cursgS A, sls; kS
fxd dksl eko; ohdgrsgSarFkk bl ?kVuk dksl eko; ork dgrsgSA
cgq
yd
cgqy d mPp v .kqHkkj okys] cM+
sv kdkj dsv .kqgS
] ft udkgekjhfnup; kZesacgq
a r egÙo gSA; sdbZNksVµ
s NksVs
v .kq
v ksal sfeydj cursgSAjpukRed #i l sdbZv kf.od Ü k̀a
[ kyk, av FkokCross-Linked Network ds#i esaO;ofLFkr
jgrsgS Abl dschp dscUèk cgq y d cukusesaç; qDr gqbZv fHkfØ; k dsçdkj i j fuHkZj djrsgS A
cgq
y d hd j . k
t c , d gh ; kSfxd dsnksv Fkok nksµl sµv fèkd v .kqv ki l esal a; ksx djds, d cMk+v .kqcukrsgS ] ml s
a
cgq
y d dgrsgS arFkk ; g fØ; k ; ksx” khy cgq
y dhdj.k dgykrh gS A ; fn ; g vfHkfØ; k l a
?kuu esagksrksl a
?kuu
cgq
y dhdj.k gksrk gS
A

171
 SCIECNE

dq
N egRoi w
. kZcgq
yd
cgq yd mi ; ksx
1. i kW
y hFkhu (Polythene) fo| q r jksèkd] i fSda x ?kjsy wrFkk ç; ksx' kkyk esa
2. i kW
y hLVkbjhu(Polystyrene) fo| q r jksèkd] i fSda x i nkFkZ ] f[ kykS
usrFkk ?kjsy woLrq
,¡
3. i kW
y hfoukby DyksjkbM(Polyvinylchloride) ( PVC) jsudksV] cS x] okbfuy] i Q ' kZ
] peM+sdsdi M+ sa
4. VsÝyksu ( Teflon) fo| rqjksèkd] [ kkusdscrZ u
5. i kW
y h, fØyksukbVªkby ( Polyacrylonitrile) ( Orlon) la ' ysf"kr js'ksrFkk l a ' ysf"kr Åu
6. LFkbjhu U;w VkMkbZ
u jcj (Styrene butadiene rubber) v kWVksekcskby Vk; j rFkk pIi y
7. ukbVªkby jcj (Nitrile rubber) l hy cukusesa ] VS
d dsv Lrj cukusesa
a
8. i kW
y hbZFky , ØkbysV(Poly ethyl acrylate) fi Q Ye cukus] ?kj dsi kbi rFkk di M+ scukusesa
9. Vsjhyhu (Terylene) js'ks] csYV] rkj rFkk VS UV cukusesa
10. fXyi Vy (Glyptal) IykfLVd rFkk i sa V esa
11. ukW; ykWu&6 (Nylon-6) js'ks] IykfLVd] Vk; j] jLl h
12. ukW; ykWu&66(Nylon-66) cz'k] l a ' ysf"kr js'ks] i sjk' kw
V] jLl h rFkk njh
13. csd ys kbV(Bakelite) xs;j] l q j {kk i rZrFkk fo| q r midj.k cukusesa
14. eSy kekbu Q keZ
fYMgkbM jsfl u IykfLVd dscrZ u cukusesa
foLi Q
ksVd
foLi Q ksVd , slsi nkFkZgksrsgS] ft l dsngu l sv R;fèkd Å"ek o rhozèofu mRiUu gksrh gS Aml sfoLi Q ksVd
dgrsgS
Adq N foLi Q ksVd fuEu gSµ
1- Vh-, u-Vh- ( T.N.T) µ T.N.T gYdk i hyk fØLVyh; Bksl i nkFkZgS A; g Vkyw bZ
u dsl kFk l kUnzl YÝ; fwjd
v Ey] l kUnzukbfVªd vEy dhfØ; kl scuk; kt krkgS Abl dkl cl sv fèkd mi; kxs foLi Q ksVd ds#i esafd; k
t krk gS abl dk i w
j k uke VªkbZ
ukbVªksµVkywbZ
u ( T.N.T) gS A
2- Mk; ukekbV ( Dynamite) µ 1865 es av YÝMs ukscsy usMk; ukekbV dk v kfo"dkj fd; k FkkA v kèkq fud
MkbukekbV esaukbVªksfXl jhu dh t xg l ksfM; e ukbVªsV dk ç; ksx fd; k t krk gS A
3- v kj -Mh-, Dl - ( R.D.X) µ bl dk i w j k uke fj; pZMosyi es V
a , Dl Iyksf” ko gSAbl foLi Q ksVd dksl a -jk-
v esfjdkesa^l kbDyksukbV* t eZ uhesa^gsDl kstu* rFkkbVyhesa^Vhµ4* dsuke l st kukt krkgS Abl esaIykfLVd
i nkFkZ
] tS l sµ i kWfyC;wVkbu] , fØfyd vEy] ; k i kW fy; w
j sFksu dksfeyk dj ^IykfLVd ckUMsM , Dl Iyksfl o*
cuk; k t krk gS A
4- VªkbukbVªksfXy l j hu ( T.N.G) µ VªkbZukbVªksfXyl jhu , d ja xghu rSy h; nzo gS A; g MkbukekbV cukusds
dke v krk gS A
5- VkbZµ ukbVªksfi Q ukWy ( T.N.P) µ dksfi dfjd vEy Hkhdgk t krk gS A; g i Q huky o l kUnzukbfVªd v Ey
dhvfHkfØ; k }kjk cuk; k t krk gS A; g gYdk i hyk] fØLVyh; Bkls gkrsk gS ] t ksvR;fèkd foLi Q kV
sd gkrsk gS A
v kS
"kfèk; k¡
jkxsksadsbykt esadke v krh gS AçkjEHk esai sM+
µi kS
èkka
]s t hoµt Urq v ksal sçkIr dh t krh Fkh ysfdu t S l sµt S
ls
jl k; u foKku dk foLrkj gksrk x; k] u; sµu; srRoksadh[ kkst gq bZrFkk mul subZ µubZv kS "kfèk; kaÑf=ke fofèk l srS; kj
dhxbZ Ajl k; u fofèk esav fèkdrj v kS
"kfèk; kadkckZ
fud i nkFkka sZl srS
; kj dh t krhgS A, l hfVd , ugkbVªkbMl s, Lçhu]
;wfj; kl sosjkuy] cs
Ut ksbd v Ey l sl S
d jhu o Dyksjfeu] fi Quky l si Q susfl fVu] , fsLi fju] l S
y ksy ] o l S
fyfl fyd v Ey
172
 SCIECNE

v kfn nok; sacuk; h t krh gS Adq N çeq [ k vkS "kfèk; ksadk oxhZ d j.k fuEu gS µ
1- , UVhck; ksfVDl ( Antibioties) µ , UVhck; ksfVDl v kS "kfèk; kav R;Ur l w {e t hok.kq v ksaeksYMl ] i Q Ut kbZv kfn l s
cuk; h t krh gS A; sv k"Skfèk; kav U; nw l jsçdkj dst hok.kq v ksadksekjrh gS A o mudh of̀¼ dksjksd rh gS A
v ys Dt sa
a Mj Ýysfea x us1929 esai gyh , UVhck; ksfVd v kS "kfèk i sfUl yhu dk vkfo"dkj fd; k ft l ds}kjk fo” k"sk
çdkj dscS DVhfj; k dksu"V fd; k t krk l drk FkkAi sfufl yhu] VsVªkl kbfDyu] l siQ sy ksfLçUl ] LVsªIVksekbl hu]
t sUVkekbl hu v kfn çeq [ k , UVhck; ksfVd vkS "kfèk; kagS A
2- iwfr Zj ksèkh ( Antiseptics) µ ; sv kS "kfèk; kal w{e t hok.kq v ksadksekjuso mudhof̀¼ jksd usesal gk; d gksrh gS A
; sjDr dksnw f"kr gksusl sjksd uso ?kko v kfn Hkjuses afo' ks"k #i l sç; q Dr dht krhgS Afl jdsrFkkfl Mkj rsy
dk ç; kxs ?kkoka sv kfn dsBhd djusesaçkphu dky l sgksrk v k jgk gS Av kèkfqud , UVhl sfIVd v kS "kfèk; karS; kj
djusesal sfeyohl ] fyLVj o dksp dsuke mYys[kuh; gS Avk; ksMhu] , fFky , Ydksgy] fi Q ukW
y ] gkbMªkst u
i jkDl kbM v kfn jksxk.kqo dhVk.kquk' kd ds#i esaç; ksx fd; st krsgS A
3- , UVhi k; j sfVDl ( Antipyretics) µ , UVhi k; js fVDl dk ç; kxs ' kjhj nnZo cq [ kkj mrkjuses afd; k t krk gS A
, Lçhu] Økslhu] fi Q us
fl fVu] i k; jksfeMhu v kfn çeq [ k , UVhi k; js fVDl vkS "kfèk; kagS A
4- fu' psrd ( Anaesthetic) µ l a osnuk dksde djusdsfy; sç; D qr fd; st krsgS Afu' prd dk ç; ksx l cl s
i gysfofy; e ekjsVu us1846 esaMkbZ, fFky bF Zkj ds#i esafd; kAbl dsi ” pkr~1847 esat sEl l sEi l u us
DyksjksiQ keZdksfu' psrd ds#i esaç; ksx fd; kADyksjksiQ keZ] i sUVkF
sky l ksfM; e] gsy ksFksu] bZ FkjukbVªl v kDl kbM]
VªkbZDykjsks, fFkyhu] Mk; t hi ke v kfn fu' psrd ds#i esaç; ksx fd; st krsgS A
5- l Yi Q k MªXl ( Sulpha Drugs) µ l Yi Q k v k"Skfèk; ksaesaeq [ ; #i es al Yi Q j o ukbVªktsu i k; h t krhgS Al cl s
i gyhl Yi Q kv kS"kfèkl Yi Q kfuyekbM] 1908 esacuk; hxbZFkhA; snok; a sdq N t hok.kq v ksadsçfr v R;Ur çHkkoh
gkrsh gS Adq N l Yi Q k vkS"kfèk; ksadk ç; ksx i ” kq v ksadsfy; sHkh fd; k t krk gS A
bZ
a
èku
og i nkFk]Zft Ugsat ykdj Å"ek mRiUu dht krhgS ] mu i nkFkksZ
adksbZèku dgrsgS
a Abaè
Zkukasdk l cl segRRoi .wkZ
oxhZd j.k mudhHkS frd v oLFkk dsv kèkkj i j gkrsk gS AHkkS
frd v oLFkk dsv kèkkj i j rhu çdkj dsbZ èku gksrsgS
a µBksl
a
bè
aku] nzo] ba
Z è
Zku rFkk xS l h; bè ZkuAbudsmnkgj.k fuEufyf[ kr gS aµ
1- Bksl bZ èku ( Soil Fuel) µ ydMh] dk;syk] dksd ] pkjdksy ( dk"B dks;yk ; k ydM+
a h dk dk;syk) rFkk
iSj kfi Q
uµoS Dl (ekse) ] Bksl bZ èku gS
a A
2- nzo bZ a
èku ( r j y bZ èku) ( Liquid Fuel) µ dkjSkslhu ( feV~
a Vhdkrsy ) ] i sVªkys ] Mht y] , sYdksgy rFkknzfor
gkbMªkst u] nzo bZ èku gS; k rjy bZ
a èku gS
a A
3- xSl h; bZ èku ( Gaseous Fuel) µ çkÑfrd xS
a l ] rjy i sVªksfy; e xS
l ] dksy xS l ] t y xS l ] çksM~
;wl j xS
l ] ck; ks
xSl ( xkscj xS l ) ] , sfLVyhu rFkk gkbMªkst u xS
l ] xSl h; bZèku gS
a A
nzfor i SVªksfy ; e xS l
?kjksaesabè
Z
aku ds#i es aç; D
qr dht kusokyhnzfor çkÑfrd xS l dks, y-i h-t h- dgrsgS A; g C;V wsu rFkk çkissu
xS
l ksadk feJ.k gksrhgS ] ft l smPp nkc i j nzfor dj fl ys.MjksaesaHkj ysrsgS A
xkscj xS l
xhysxkcsj dsl M+ usi j Toyu' khy ehFksu xS l curh gS ] t ksok; qdh mifLFkfr esal q xerk l st yrh gS Axkscj
xS
l la ;a=k esaxkscj l sxS l cukusdsi ' pkr~' ks"kjgsi nkFkZ( Lyjh) dk mi; ksx dkcZ fud [ kkn ds#i es afd; kt krkgS A
çksM~;w
l j xS l
; g xS l yky rIr dksd i j ok; qçokfgr djdscukbZt krh gS Abl esaeq[ ; r%dkcZ u eksuksv kWDl kbMba è
Zku dk
dke djrh gS A
173
 SCIECNE

j kW
d sV bZèku
jkW
d sV es ami; ksx fd; st kusokysbZ èku dkseksnd dgrsgS
a A; g uksnd v kW Dl hMkbt j dsl a ; ksx l scurk gSA
tS l sµrjyh; v kW Dl ht u] rjyh; Ýyksjhu] gkbMªkstu i sjkDl kbMv kS j ukbfVªd , fl Mv kfn l Hkhuksndksadksrhu oxksZ aesa
j[ kk t krk gS A
1- r j y h; uksnd ( Liquid Propellant) µ , Ydksgy] rjyh; gkbMªkst u] rjyh; veksfu; k] dsjkslhu rsy ]
gkbMªkt hu v kS j cksjku
s dsgkbMªkbM dk mi; ksx rjyh; uksnd l sv fèkd ' kfDr çnku djrk gSv kS j bl dk
fu; U=k.kçokg dksfu; a f=kr djdsfd; k t krk gS AfeFkkby ukbVªsM] ukbVªksehFksu] gkbMªkstu i sjksDl kbMv kfn Hkh
mi; ksxh rjyh; uksnd gS A
2- Bksl uksnd ( Soild Propellant) µ Bksl bè aku] t S
Z l sµ i kW y h C;w
VkMhu vkS j , Økbfyd v Ey dk mi; ksx
v kWDl hMkbt j dsl kFk gksrk gS At Sl sµ , Y; q
ehfu; e i jDyksjVsk] ukbVªsV ; k DyksjsV mPp ngu rki Øe gksusds
dkj.k eS Xuhf” k; e ; k , Y; q
ehfu; e dksHkhBksl bZ èku ds#i esami; ksx fd; k t krk gS
a Abl rjg dsuksnd dks
la;qDr uksnd Hkh dgk t krk gS A
3- fefJ r uksnd ( Mixed Propellant) µ fefJr jkW d sV uksnd es aBksl bZ èku , oarjyh; v kW
a Dl hMkbt j dk
mi; ksx fd; kt krkgS Abl es aN2O4 , d l kekU; l a?kVd gS AfofHkUu jk"Vªka s}kjkdq N egRRoi w. kZuksnd dkmi; ksx
fd; k t krk gS ] t ksfuEu gSµ
#l }kjk çksVksu ( Proton) uksnd dk mi; ksx fd; k t krk gS ] t ksfdjkslhu , oarjyh; v kW Dl ht u l scuk gksrk
gSAl S VuZcqLVj ( v es fjdu jkW d sV) esaHkh fdjkslhu , oav kWDl ht u dsl a ; kxs l scuk bè aku mi; ksx fd; k t krk
Z
gSA, l -, y-oh-µ3 v kS j , -, l -, y-oh- uked Hkkjrh; jkW d sV }kjkçFke v oLFkkesaBksl uksnd dkmi; ksx fd; k
x; k v kSj rr̀h; v oLFkk esarjyh; uksnd dk mi; ksx fd; k x; k gS A
i sVªksfy; e
; g , d xgjsaja
x dk xk<+ k rsy h; nzo gS ] ft l dh t S
fod mRifÙk gq bZgS
A; g ekuk t krk gSfd l eq
nzht hoksads
mPp nkc rFkkmPp rki i j v i ?kVu l sbl dhmRifÙkgq bA
Zi sVªksfy; e t ehu dhfupyhl rg esai RFkjksadschp v Fkok
l eqnzh l rg dscgq r uhpsi k; k t krk gSAi sVªksfy; e v Fkok Øw Mrsy ] l Yi Q j rFkk ukbVªkstu dh dkcZ
fud v ' kfq¼; ksads
l kFk i k; k t krk gS
A
r sy d k ' kksèku
i sVªksfy; e dksfofHkUu çHkkt ksaesaft udk Do; ka
d fHkUuµfHkUu gksrk gS
] esack¡Vusdh çfØ; k dks' kksèku dgrs
gSAl oZçFke rsy dksvEyh; vFkok{kkjh; foy; ka sl sèkks;kt krkgS
] t ksbues
amifLFkr v Eyh; v Fkok{kkjh; v' kq f¼; ksa
i j fuHkZ
j djrk gS aèkq
y sgq
, rsy dks723 K rki i j xeZdjdsml dk çHkkt h v kl ou djkrsgS arFkk Hkki dksçHkkt h
LrEHk l sHkst rsgS Abl fofèk l sCrude Oil dbZHkkxksaesafoHkDr gkst krk gS A
i sVªksfy; e d sçHkkt
çHkkt DoFku i fj l j mi ; ksx
1- xS
l h; gkbMªkd
s kcZ
u 303 rd nzohdj.k dsi ” pkr~bZ / ku dh rjg
a
2- ØwM usIFkk· i sVªksfy; e ba
/Zu · i sVªkys v Fkok xSl ksy hu · osa
t hu
303&423303&363363&393393&423dkcZ u CyS d okfuZ
” krFkk
jcj mn~ ; ksx es
afoyk; d ds#i esa ] eksVj baè
Zku ds#i esa ]
3- dsjkslhu rsy 423µ513 LVkso bZ èku] rsy ] xS
a l dsfuekZ . k esa
]
4- bZ
èku rsy ·
a xS
l rsy · Mht y rsy · 513µ623
Mht y] bUt u esabZ èku ds#i esaVS
a ªDVj xSl ksy hu
5- yq
czksd sUV rsy 543 dsÅi j i sa
V rsy ] VªUli QkeZj rsy ] yqczhds”ku

174
 SCIECNE

v i Li Q
ksVu
, d v kUrfjd ngu ba t u esamRiUu gksusokyh rs t èofu dksv i Li Q ksVu dgrsgS
Av i Li Q
ksVu dksi sVªksfy; e
esav i Li QksVujksèkh ; kS
fxd feykdj de fd; k t k l drk gS ] tS l sµ VsVªk, fFky ysMA
ysMdst gjhysrFkk v U; i ; kZ ojk l Eca
èkhl eL; kv ksadsdkj.k VsVªk, fFky ysMdk ç; ksx çfrcfUèkr dj fn; k
x; kgS Ai sVªksfy; e dhDokfyVhdksc<+ kusdsfy, v U; fofèk; ksat Sl sµ , jksesa
Vhdj.krFkkl ekD; ohdj.kdkçksx fd; k
t krk gSrFkk v kbl ks; kS fxdksadkst ksMu
+k Hkh ykHknk; d fl ¼ gq v k gS
A
i sVªksy d h DokfyVh
v kDVsu l a [ ; k ( Octane Number) µ v kDVsu l [a; k og i S ekuk gS ] t ksfdl hv kUrfjd ngu btau esamifLFkr bè aku
Z
dh v i Li Q ksVu {kerk dk eki u djrk gS Ank'skq( gkbMªkd
s kcZu gsIVu
s rFkk v kbl ks,DVsu l cl sv fèkd ekU;rk çkIr gS A
^^vkDVu sl a [ ; kfdl hvkbl ksv kDVsu rFkkgsIVsu dsfeJ.kes amifLFkr v kbl ksvkDVsu dkçfr” kr crkrkgS A**
l Hkhbè ZkuksadhmÙkerk dksml dhv kDVsu l a
a [ ; k l seki kt krk gS ] t ks0 l s10 rd gkrsh gSAfdl hbZèku dh
a
v kDVsu l [a; k ft ruhv fèkd gksxhog mrukv PNkbZ èku gksxkAt S
a l sµxSl ksy hu dhv kDVsu l [a; k 80 gS
] t cfd gokbZ
t gkt esami; ksx v kusokysbZ èku dh {kerk 100 ; k ml l sv fèkd gksrh gS
a A
l hVsu l a
[; k
fdl hMht y dhmÙkerkl hVsu l a[ ; ki j fuHkZ
j djrhgS
AgsDl kMsd u
s C16H34 dksl hVsu HkhdgrsgS
A; g ' kh?kz
t yrk gSrFkk bl dh Cetane dhl a
[ ; k 100 gksrh gS] t cfd 1µes
fFky usIFkyhu t ksèkhjs
µèkhjst yrk gS
] dhCetane
la[ ; k 0 gksrh gS
A
LPG and CNG
LPG (Liquified Petroleum Gas) es
arhu ; k pkj dkcZ u i jek.kqv ksaokysgkbMªksd kcZu gksrsgS At Sl sµ çksisu]
çkishu] vkbl ksC;wVsu rFkk dbZC;w Vhu] ft uesadq
N ek=kk esabF
Zksu feyk gksrk gS ALPG dk eq [ ; l zksr okLrfod xSl sgS ]
t ksi sVªksfy; e ds' kksèku rFkk foLi Q
kV
su l sfeyrh gSA
CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) okLrfod xS l dk l a ?kuu djdscukbZt krh gS Avkt dy T; knkrj okguksa
esaCNG dk ç; ksx fd; k t k jgk gS AokLrfod xS l dh v kDVu sla [ ; k 130 gS A
moZ
jd
Ñf"kesai Q l yka
sdsv fèkd mRiknu o i kS èkksadhof̀¼ dsfy; s]ukbVªkst u] i Q kLi Q
ksjl ] i ksVsf' k; e] dSfYl ; e vkfn
rRoksadhv ko' ; drk gksrh gS Ai kS
èksbu rRoka sdksHkw fe l sxzg.k djrsgS Aysfdu èkhjs µèkhjsHkw fe es abu rRoksadhdeh
gkst krhgSAbl dehdksi jwkdjusdsfy; sÑf=ke #i l scuk; sx; sbu rRoka sds; kS fxd mfpr ek=kkesaHkw fe esafeyk; s
t krsgSAÑf=ke #i l scuk; a sx; sbu ; kfSxdksadksghmoZ j d dgrsgS A; fn rRoksadsbu ; kS fxdksadksHkfw e esau feyk; k
t k; rksml dh mRikndrk de gkst k; sxhAmoZ j d dbZçdkj dsgksrsgS Abudk fooj.k fuEu gSµ
1- ukbVªkst u d smoZ j d ( Nitrogenous Fertilisers) µ bu moZ j dksaesaeq [ ; r%ukbVªkst u rRo i k; kt krkgS AdqN
çeq[ k ukbVªkst u ; kSfxd fuEu gSµ
 ;w fj ; k ( Urea) µ ; w fj; k es
a46 çfr' kr ukbVªkst u dh ek=kk i k; h t krh gS A
 v eksfu; e l Yi Q sV ( Ammonium Sulphate) µ bl esaukbVªkstu v ekfsu; k ds#i esamifLFkr jgrhgS
rFkkyxHkx 25 çfr' kr v eksfu; ki k; ht krhgS A; g v kywv ksadsfy; sv PNkmoZ j d gS Abl dkç; ksx pw uk
jfgr Hkfw e esaughafd; k t krk gS A
 dS fYl ; e ukbVªsM ( Calcium Nitrate) µ ; g ukbVªkst u dk l cl sv PNk moZ j d gS Ackt kj esa; g
^ukosZ ft ; u l kYVi hVj* dsuke l st kuk t krk gS A
 dS fYl ; e l k; ukekbM ( Calcium cyanamide) µ bl moZ j d dk cq v kbZdjusl si gysHkw fe esa

175
 SCIECNE

fNM+ d ko fd; k t krk gS Ai kSèkksadh of̀¼ dsl e; bl moZ j d dk ç; ksx i kSèkka

sdsfy; sykHkçn ughagksrk gS A
2- i ksVsf' k; e d smoZ j d ( Potassium Fertilisers) µ i kV ssf' k; e DykjskbM] i ksVfs' k; e ukbVªV
s] i ksVsf' k; e l Yi Q sV
v kfn i ksVfs' k; e dsdq N çeq [ k moZ j d gSA
3- iQ kLi Q kjsl d smoZ j d ( Phosphorus Fertilisers) µ l q ij iQ kW
Li Q
sVv kW
i Qykbe] i Q kLi Q
sVhèkkrq ey] i Q kLi Qksjl
dsçeq [ k moZ j d gS Al iqj i Q kLi Q
sV dksgfM~ M; ka
sdksi hl dj cuk; k t krk gS A
4- fefJ r moZ j d ( Mixed Fertilisers) µ bl çdkj dsmoZ j dksaesa, d l sv fèkd rRo i k; st krsgS at Sl sµ
v eksfu; e i Q kLi Q
sV] v eksfu; e l q ij iQ kLi Q
sV v kfnA
ukbVªkst u
ukbVªkst u xSl dh[ kkts jnji Q ksMZus1773 esadhFkhA; g , d ja xghu xS l gSAok; qesa79 çfr' kr Hkkx ukbVªkst u
i kbZt krhgS A; g xS l t yusesal gk; d ughagS At hoµt Urq v ksao ouLi fr; ksaesa; g çksVhu ds#i esal a fpr jgrh gS A
; g xS l ' ol u fØ; k esal gk; d ughagS aft l l sukbVªkstu dsok; q e.My esaçkf.k; ksadh eR̀;qgksl drh gS Am| ksxksaesa
bl dk ç; kxs ukbfVªd vEy o veksfu; k cukuses afd; k t krk gS A
ukbVªkst u pØ
ukbVªkst u dk l cl scM+ k l zksr ok; q e.Myh; ukbVªkstu gSysfdu t hoèkkjh o ouLi fr; kal hèksok; q e.My l s
ukbVªkst u çkIr ughadj i krsAt hoèkkjh ukbVªkst u dksi sM+ µi kS
èkksa}kjk çksVhu ds#i esaçkIr djrsgS arFkk i sM+i kS
èksbl s
feV~Vh es afeysgq ; sfofHkUu ukbVªkst u yo.kka sl sçkIr djrsgS A t hoèkkfj; ksao i sM+
µi kSèkksdksçkIr ; g ukbVªkst u
ok; q
e.Myh; ukbVªkst u l sghfofHkUu ; kfSxdk]sayo.kksa ] veksfu; k] ukbfVªd vEy v kfn ds#i esaçkIr gkrshgS ] ys fdu
ok; q
e.My esaukbVªkstu dh ek=kk fi Q j Hkh fLFkj cuhjgrhgS Abl dk dkj.k ukbVªkst u pØ gS Aft l ds}kjk ok; q e.My
dhukbVªkst u fofHkUu ; kS fxdksao yo.kksads#i es at hoèkkfj; ksarFkk i M
s+µi kè
Skksa}kjkçkIr dj yht krhgS A; g ukbVªkst u
fofHkUu fØ; kv ka s}kjk i q
u%ok; q
e.My es ai gq
p
¡ t krhgS ] ft l l sok; qe.My esadq y ukbVªkst u dhek=kk fLFkj jgrh gS A



176
 SCIECNE

177
 SCIECNE

¼ããõãä¦ã‡ãŠ ãäÌã—ãã¶ã
; ka
f=kd h
1 çR;sd jkf' k dh eki dsfy, ml h jkf' k dk dksbZekud eku fy; k t krk gSbl ekud dks^ek=kd* dgrsgS A
2 ek=kd nksçd kj d sgksr sgSµ
1. ew y ek=kd
2. O ;R
qi Uu ek=kd
- ew y ek=kd osek=kd gS aft udksv ki l es acnyk v Fkok l EcfUèkr ughafd; k t k l drk gS A
- osl Hkh ek=kd t ksew y ek=kdksadh l gk; rk l sO ; Dr fd; st k l drsgS aO;Rqi Uu ek=kd dgykrsgS
A
eki usd h v Urj kZ "Vªh; ek=kd i ¼fr esaew y ek=kd fuEu gSµ
HkkSfr d j kf' k ew y ek=kd lad sr
yEckbZ ehVj m

nzO; eku fdyksxzke Kg

l e; l sd s.M S

rki dsfYou K

fo| q r èkkjk , sfEi ; j A

T; ksfr rhozrk dS . Myk cd

i nkFkZdk i fjek.k eksy mol

1 i sfjl dsv Urjk"ZVªh; eki rkS y dk; kZ y ; esaIys fVue bjhfM; e feJèkkrqdhNM i j 00Crki i j cusnksfpg~ uka
sds
chp dh nw j h ^ehVj* dgykrh gS A
2 1983 esa, d dkÝ asl esa^ehVj* dksi fjHkkf"kr djrsgq , dgk x; k fd ^og yEckbZft l sfuokZ r esaçdk' k
1@299792457 l sd s.M es ar; djrk gSehVj dgykrh gS A
3 cgq r cM+ h r Fkk NksVh j kf' k; ksad h l w
p hµ
cM+ h j kf' k; k¡ NksVh j kf' k; k¡
Msd kehVj µ 101 MslhehVjµ 10µ1
gsDVksehVj µ 102 l s.VhehVjµ 10µ2
fdyksehVj µ 103 feyhehVjµ 10µ3
fefj; kehVj µ 104 esxkehVj µ 106
ekbØksehVj µ 10µ6 t kbxksehVj µ 109
uSuksehVj µ 10µ9 VsjkehVj µ 1012
,aXLVªke µ 10µ10 i sa
VkehVj µ 1015
fi dksehVj µ 10µ12 , Dl kehVj µ 1018
iQ kehZ
ehVj µ 10µ15 , VksehVjµ 10µ18
1 cgq r yEchnw fj; k¡ eki usgsrqçdk' k o"kZdk ç; ksx fd; k t krk gS A, d çdk' k o"kZ¾9-46×1015 çdk' k o"kZl sHkh

178
 SCIECNE

cMh +bdkbZi kjl sd gS Ai kjl sd ¾3-26 çdk' k o"kZ

2. v UrjkZ "Vªh; ek=kd i ¼fr (SI) es anzO;eku dk ek=kd fdxz k gSAi sfjl dsi kl l sozk; uxj esav UrjkZ
"Vªh; eki rkS
y
dk; kZy ; esaj[ ksIysfVue bjhfM; e feJ èkkrqdscsy u dk nz O;eku ^ekud fdxzk* ekuk t krk gS A
cM+ h j kf' k; k¡ NksVh j kf' k; k¡
esxkxzke µ 103 fdxzk ( 1 Vu) Mslhxzkeµ 10µ4 fdxzk
t hxkxzke µ106 fdxzk feyhxzkeµ 10µ6 fdxzk
Vskjkxzke µ 109 fdxzk fi dksxzke µ 10µ15 fdxzk
SI i ¼fr es al e; dkek=kd l sd .sMgS A, d eè; kgu l snw
l jseè; kgu dschp dhvofèkdksl kjSfnu dgkt krk
gSAi wj so"kZdsl kS
j fnuka
sdsv kSl r dksekè; l kjSfnu dgrsgS abl ekè; l kS j fnu dk1@86400 Hkkx dks, d l sd s.M
dgrsgS A
xfr (Motion)
oLrqv ksadsl e; dsl kFk l kFk fLFkfr i fjorZ u dksxfr dgrsgS Axfr eq [ ; r%rhu çdkj dh gksrh gS A
1 LFkkukUrfj r xfr µ l hèkh js [ kk esaxfreku oLrqdh xfr dksdgrsgS A
2 ?kw u xfr µ fdl h v {k dsi fjr%?kw
. kZ ersfi .M dh xfr dksdgrsgS A
3 d Ei u xfr µ fdl h fuf' pr fcUnqdsbèkj mèkj xfr djrh oLrqdksdgrsgS A
tS l s%µ ?kMh +dk yksy dA
v fn' k j kf' k µ ft u HkkS
frd jkf' k; ka
sesadsoy i fjek.k gksfn' kk u gksv fn' k jkf' k dgrsgS At Sl sµ l e; ] pky]
nzO; eku] dk; Z ] Åt kZvkfnA
l fn' k j kf' k µ ft u HkkS
frd jkf' k; ka
sesai fjek.k , oafn' kk nksuksafu#fi r gksl fn' k jkf' k dgykrh gS At S l sµ osx]
foLFkki u] cy] Roj.k vkfnA
fo| qr èkkjk] rki , oankc es a; | fi fn' kk Hkh gksrh gSfi Q j Hkh ; sv fn' k jkf' k; k¡ gSA
nwj h µ fn; sx; sl e; kUrjky esaoLrq}kjk r; fd; sx; sekxZdh yEckbZdksnw j h dgrsgSA
foLFkki u µ fdl h fo' ks"k fn' kk esaxfr' khy oLrqdsfLFkfr i fjorZ u dksfoLFkki u dgrsgS A
oLrqdk foLFkki u èkukRed] Í .kkRed , oa' kw U; dq N Hkh gksl drk gSi jUrqnw j h l nS
o èkukRed gksrh gS A
osx µ xfr' khy oLrqdsfoLFkki u dhnj v FkkZ r ~, d l sd s.M es agq , foLFkki u dksoLrqdk osx dgrsgS A
osx ¾foLFkki u@ l e; ( ek=kd eh-@ l s-)
pky µ fdl h oLrqdsfLFkfr i fjorZ u dh nj dksoLrqdh pky dgrsgS A
pky ¾nw j h@l e; ( ek=kd eh-@ l s-)
Roj . kµfdl hxfreku oLrqdsosx esaçfr , dka d l e; kUrjky es agksusokysi fjorZ u dksml oLrqdkRoj.k dgrsgS A
Roj . k ¾osx esai fj or Z u@l e; kUrj ky ( eh-@ l s-)
U;w Vu d sxfr fo"k; d fu; e µ bl dkçfri knu vkbt d U;w Vu us1687 esav i uhi q Lrd ^fçal hfi ; k* esafd; kA
; srhu gS A
çFke fu; e µ ( t M+ Ro d k fu; e) µ ; fn dksbZoLrqfojkekoLFkkesagS; k, d l jy js[kkesal eku osx l sxfr' khy
gSrksml dh fojkekoLFkk ; k xfr voLFkk esai fjorZ u rHkh gksxk] t c ml i j dksbZokâ; cy yxk; k t krk gS A
ckâ; cy dsv Hkko esafdl hoLrqdh v i uhfojkekoLFkk ; k l eku xfr dhv oLFkk dkscuk; sj[ kusdh çof̀Ùk
dkst M+ Ro dgrsgS A

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nSfud t hou esabl d k mnkgj . k µ xkM+ h dspyus; k #dusi j ' kjhj dk i hNs; k v kxsdksyVd t kuk] gFkkS Ms
dksBksd usi j ml dk dl t kuk] xkys h ekjusi j dk¡p esaNs n gkst kuk t cfd i RFkj ekjusi j VwVukA
f} r h; fu; eµ fdl h oLrqi j vkjksfi r cy] ml oLrqdsnzO;eku rFkk ml es acy dh fn' kk esamRiUu Roj.k ds
xq. kui Q y dscjkcj gkrskgSAv FkkZr ~cy dsv Hkko es aoLrqv i uhxfr vFkokfojkekoLFkkdkscuk; sj[ krhgS A; g çFke
fu; e dk gh, d #i gS A
r ' r h; fu; eµ çR;sd fØ; k dhml dsl eku i jUrqfoi jhr fn' kk esaçfrfØ; kgksrh gS Abl esa, d cy dksfØ; k
rFkk nw l jsdksçfrfØ; k cy dgrsgS AnSfud t hou esami; ksx µ cUnw d l sxksy hNksM+usi j i hNsdks>Vdk yxrk gS ]
èkksM+k xkMh [ khaprsl e; ?kksMk vi uh fi Nyh Vkx¡ ksal si F̀oh dksèkDdk nsrk gS ]O ; fDr uko l sdw nrk gSrksuko i hNs
pyh t krh gS ] jkdsV dk v kxsc<+ uk] dq, ¡ l si kuh [ khprsal e; jLl h VVwusi j fxj t kuk v kfnA
d k; Z
nSfud t hou l sfHkUu HkkSfrdhesadk; ZgksukrHkhdgk t krk gSt c cy yxkusi j cy dhfn' kkesafoLFkki u gksrk
gS
Adk; Zdh eki yxk; sx; scy rFkk cy dh fn' kk es aoLrqdsfoLFkki u dsxq . kui Q
y dscjkcj gksrh gS A
d k; Z¾cy X cy d h fn' kk esafoLFkki u
; g v fn' k jkf' k gSbl dk ek=kd t wy gSA
; fn dksbZO;fDr fl j i j l keku j[ kdj , d LFkku l snw
l jsLFkku i j yst krk gSrksHkkS
frdhds' kCnksaesadksbZdk; Z
ughagksxk D; ka
fsd oLrqdk foLFkki u i F̀oh }kjk yxk; sx; sxq#Roh; cy dsyEcor~' kw U; gS
A
Åt kZ
fdl h oLrqesadk; Zdjusdh {kerk dksÅt kZdgrsgSbl dk ek=kd t w y gSAbl dsfuEu çdkj gS µ
1 xfrt Åt kµ Z fdl hoLrqesaml dhxfr dsdkj.kdk; Zdjusdh{kerkdksdgrsgS A; g l nSo èkukRed gksrh
gSµ xfrt Åt kZµ 1@ 2 X nz
O;eku ( m) X osx2 ( V)
2 fLFkfrt Åt kZ µ fdl h oLrqdsfo' k"sk v oLFkk vFkok fLFkfr dsdkj.k ml esadk; Zdjusdh{kerk dksdgrs
gSAt S l sµ nch gq
bZfLça x] ?kM+h dh Hkjh gqbZpkch] ÅapkbZi j j[ kh oLrq A
fLFkfrt Åt kZds#i µ çR;kLFkfLFkfrt Åt kZ ] xq
Roh; fLFkfrt Åt kZ ] oS
|qr fLFkfrt Åt kZ
] pq
Ecdh; , oajkl k; fud
fLFkfrt Åt kZv kfnA
HkkS
frd t xr~es al HkhçfØ; kv ksaesafdl hu fdl h #i esaÅt kZdk , d ; k v fèkd #i ksaes a#i kUrj.kgksrk jgrk gS
A
a
dfri ; midj.k o mul sgksusokyk Åt kZ#i kUrj.k fuEuor~gSµ
mi dj . k Åt kZd k Lo#i i fj or Z u
fo| rq cYc µoS|q r Åt kZl sÅ"ek o çdk' k Åt kZ
fo| rq l sy µjkl k; fud Åt kZl soS |qr Åt kZ
eksecÙkh µjkl k; fud Åt kZl sçdk' k o Å"ek esa
iQ kV
sksbysfDVªd l sy µçdk' k Åt kZl soS |qr Åt kZ
Mk; ueksa µ; ka
f=kd Åt kZl soS |q
r Åt kZ
eksVj µoS|q r Åt kZl s; ka
f=kd Åt kZ
ykmMLi hdj µoS|q r Åt kZl sèofu Åt kZ
ekbØksiQ ksu µèofu Åt kZl soS |q r Åt kZ
fl rkj µ; kfa=kd Åt kZl sèofu Åt kZ
btau µÅ"ek l s; kaf=kd Åt kZ
l ksy j l sy µl kSj Åt kZl sfo| qr Åt kZ
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ªãºã
fdl hl rg ds, dk¡d {ks=ki Q
y i j yxusokyscy dksnkc dgrsgS Abl dkek=kd U;w
Vu@
oxZehVj gS AoLrqdk
{k=
ski Q y ft ruk de gksrk gSog fdl h l rg i j mruk ghv fèkd nkc Mkyrh gS AnS
fud t hou es
ami; ksx µ nyny
esai Q¡l a
sO;fDr dksysVusdh l ykg] dhy dh fl jk uq d hyk gksuk v kfnA
ok; q
e. Myh; nkc
i F̀oh dspkjksav ksj mifLFkr ok; q, oafofHkUu xS l sage l Hkhi j v R;fèkd nkc Mkyrh gSbl sok; q e.Myh; nkc
dgrsgS A; g nkc 105 U;w Vu@ ehVj 2 gksrkgSbrukv fèkd nkc gesabl fy, ughav uq Hko gksrkD; ksa fd gekjsv Unj ds[ kw u
, oav U; dkjd v Unj l snkc Mky dj bl sl Urq fyr djrsjgrsgS Ai F̀ohdhl rg l sÅa pkbZi j t kusi j ok; q nkc de
gkrsk t krk gSi Q yr%i gkMka si j [ kkuk cukusesadfBuukbZgksrh gS ] ok; q; ku esacSBs; k=khdsi u s dh L; kghcgusyxrh
gS] mPpnkc okysO;fDr dksok; q ; ku ; k=kk u djusdh l ykg nh t krh gS A
ok; qnkc eki h es ai kjsdsLrEHk dk fxjuk v k¡èkh ; k o"kkZdk l w pd gksrk gSbl dk p<+ uk LoPN o l ki QekS le
dk l wpd gS Anzo dsHkhrj fdl h fcUnqi j nzo dk nkc nzo dsLora =k ry l sfcUnqdh xgjkbZi j fuHkZ j djrk gSrFkk
fdl h Hkh xgjkbZi j nzo dk nkc pkjksav ksj l eku gksrk gS AxgjkbZc<+ usi j nkc c<+ r k t krk gSA
gkbMªksfyd fyÝV] gkbMªksfyd çsl] gkbMªksfyd czsd v kfn i kLdy dsfu; e i j dk; ZdjrsgS A
osi nkFkZt ksfi ?kyusai j i Q y rsgS
S amu i j nkc c<+ kusl smudk xyuka d c<+t krk gSt S l sµ ?kh] ekse
osi nkFkZt ksfi ?kyusi j l a dqfpr gksrsgSnkc c<+ kusi j mudk xyuka d de gkst krk gS At Sl s% µ ci Q A
Z
nkc c<+ kusl si kuh dk DoFkuka d c<+t krk gSbl hfy, çs'kj dq d j esa[ kkuk t Ynh , oav kl kuhl scu t krk gS A
laosx µ xfreku oLrqdsnzO;eku rFkk osx dsxq . kui Q
y dksoLrqdk l a osx dgrsgS A
laosx l a j {k. k d k fl ¼kU r µ , d ; k, d l svfèkd oLrq v kasdsfudk; dkl o axs rc rd vi fjofrZ r jgrkgSt c
rd oLrq; k oLrq v ka
sdsfudk; i j dkb sZokg; cy vkjkfsi r u gkA s jkdsV dk Åi j t kuk bl hfl ¼kU r i j vkèkkfjr gS A
cy v k?kw . kZµ t c fdl h fi .Mi j yxk ckã cy ml sfdl hv{k dsi fjr%?kq ekusadk ç; kl djrk gSrkscy
dhbl çof̀Ùkdkscy vk?k.wkZdgrsgS A; fn cy v{ki j yxk; kt krkgSrksfi .Mdks?ke qk; kughat kl drkbl dsfoi jhr
cy v{k l sft ruh nw j gksxk] cy v k?kw . kZmruk ghv fèkd gksxk v kjSfi .M dks?ke qkuses avkl kuhgkxshAbl hfy, njokt s
dsgRFksrFkk dq Egkj dspkd es aydMh +i Q lakusokyk Nn s nw j cuk; k t krk gSrFkk gS . Mi Ei dk gRFkk yEck gkrsk gS A
v fHkd sUnzh; cy µ fdl h oÙ̀kkdkj ekxZi j xfr djrh gq bZfdl h oLrqi j t kscy dsUnzdh v ksj dk; Zdjrk
gSml sv fHkdsUnzh; cy dgrsgSbl dsv Hkko es adksbZoLrqo' Ùkkdkj ekxZi j ughapy l drh gS Abl dk mnkgj.k µ
i F̀oh dk l w ; Zdspkjksav ksj pDdj yxkuk] bysDVªku dk ukfHkd dspkjksavksj ?kw euk] eq M+r sl e; l kbfdy l okj dk
>qd t kuk v kfn gS A
v i dsUnzh; cy µ oÙ̀kkdkj ekxZi j xfr djrhgq bZoLrqi j t kscy v fHkdsUnzh; cy dsfoi jhr dsUnzl sckgj
dhv ksj yxrk gSml svi dsUnzh; cy dgrsgS Abl dsmnkgj.kekS r dsdq , ¡esal kbfdy dk pykuk] di Mk l q [ kkusdh
e' khu] nw èk l seD[ ku fudkyusokyh e' khu v kfn bl h fl ¼kUr i j dk; ZdjrsgS A
xq#Ro (Grariety) µ xq #Ro og v kd"k.Zk cy gSft l l si F̀oh fdl hoLrqdksv i usdsUnzdh vksj [ kha prhgS A
bl hfy, eq Dr #i l sÅi j i Q d hxbZoLrq
sa , ¡i F̀ohi j v kdj fxjrhgS Afdl hoLrqi j yxusokykxq #Roh; cy ghml dk
Hkkj dgykrk gS A
xq#Roh; Roj . kµ eq Dr #i l si F̀ohdhv ksj fxjrhfdl hoLrqdsosx esaçfr l sd .sMgku ssokyhof̀¼ xq #Roh;
Roj.k dgykrh gS Axq #Roh; Roj.k oLrqdsnzO;eku i j fuHkZ j ughdjrk gS A; fn fHkUuµfHkUu nzO ; eku dh nksoLrq v ksa
dkseq Dr #i l sfuokrZ esal eku Åpka bZl sfxjk; k t k; rksosnksuka s, d l kFk i F̀oh i j i gq p
¡ sxhAxq#Rph; Roj.k dkeku
Hke
wè; js[kki j l cl sde o èkzoksai j v f/ d gku ssdsdkj.koLrqdkHkkj Hke wè; js[kki j de rFkkèkq o
zksai j v fèkd gkxskA
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 SCIECNE

i F̀ohry l sÅi j ; k uhpst kusi j xq #Roh; Roj.k dkeku ?kVrk t krk gS Ai F̀ohdsdsUnzi j ; g ' kw U; gksrk gS Av r%
dsUnzi j oLrqdk Hkkj ' kw U; rFkk nzO;eku i ' oZ or~jgrk gS A
i F̀ohdsèkw . ku
Z xfr dkHkhçHkko xq #Roh; Roj.ki j i M+ r k gS; fn i F̀ohèkw
euk ca n dj nsrksèko zqksadsv frfjDr
çR;sd LFkku i j xq #Roh; Roj.k dk eku o oLrqdk Hkkj c<+t k; sxkA; fn i F̀oh v i usv {k dsi fjr%rst h l sèke wus
yxsrksèkzq okasdsvfrfjDr çR;d s LFkku i j oLrq v ksadsHkkj esadehgkst k, xh; g dehHkw eè; js[kki j l okZ fèkd gkxshA
; fn i F̀oh èkw . kZ
u xfr 17 xq uh gkst k; rksfo.kq Dr js[kk i j oLrqdk Hkkj ' kw U; gkst k; xskA
xq#R o d sUnzµ xq #Ro dsUnzog fcUnqgS ] t gk¡ oLrqdk l eLr Hkkj dk; Zdjrk gS A
xq#Ro d sUnzr Fkk l U rqy u µ dkb sZoLrqrHkhrd l Urq y u dhv oLFkk esajg l drhgS ] t c rd ml dsxq #Ro
dsUnzl sxq t jusokyhmèokè Zkj js[ kk ml oLrqdsv kèkkj ds{ks=ki Q y dsv Unj l sgksd j xq t jrhgS; fn ; g js[kk ckgj
gkst krh gSrksoLrqdk l Urq y u fcxM+t krk gS Afdl hoLrqdsv kèkkj dk {ks=ki Q y ft ruk cM+ k gksxk ml dk l Urq yu
mrukghLFkk; hgksxkAbl dkmnkgj.ki gkM+i j p<+ r s; ki hB i j cks> fy, pyrkv knehv kxs>q d t krkgS ] nq
eaft yh
cl ksadk fupyk ryk Hkkjh cuk; k t krk gS A
xzg µ osv kdk' kh; fi .M t ksl w ; Zdspkjksavksj v i uh µ vi uh d{kk es apDdj yxkrsjgrsgS axzg dgykrs
gSAl w ; Zl sc<+ r snwj hdsdsØe esa; sµ cq / ] ' kq
Ø i F̀oh] ea xy] og̀Li fr] ' kfu] ; wj sul ( v #.k) o#.k( usIP; w u) gS A
a
mi xzg µ osv kdk' kh; fi .M t ksxzgka sdspkjksav ksj i fjØek djrsgS amixzg dgykrsgS A
a
Ñf=ke mi xzg µ ; sekuo fufeZ r gksrsgS A; fn fdl h fi .Mdksi F̀oh ry l sdq N l kSfdehÅi j vkdk' k esa
Hkstdj ml syxHkx 8 KM/ l sd s.Mdk {kS frt osx nsfn; k t k; rksog fi .Mi F̀oh dspkjksav ksj , d fuf' pr d{kk
esai fjØe.k djusyxrk gSbl dk i fjØe.k dky 84 feuV gksrk gS A
d {kh; mi xzg µ ; smixzg , d fuf' pr d{kk es ai F̀oh dspkjksav ksj i fjØek djrsgS A
HkwfLFkj mi xzg µ ; si F̀oh dsfdl h LFkku dsl ki s{k fLFkj jgrsgS Abudh d{kk i F̀oh dsfo.kq orh; ry esa
gkrshgSrFkkbudki fjØe.kdky i F̀ohdsv i usv {kdsi fjr%èk.wkZ u dky dscjkcj ( 24 ?ka Vs) gksrkgS AbudhÅa pkbZ
i F̀oh ry l syxHkx 36000 KM gkrsh gS AbUgsal a pkj mixzg Hkh dgrsgS A budk mi; ksx Vsy hi Q ksu] Vsy hxzki Q, oa
Vsy hfot u fl Xuyksagsrqgksrk gS A; fn èkw ersgq , fdl h mixzg l sdksbZoLrq; k i S d sV fxjk fn; k t k; rksog i F̀ohi j
u fxjdj mixzg dsl kFk ml h d{kk esa, oaml h pky l sèkw eusyxs xkAMi xzgka sesaHkkj ghurk µ Ñf=ke mixzgksaesa
Hkkjghurk dh v oLFkk i k; h t krh gSv FkkZ r ~mixzg dsry }kjk ; k=kh i j yxk; k x; k çfrfØ; k cy ' kw U; gksrk gSA
Hkkjghurk dsdkj.k v rafj{k ; k=khv i uk Hkkstu fo' ks"k çdkj dsV~ ;w
c esyst krsgS avkSj nck dj fuxyrsgS A
pUnzek dk nzO;eku v fèkd gksusdsdkj.k HkkjghurkdhfLFkfr ughai k; h t krhgS Ai F̀ohdsl ki s{k pUnzekdk
xq#Roh; Roj.k 1@ 6 gSv r%ogk¡(pUnzek) fdl hoLrqdk Hkkj 1@ 6 gkst k; sxki jUrqnzO;eku fu; r jgsxkAuhpsmrjrs
l e; fyÝV dh Mkjsh VV w t k; rksHkh Hkkjghurk dk vuq Hko gksrk gS A
i y k; u osx µ og U;w ure osx] ft l l sfdl h fi .MdksÅi j dh v ksj i Q d
a
s k t k; v kjSog i F̀oh dsxq #Roh;
{k=sk dksi kj dj t k; rFkk oki l i F̀oh i j ykV Sdj u v k; si yk; u osx dgykrk gS A
bl dk eku i F̀oh i j 11-2 fdeh@ lds s.M gS A
a
i yk; u osx ¾2g R
g xq #Roh; Roj.k ¾9-8 eh@ l s-2 R ( i F̀oh dh f=kT; k ¾6-4 X 106 eh-)
xzgksa
] mixzgkasesaok; q
e.My dh mifLFkfr µ fdl hxzg ; k mixzg i j ok; q e.My dk gksuk ; k u gksuk] ogk¡i j
i yk; u osx dseku i j fuHkZ j djrkgS A; fn i yk; u osx dk eku cgq r v fèkd gSrkscgq r l èku ok; e q.My gksxk vkS j
; fn i yk; u osx de gSrksok; e q.My fojy gksxkA
pUnzekdhf=kT; k] nz O;eku , oaxq #Roh; Roj.k] i F̀ohi j bl dseku dhv i s{kkde gSv r%pUnzekdki yk; u
osx 2-4 KM/S gS ApUnzek i j xS l ksadk v klSr osx bl l sv fèkd gksrk gSft l l sosBgj ughai krsgS ai Q yr%ok; q e.My
v uq i fLFkr gS Aog̀Li fr] ' kfu v kfn i j i y; ku osx cgq r v fèkd gSv r%l èku ok; q e.My i k; k t krk gS A
ok; qe.My dh mifLFkfr ; k v uq i fLFkfr i yk; ku osx i j fuHkZ j djrh gS A
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¹ãðÓŸ ¦ã¶ããÌã (Surface Tension)

nzo dsv i usi ' ' bh; {ks=ki Q y dksU;w ure djusdh çof̀Ùk dksi `"B ruko dgrsgS Abl dsnS fud t hou esacgq r
l smnkgj.kgS at S
l sµ v ksl , oao"kkZcw nksadkxksy gku sk] fpdusl rg i j i kjkdkxksy v kdkj esayq <+d ukAl kcqu feykus
; k xeZdjusi j i kuh dk i `"B ruko de gkst krk gS AxM~ <+
sesaHkjsi kuh i j feV~ v h dk rsy fNM+ d usi j i `"B ruko
de gkst krk gSv kS j ePNj ej t krsgS AdkW
a p dhuyhdksxeZdjusi j i `"B ruko dsdkj.k ml dsfl jsxksy gkst krs
gS Al eq nzdh ygjksadks' kkUr djusdsfy, Hkh rsy Mky dj i `"B ruko gh de djrsgS A
lla t d cy (Cohesive Force) % µ , d ghi nkFkZdsv .kvqksadschp dk; Zdjusokysvkd"kZ . kcy dksl l a td
cy dgrsgS Aft u i nkFkksZdsv .kvqksadschp ; g cy v fèkd gksxk osj[ kst kusokyscrZ u dhnhokjka sesaughafpi dsxsa A
i `"B ruko dk dkj.k Hkh ; gh cy gS A
v kl a t d cy (Adhesive Force) % µ fHkUu µ fHkUu i nkFkkza sdsv .kq v ksadschp dk; Zdjusokyscy dksv kl a td
cy dgrsgS At c fdl h nzo dsv .kq v ksadschp dk; Zdjusokyk l l a t dcy nzo o crZ u dschp dk; Zdjusokys
v kl at d cy l sde gksrkgSrksog nzo crZ u dhl rg dksxhykdj nsrkgS Abl dsfoi jhr fLFkfr esaxhykughadjs xkA
L; kgh o dkxt dschp v kl a t d cy] L; kgh dsv .kq v ksadschp dk; Zdjusokysl l a t d cy l sv fèkd gksrk gS
bl fy, fy[ krsl e; L; kgh dkxt i j fpi drh gS A
d sf' kd kRo (Capillarity) % µ ds'kuyh esanzo dsÅi j p<+ us; k uhpsmrjusdh çfØ; k dksdsf' kdkRo dgrs
gS Ads'kuyhdsft ruhi ryhgksxhnzo dkry mrukghvfèkd Åi j p<+ sxk; kuhpsfxjsxkA, slsnzo t kscrZ u dhl rg
dksfHkxkrsgS ads'kuyh esaÅi j p<+ r sgS at S
l s%µ t yA t kscrZ u dh l rg dksughaxhyk djrsgS aosds'kuyhesauhps
mrjrsgS Anzo dkÅi j p<+ uk; kuhpsmrjukHkhi `"B ruko dsdkj.kghgksrkgS Abl dsnS fud t hou esacgq r l smnkgj.k
gS At S l s[ ksr dh ueh dksl jqf{kr j[ kusgsrqfdl ku dk [ ksr dh t q r kbZdjuk] rkS fy; sads, d fl jsdkst y esaMq ckus
ij iw j hrkS fy; sdkxhykgku sk] ykyVsu dhcRrhesarsy dkp<+ uk] i kè
Skksadht Mk+sal st y , oa[ kfut ksadkÅi j Vgfu; ksa
rd i gq ¡puk v kfnA
' ; kur k (ViScosity) % µ ' ; kurk nz o dk og xq . k gS] ft l dsdkj.k og v i uh fofHkUu i rksZ aesagksusokyh
v ki fs{kr xfr dk fojksèk djrk gS A
/o zq dhfofHkUu i rksZdschp v kUrfjd Li ' kZjs[kh; cy dk; ZdjrsgSt ksi rksZdschp gksusokyhv ki sf{kd xfr
dksu"V djusdkç; kl djrsgS AbUghacyksadk' ; ku cy ( Vi scosForce) dgrsgS A' ; kurkdsdkj.kghO;fDr ft ruh
rsthdsl kFkok; qesankM a+l drkgSmruhrs
S t hdsl kFkt y esaughankS M+l drkgS
a Abl hdkj.kcrZ u esanzo dksfgykdj
NkM s+nsusi j ?kw erk nzo FkksM+ h esafLFkj gkst krk gS A
Øka fr d osx (Gitical Velocity) % µ ; fn nzo dscgusdkos x , d fuf' pr osx l sde gksrkgSrksnzo dkçokg
èkkjk js [ kh; gkrsk gSv FkkZr ~nz o dsçR;d s d.k i o wZesaxqt j pq d sd.k dk vuq l j.k djrsgS Anzo dsbl h fuf' pr os
a x dks
Øka frd os x dgrsgS A; fn nz o dk os x bl l svfèkd gS Arksmues afo{kkH sk i n Sk gkrsk gSvkjSt y esaHko¡ j mRiUu gkrsh gS A
l hekUr osx (Terminal Velocity) % µ ; fn dksbZxksy hfdl hnzo es afxjkbZt krh gSrksnz o esaxksy h dsosx ds
dkj.k v ki sf{kd xfr mRiUu gkst krh gS Av ki sf{kd xfr dsdkj.k nz o esa' ; ku cy xkys h dsfxjusdk fojksèk djrk
gS AT; ksaR;ksaxksy hdkos x c<+ r k gS' ; kucy Hkhc<+ r k t krkgS a, d fLFkfr esaxksy hdksosx o ' ; kucy dkeku cjkcj
gkst krkgS, slhfLFkfr es axksy hfu; r osx l suhpsfxjusyxrhgSbl hdksl hekUr osx dgrsgS Ao"kkZdhcw nsrFkki S
a j k' kw
V
l smrjrsO;fDr l hekUr osx l sgh i F̀oh i j v krsgS A
cj ukS
y h dk çes;
t c dksbZnzo ; k xS
l , d LFkku l snw
l jsLFkku rd èkkjk js[kh; çokg esacgrkgSrksml dsekxZesaçR;sd fcUnq
i j ml ds, dkad vk; ru dh dq y Åt kZv FkkZr ~nkc] xfrt , oafLFkfrt Åt kZdk ; kxs fu; r jgrk gS
A
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 SCIECNE

ft l LFkku i j nz o dk osx de gksrk gSogkankc v fèkd gksrk gSrFkk t gkaosx v fèkd gksrk gSogkankc de
gkrsk gSAnS fud t hou esadbZmnkgj.k ns[kusdksfeyrsgS at Sl sv ka
èkh v kusi j ?kjksadsNIi j o Vhu dk mM+ uk] i Qgkjs
q
i j xsa
n dk ukpuk] Iys Vi QkeZi j [ kM+sO; fDr dk pyrh Vsªu dhrji Qfxj t kuk] nkst y; kuksadk i kl esav kusi j Vdjk
t kuk v kfnA
mR{ksi (Upthrust) % µ dkb sZoLrqfdl h nzo esaMcqkbZt krh gSrksml i j Åi j dhv ksj , d cy dk; Zdjrk
gSaft l dsdkj.k oLrqv i usokLrfod Hkkj l sdq N gYdh yxrh gS Anzo dk ; g xq . k ft l l sog oLrq v ksai j Åi j dh
v kjs cy yxrk gSmR{kis cy dgykrk gS A
t c oLrqfdl hnz o esaMq ckb
sZt krhgSrksml dk xq #Roh; cy ( Hkkj) uhpsdhv ksj dk; ZdjrkgSv kjSmRIykou
cy Åi j dhv ksj dk; ZdjrkgS Abu nksuka sdki fj.kkehcy ft l fn' kkesadk; ZdjsxkoLrqml hfn' kk es axfreku gkxshA
ydM+ h dsVq d M+si j ; g Åi j dh v kjs rFkk yksgsdh dhy i j uhpsdh v kjs dk; Zdjrk gS A
v kfd Z feMht d k fl ¼kU r (Archimedes Principle) % µ ; fn dksbZoLrqfdl h nzo es av a
' kr%; k i w . krZ%Mq ckbZ
t krh gS] rksMcqksusi j oLrqdsHkkj esadehçrhr gksrhgS ] oLrqdsHkkj esa; g v kHkkl hdeh ml ds}kjk gVk; a sx; snzo
dsHkkj dscjkcj gksrh gS Abl esarhu fLFkfr curh gSµ
; fn oLrqdk Hkkj] mRIykou cy l svfèkd gSrksoLrqMw c t k; sxh]
; fn oLrqdk Hkkjr] mRIykou cy dscjkcj gSrksoLrqnzo dsvUnj Mcwh gq bZfLFkfr es arS j rh jgs xhA
; fn oLrqdk Hkkj mRIykou cy l sde gSrksdq N fgLl k Mw ck jgrsoLrqrS j rh jgsxhA
Iy ou d k fu; e (Law of Floatation) % µ l Urqfyr voLFkkesarS j usi j oLrqv i usHkkj dscjkcj nzo foLFkkfi r
djrh gS A; gh Iyou ( rS j us) dk fu; e gS A
oLrq}kjk gVk; a sx; snzo dk Hkkj ¾mRIykou cy v FkkZ r ~oLrqdk Hkkj v fèkd ?kuRo okysnzo es arS j usi j oLrq
dk de fgLl k nzo dsv Unj Mcwsxk rFkk de ?kuRo okysnzo esaoLrqdk vfèkd Hkkx Mw csxk bl hdkj.k unhl st gkt
l eqnzesai gq ¡pusai j FkkM
s+k Åi j mB t krk gSD; ka fsd l eqnzh t y dk ?kuRo unh dst y ds?kuRo l sv fèkd gksrk gS A
ykgssdh dhy dhv i s{kk v i uhfo' k"sk cukoV dsdkj.k yksgsdh t gkt i kuh i j rS j rh gSt c dh dhy Mw c
t krh gS Afo' ks"k v kdkj o [ kks[kyk gksusdsdkj.k t gkt }kjk gVk; sx; si kuh dk Hkkj] t gkt dsHkkj l sv fèkd gksrk
gSft l l sbl i j v fèkd mRIykou cy yxrk gSv kjSt gkt rS j rk jgrk gS A
v kfdZ feMht dk fl ¼kUr xS l ka
si j Hkh ykxwgksrk gSgok l sHkjsxq Cckjs}kjk foLFkkfi r gok dk Hkkj ml dsvUnj
dhgok dsHkkj l sv fèkd gksusi j gokml i j Åi j dh v ksj mR{kis cy yxkrhgSv kjSxq Cckjs}kjk gVkbZxbZgokdk
Hkkj ml dsv Unj dh gok dsHkkj dscjkcj gkst krk gSxq Cckjk fLFkj gkst krk gS A


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½ãÍããè¶ã (Machines)
e' khu (Machines) % µ og ; a=k ft l dhl gk; rkl sFkksM+ kcy yxkdj] v fèkd cy dkdke ; k rsthdsl kFk
dke fd; k t k l dse' khu dgykrk gS A
e' khu }kjk t kscy yxk; k t krk gSml sml dh ' kfDr dgrsgS ]
a
e' khu i j cy yxkusi j t kscy e' khu }kjk dk; Zdjusesa#dkoV i S nk djrsgSaml sçfrjksèk ; k Hkkj dgrsgS A
çfrjksèk rFkk e' khu }kjk yxkbZxbZ' kfDr dsv uq i kr dks; kaf=kd ykHk dgrsgS A
a
; ka
f=kd ykHk ¾fd; k x; k dk; @ ZyxkbZxbZ' kfDr
Ek' khu }kjk fd; st kusokysdk; ZrFkk ml dsl a pkyu esafn; sx; scy dsv uq i kr dkse' khu dhn{krk dgrsgS A
n{krk ¾ e' khu }kjk fd; k x; k dk; Z
e' khu }kjk l apkyu esayxk cy
ft l e' khu dhn{krk100 çfr' kr gkxshog v kn' kZe' khu gksxhv Hkhrd , lshe' khu cukuhl a Hko ughagksl dh
D; ksa
fd dq N ?k"kZ
. k fo| eku jgs xkA
y hoj (Lever)%yhoj , d NM+gkrshgSt ks, d fcUnqdspkjksav ksj ?kw e l drhgSft l fcUnqdspkjksav ksj ?ke wrh
gSml sv kyEc dgrsgS Av kyEc l snw j t gk¡ ncko MkyrsgS aml s' kfDr Hktqk dgrsgS A
a ; g rhu çdkj dsgksrsgS A
a
çFke J s.kh % µ bl esav kyEc Hkkj o ' kfDr dschp esagksrk gS A
tSl s% µ Iykl ] dS ph] rq y k dh MaMh] l a
M+l h] l kbfdy dk czsd v kfnA
f} r h; J .skh % µ bl esaHkkj v kyEc v kS j ' kfDr dschp esagksrk gS A
tSl s% µ l jkS
r k] i fg; k] dCt si j ?kw
erk njokt k v kfnA
r ' r h; J .skh % µ buesa' kfDr Hkkj o v kyEc dschp yxrk gS
tSl s% µ fpeVkA
ft l yhoj esade l sde cy ns d j v fèkd rFkk l {ke rjhdsl sdk; Zl EiUu fd; k t k l dsog l cl svPNk
yhoj dk mnkgj.k gksxk , slsçFke Js.kh dk yhoj gh l cl smÙke yhoj gkxskA
v kur r y (Enclined Plane) % µ fdl h ry dk {kS frt l sfdl hdks.ki j >q d k gku
sk v kur ry dgykrk gS A
fdl h Hkkj dksmèokZ èkj mBkusdh v i s{kk v kur ry i j [ khpuk T; knk v kl ku gksrk gS Abl dk mi; ksx Vªd ka sv kfn i j
l eku yknusesafd; k t krk gS A
f?kj uh(Pulley) % µ f?kjuh] LVhy ; kydMh +dhcuhxkys fMLd gksrhgSt ks, d v {k dspkjka s?kw
erhgSchp
esacus[ kk¡psi j Mkjsh Mky dj dksbZoLrqv kl kuh l smBk; h t krh gS A


185
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¦ãÀâØã Øããä¦ã (Wave Motion)

rja x xfr (Wave Motion) % µ Åt kZdk , d LFkku l snw l jsLFkku rd LFkkukUrj.k rja xksads}kjk gkrsk gS At y
esamBusokyh rja xsk]a èofu rja xksadsl apj.k dsfy, ekè; e dh v ko' ; drk i M+ r h gSt cfd çdk' k , oajsfM; ka srja xksa
dsl a pj.k dsfy, ekè; e dhvko' ; drk ughai M+ r h; sfuokZ
r esaHkhl a pfjr gksl drhgS Arja
a x dkseq [ ; r%nksHkkxksa
esack¡Vk t k l drk gS A; ka f=kd] v ; kaf=kdA
; kaf=kd r j ax (Mechanical Wave) % µ fdl hekè; e esamBsfo{kksHkdks; ka f=kd rja x dgrsgS aekè; e es a; ka
f=kd
rjaxksadsmRiUu rja xsrFkk ca èkh jLl h dks>Vdusi j mRiUu rja xsA; snksçdkj dh gksrh gS A
v uq çLFk r j ax (Transverse Wave) % µ tcla pj.k' khy d.k] ekè; e esarja x dspyusdhfn' kkdsyEcor~
dEiu djrsgS arksrja x v uq çLFk gksrh gS A; srjaxsBksl esa, oat y dsÅi jh l rg i j mRiUu gksrh gS At y dsHkhrj
, oaxS l ksaes aughamRiUu gksrh gS A
v uq nSè; Zr j ax (Longitudinal Wave) % µ t c ekè; e esal p aj.k' khy d.k] rja x dsl p aj.k dh fn' kk ds
l ekukUrj dEi u djrsgS arksrja x v uqnS
è; ZgksrhgS
A; srja xsl Hkhekè; eka s( Bksl] nzo] xSl ) esamRiUu dht kl drhgS A
; srja xsl a i hMu (Compression) o fojyu (Rarefaction) ds#i es al a
pfjr gkrshgS AHkwd Ei rja xs] fLaçx] esamRiUu rja xs
v kfn v uq nS è; ZrjaxsgS A, d l a i hM+u dschp dhnw j hv Fkok , d fojyu l snw l jsfojyu dschp dhnw j hv uqnS
è; Zrjax
dh rja x nS è; Zdgykrh gS A
v k; ke (Amplitude) % µ ekè; e dkdksbZd.k v i uhl ke; koLFkkdsnksuksav ksj ft rukv fèkd foLFkkfi r gksrk
gsml nw j h dksv k; ke dgrsgS A
v kor Z d ky (Time - Period) % µ ekè; e dk dEi Uu ' khy d.k , d dEi Uu i w j k djusesaft ruk l e; gksrk gS
ml sv koZ r dky dgrsgS A
rja x nS è; Z(Wave Lenght) % µ ekè; e dkd.k, d dEi Uu i w j kdjrsl e; ft ruhnw j hr; djrkgSml srja x
nSè; ZdgrsgS A
rja x pky (Wave Speed) % µ rja x }kjk nwj hr; djusdh nj dksrja x pky dgrsgS A
fo| q r pq Ecd h; r j a xs(Electromagnetic Wave) % µ ; spq Ecdh; , oafo| q r {ks=kksadsnksy u l smRiUu gksusokyh
v uqçLFkrja xsgSAl eçdk' k] Å"eh; fofdj.k] , Dl fdj.ks] jsfM; ka
a sfdj.ksav kfn bl dsmnkgj.kgS Al Hkhfo| rq pq
a Ecdh;
rjaxs, d ghpky l spyrhgS arFkkbudhpky çdk' kdhpky dscjkcj rhu yk[ k fdehçfr l sd sa MgksrkgS Abudk
rjax nS è; Zi fjl j Hkh cgq r foLr' r gksrk gS A
xkek fd j . ksa(³- Rays) % µ ; si jek.kqdsukfHkd l sfudyrhgS Abudhrja
a xnSè; Z10µ10 l s10µ14 ehVj dschp
gkrsk gS AbuesaÅt kZdh v R;fèkd ek=kk l a fpr gksusdsdkj.k ykg ssadh eksVh pknjksadksHksn nsrh gS A
, Dl fd j . ksa(X- Rays) % µ budh[ kkst l Urt u usdhFkhbudkrja x nSè; Z10µ8 l s10µ10 rd gksrkgSbudkmi; ksx
' kYl fd; k] O;ol k; ] t kl w l h] bUt hfu; fja
x v kfn esagksrk gSA
i j kcS xuhr j a xs(Ultra Violet Waves) % µ [ kkst fjVj usdh FkhAbudk rja x nSè; Z10µ7 l s10µ8 rd gksrk gS A
; sl w; Zdsçdk' k] oS |q r fol t Z u] fuokrZ Li kdZv kfn l smRiUu gksrh gS A
n' ' ; fofd j . k (Visible Radiation) % µ [ kkst U;Vwu usdhFkhAbudk rja x nSè; Zi fjl j 4 X10µ7 l s7-8 X10µ7
ehVj rd gksrk gSbues ai jkorZ u] v i jkorZu] O;frdj.k] foorZ u] èkqzo.k] n' f"V l a osnu v kfn xq . k i k; st krsgSAn' ' ;
fofdj.k dsl zkrs l w ; ]Zrkjs] Tokyk] fo| q r cYc] v kdZyS Ei v kfn gS A
v oj Dr fd j . ksa(Infra –red Rays) % µ [ kkst fofy; u gj' kS y usdhFkhAbudkrja x nS è; Zi fjl j 78 X10µ7 l s
10µ3 eh- rd gksrk gS A; si nkFkksZadksmPp rki i j xeZdjusi j fudyrhgS Aosèku ' kfDr v fèkd gksusdsdkj.k ; s?kus
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dkg sjso èkq èk dsi kj pyht krh gS

a Abudk mi; ksx fl Xuy Hkst us] dksgjsesai Q ksVksxzki Q
h djus] jkfsx; ksadh l d s kbZdjus
v kfn esafd; k t krk gS A
y ?kq j sfM; ksar j axs(Short Radio Waves) % µ budh [ kkts fofy; e gV~ t Zusdh Fkh budk rja x nS è; Zi fjl j 10-
3› l s1 eh Vj rd gkrsk gS Abuesa10µ3µ 10µ2 eh- rja x nS è; Zdh rja xsal w{e dgykrh gsA budk mi; ksx Vys hi Q ku
so
Vsy hfot u çl kj.kksaesagksrk gS A
nhèkZj sfM; ksar j a xs% µ [ kkst ekdksZ uh usdh Fkhbudk i fjl j , d ehVj l s104 ehVj rd gksrk gS A
èofu r j a xs(Sound Waves) % µ ; sv uq nSè; Z; kaf=kd rja xsgS a; sfofHkUu vkof̀Ùk; ksadh gkrsh gS Aft udh v kof̀Ùk
20 gV~ t Zl s20000 gV~ t Zdschp gksft udh v uq Hkw
fr O;fDr dsdkuksa}kjk gksml sèofu dgrsgS Aèofu rja xsnksy u
dj jgsfdl hl zkrs l smRiUu gksd j] ok; ql sxq r jrhgq bZO ; fDr dsdkuksard i gq pdj dku dsi nsZdksnksfyr dj nsrh
gS av kS
j èofu l u qkbZnsusyxrh gS Aèofu rja xksadksv kof̀Ùk o i fjl j dsv uq l kj rhu Hkkxka sesackaVk t krk gS A
JO ; rja xs(Audible Waves) % µ os; ka f=kd ft udhv kof̀Ùki fjl j 20 l sysd j 20000 gV~ t Zrd gkrskgSJO;
rja xsdgykrh gS A
v oJ O ; rja xs(Infrasonic Waves) % µ os; ka f=kd rja xsft udhv kof̀Ùk20 gV~ t Zl sde gksrhgS A; seuq "; dks
lq ukbZughansrh gS A; sHkd wEi dsl e; i F̀oh dsv Unj , oagekjsân; dhèkMd +u l smRiUu gksrh gS A
i j kJ O ; rja xs(Ultrasonic Waves) % µ osv uq nSè; Z; kfa=kd rja xsft udh vkof̀Ùk 20000 gV~ t Zl sv fèkd gksrh
gS Aeuq "; dsdku budksughal q u l drsAdq Ùkk] fcYyh] pexknM+ ] MkfYi Q u v kfn budksl q u l drsgS Abues avR;fèkd
ek=kk esaÅt kZl fapr gksusbudk v R;fèkd] V~ ;wej i rk djus] nk¡r fudkyusvkfn dsv frfjDr t hoksadh dkfs' kdkvksa
dksu"V djus] t hok.kvqksadksu"V djus ] ra f=kdk o xfB; k jksxksadsbykt esafd; k t krk gS agokbZv M~ Mkasi j èkq èk dks
a
gVkus] di Mksadh èkq y kbZ ] ?kM+
h rFkk foekuka sdsvkUrfjd dy i tqksZ adh l i Q kbZHkh dh t krh gSl gh rja xkas}kjk ( Sonar)
l eq nzdh xgjkbZ ] v Unj dh cM+ h cM+h pV~ Vkuksa] fge' kS y ksa
] eNfy; kadk i rk yxkusesafd; k t krk gS A
èofu d h pky (Speed of Sound) % µ ; sbudsl a pj.k dsfy, ekè; e dh v ko' ; drk i M+ r h gSAfuokZ r esa
la pj.kughadjrhAèofu dhpky ekè; e i j fuHkjZdjrhgSfHkUuµfHkUu ekè; eksaesapky fHkUuµfHkUu gksrhgS Aekè; e
esaèofu dh pky ekè; e dh çR;kLFkrk rFkk ?kuRo i j fuHkjZ djrh gS Aekè; e ft ruhçR;kLFk gksxk èofu dh pky
mruh gh vfèkd gksxhAbl dsfoi jhr v fèkd ?kuRo okysekè; eksaes aèofu dh pky de gksxhABksl o nzo xS l ksadh
v i {skk v fèkd çR;kLFk gksrsgS avr%buesaxS l ksadh v i s{k èofu dh pky v fèkd gkrsh gS A t y es aèofu dh
pkyµ1450eh-@ l s-] yksgsesa5100 eh-@ l s- ( 0 0C) , Y; q fefu; e esa6400 eh-@ l s- gksrh gS
axSl dk rki nkc c<+ kusi j
èofu dh pky i j dksbZçHkko ughai M+ r k gS A
' k"qd ok; qdh vi s{kk v knzZok; qdk èkuRo v fèkd gku ssdsdkj.k èofu dh pky c<+t krh gSbl h dkj.k o"kkZ
Í rqesajsy ba t u dk ; k v U; l k; ju nw j rd l q ukbZnsrk gS A
èofu i j r ki d k çHkko % µ ekè; e dk rki c<+ usi j èofu dhpky c<+t krh gS A0Crki i j ok; qesaèofu
0

dh pky 332eh-@ l s- gkrsh gS A10Crki c<+ kusai j èofu dh pky -61eh-@ l -s c<+t krh gS A
Nkc i fjorZ u dk èofu dh pky i j dksbZçHkko ughai M+ r k gSA
v knzZok; qdk èkuRo ' kq "d ok; ql sv fèkd gku ssdsdkj.k èofu dh pky v knzok; qesac<+t k; xshA
fHkUUk fHkUu xS l ksaesaèofu dhpky fHkUUk fHkUu gksxhAgYdhxS l ksaesaèofu dhpky vfèkd o HkkjhxS l ksaesade
a
gkxshA
èofu; ksad sy {k. k (Characteristics of Sounds)µ èofu dsrhu eq [ ; y{k.k gS µrhozrk] rkjRo , oaxq . krkA
Rkhozrk (Intensity) % µ rhozrk dsdkj.k gh dksbZèofu èkheh ; k rst l u qkbZnsrh gS AdEi u dk v k; ke ft ruk
v fèkd gkxsk] èofu dhrhozrkmruhghvfèkd gksxhrFkkc} èofu mruhghrhozl q ukbZnsxhAèofu dhrhoz r kMslhcy
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(Dicible) es aeki h t krh gS Aèofu rhozrk dk Lrj Mslhcy esa µ

èofu l zksr r hozrk Msl hcy
1. l kèkkj.k ckrphr 40µ60
2. rst ckrphr 70µ60
3. Vªd eksVjl k; fdy 90µ95
4. çsl 100µ105
5. v kds LVªk
Z 100µ110
6. l k; ju 190µ200
7. ykmMLi hdj 170µ180
8. t sV foeku 140µ150
9. e' khuxu 170
10. fel kby 180
LkrssO;fDr dks50 Mslhcy dhrhozrk t xk nsrhgS A90 Mlshcy dhrhozrk cnkZ ' r dhv a fre l hek gS A10 ?ka Vs
çfrfnu bruh rhozrk esajgusi j O;fDr cgjk gkst krk gS AdEi u' khy oLrqdk v kdkj ft ruk cMk+mRiUu èofu dh
rhozrk mruh gh v fèkd gkxshA
r kj Ro (Pitch) % µ rkjRo dsdkj.k gh dkb sZèofu eksVh ; k i ryh l u qkbZnsrh gSArkjRo v fèkd gksusi j èofu
i ryh o de gksusi j eksVh dgh t krhgS Ai q#"kkasdh vi s{kk fL=k; ksadkrkjRo v fèkd rFkk i q #"kksadsèofu dh v kof̀Ùk
fL=k; ksadh v i {skk de gksrk gS AePNj dh fHkufHkukgV rFkk ' kjs dhngkM+esaePNj dk rkjRo o v kof̀Ùk nksuka s' ksj l s
v fèkd gS A
xq. kr k (Quality)µ xq . krk] èofu dk og y{k.k gSt ksl eku rhozrk o l eku v kof̀Ùk; ksadh èofu; ksaesavUrj
djrk gS Abl h dsdkj.k O;fDr v i usi fjfprksadksfcuk ns[ksmudh v kokt l sgh i gpku t krk gS A
èofu d k i j kor Z u (Reflection of Sound) % µ èofu Hkhçdk' kdhrjg i jkofrZ r gksrhgSèofu dhrja x nS è; Z
v fèkd gku ssdsdkj.k bl dk i jkorZ u cM+si `"Bksal sgh gksrk gS Adq v k¡] i gkM+
] unh] ?kkVh] nhokj v kfn l si jkofrZ r gks
t krh gS A
çfr èofu (Echo)µ fdl h i jkorZ d ry l soki l ykV Sdj l u qkbZnsusokyh èofu dksçfrèofu dgrsgS A; fn
l zksrk i jkorZ d ry dsl ehi fLFkr gksxk rksçfr èofu ughal q ukbZnsxh çfr èofu l q uusdsfy, U;w ure 16-6 eh-
( yxHkx 17 eh-) dhnw j hèofu l zksr o i jkorZd ry dschp gksuk pkfg, AdksbZèofu gekjsdkuksaesa-1 l sd s.Mrd
jgrh gS Av r%çfr èofu l q uusdsfy, v ko' ; d gSfd èofu -1 l sd s.M ckn gekjsdkuksard i gq ¡psa
ApUnzek i j
çfrèofu ughal u qkbZnsxhA
v uq j . ku (Reverberation) % µ fdl hgky esaèofu l kzsr dscUn djusdsckn Hkhèofu dkdq N nssj rd l q ukbZ
nsuk ^v uq j .ku* ; k v uq xw
t dgykrk gS Aft rusl e; rd ; g èofu l q ukbZnsrhgSml sv uq j .ku dky dgrsgS Afdl h
gky dk v uq j .ku dky ; fn -8 l sd s.Ml sv fèkd gSrksoDrk }kjk fn; k x; k Hkk"k.k l u qkbZughans xkAv uq j .ku dky
' kw
U; okysgky dksxw t¡ gu gky ( Dead Hall ) dgrsgS Av uq j .ku jksd usgsrqgky ghnhokjs a[ kqj njh , oaeksVsi nkaZ
sl s<+ d
nh t krh gS Av uq j .ku ' kw
U; gksusi j v kokt cgq r èkheh l q ukbZnsxhA
èofu d k v i or Z u (Refration of Sound)µ çdk' k dh Hkk¡fr èofu rja xsHkh ekè; e dsi fjorZ u l sv i ofrZ r
gkst krhgS Aèofu rja xksadk v i orZ u ok; qdhfHkUu fHkUu i rksZ adk rki fHkUu gku ssdsdkj.kgksrkgS AxeZok; qesaèofu
dh pky B.Mh ok; qdh vi s{kk v fèkd gksrhgSv r%èofu rja xsrc xeZok; ql sB.Mh ok; qes a; k B.Mh ok; ql sxeZ

188
 SCIECNE

ok; qesaços'k djrh gS arksv i usekxZl sfopfyr gkst krhgS Afnu dsl e; xehZdsdkj.k i F̀oh dsl ehi dh ok; q
Åi j dh v i s{kk vfèkd xeZgksrhgS Aft l l sfdl hl zkrs l smRiUu èofu nw j rd ughal q ukbZnsrhbl dsfoi jhr jkf=kds
l e; èofu nw j rd l q ukbZnsrh gSD; ksa fd i F̀oh dsv kl i kl dsct k; Åi jhi jr dk rki v fèkd gksrk gS A
eqDr nksy u (Free Vibration)µ oLrqdsnksy u ft u i j dksbZcká cy v i ukçHkko ughaMkyrkgSeq Dr nksy u
dgykrkgS Anksy udkjhoLrq v ksai j dksbZckã cy dk; ZdjrkgSt ksbudsnksy uksadksu"V djrkgSbl cy dksv oeUnd
cy dgrsgS A
v uqokn (Resonance)µ fdl h eq Dr nksy u djusokyh oLrqi j dkb sZcká v korZcy yxkusi j oLrqç.kfsnr
nkys uksadsv UrxZ r nksy u djrhgSysfdu ; fn cká v korZcy dhv kof̀ÙkoLrqdhv i uhLokHkkfod vkof̀Ùkdscjkcj
gksrksn' kk es ankys uksadk v k; ke cgq r v fèkd c<+t krk gSbl h v oLFkk dksv uq okn dgrsgS Abl dk mnkgj.k l suk dk
iqy i kj djrsl e; ekpZi kLV u djusdh l ykg] xk; d dsLoj l sf[ kM+ d h dk VwVuk] cl dh [ kM+ [ kMk+gV v kfnA
èofu d kO ; fr d j . k (Interfrence of Sound) % µ nksl eku v kof̀Ùko v k; ke dhnksèofu rja xs, d l kFkfdl h
fcUnqi j i gq ¡prh gS arksml fcUnqi j èofu Åt kZdki q ufoZr j.k gkst krk gS
Abl sgh èofu dk O;frdj.k dgrsgS A; fn
nkusksarja xs, d ghdyk (Phase) es ai gq
p
¡ rhgSrksi fj.kkehv k; ke nksuksarjaxka
sds; ksx dscjkcj gksusl sèofu rhozgksxh
bl sl a i kFkhO;frdj.kdgrsgS A; fn nksuksarja
xsfoi jhr dykesafeyrhgS arksO;frdjk fouk' khgksxko èofu dhrhozrk
U;uwre gksxhA
èofu d k foor Z u (Diffraction of Sound) % µ èofu rja xsdsekxZes av k; sv ojkè
skdsdkj.kmudkeq Mdj l zksr
l sl zksrk rd i gq ¡puk èofu dk foorZ u dgykrk gS A
xs(SUPERSONIC AND SHOCK WAVES) %
i j kèofud o ç?kkr h r j a µ ; fn fdl h xfr' khy fi .M dh pky fdl h
xSl esa
] ml hxS l esèofu dhpky l sv fèkd gkst krhgSrksfi .Mdhpky dksi jkèofud pky dgrsgS Afi .Mdh
pky èofu dhpky l sv fèkd gksusi j] fi .Mv i usi hNsv i usok; qdh, d ' ka
Dokdkj gypy NksM+
r kt krkgSAt S
l sµ
fi .Mnw j t krkgS] bl dkv kdkj c<+
r kt krkgSAbl çdkj dhgypy dksç?kkrhrja x dgrsgSAv R;kfèkd Åt kZl a
fpr
gksusdsdkj.k ; srja xsfdl h Hkou v kfn l sVdjkusi j ml su"V dj l drh gSA


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…Ó½ãã (Heat)
rki oLrqdk og xq . k gSt ksoLrqdsB.Misu ; kxeZ i u dhHkki dksçdV djrhgS AÅ"ek ml sdgsa xst ksfHkUu
µ fHkUu rki ksai j j[ kh nksoLrq v ksadschp LFkkukUrfjr gksrhgSrFkk budksl eku rki i j ykrh gS AÅ"ek , d çdkj
dh Åt kZgSt ksnksoLrq v ka
sdschp rki kUrj dsdkj.k , d oLrql snw l jh oLrqesacgrh gS AÅ"ek Åt kZdk , d #i
gSft l sdk; Zes acnykt k l drk gsbl sjeq iQkM
sZusnksci Q
ZdsVq d Mksadksv ki l esajxM+dj fl ¼ dj fn; kAt c dk; Z
dksÅ"ek esa; k Å"ekdksdk; Zes acnyk t krkgSrksfd; sx; sdk; Zo mRiUu Å"ekdk v uq i kr , d fLFkjka
d gksrkgS A
Å"ek d sek=kd (Units of Heat) % µ
1- , d xzke t y dk rki 10 C c<+ kusdsfy, vko' ; d Å"ek dh ek=kk dksdS y ksjh dgrsgS A
2- , d xzke t y dsrki dks14-5 l s15-530 C rd c<+ kusesaç; q Dr Å"ek dh ek=kk dksv UrjkZ "Vªh; dS
y ksjh dgrs
gSA , d fdxzk t y dsrki dks14-5 l s15-50 C rd c<+ kusdsfy, ç; D qr v ko' ; d rki dh ek=kk dks
fdyksd Sy kjsh dgrsgS A
3- 1 i kM a
S i kuhdkrki 1 fMxz hi Q kjs
ugkbV c<+kusdsfy, vko' ; d Å"ekdhek=kkdksfcz fV' kFkeZy ; fw
uV dgrsgS A
Rkki eki u (Measurement of Temperature) % µ rki eki u gsrqç; q Dr midj.k dksrki eki h dgrsgS Arki eki h
a
esai kjsdkmi; ksx ml dsçl kj dsxq . kdsdkj.kfd; kt krkgS Arki eki u esai nkFkZdsnksv oLFkkv ksadksysrsgS Ai gyk
çkekf.kd ok; qe.Myh; nkc i j xyrsgq , ci Q
Zdhv oLFkk rFkk nw l jk mcyrsgq , t y dh voLFkk bl esaxyrsci Q Z
dsrki dksfgekd a rFkk mcyrsgq , t y dksHkki fcUnq; k DoFkuka d dgrsgS A
R
kki d si S
ekus%
µ
1. l sfYl ; l i S
ekuk %µ v kfo"dkj LohfM'k oS Kkfud l fsYl ; l }kjkAbl esafgeka d 00C rFkk 1000C gksrk gS
chp dsHkkx dks100 cjkcj Hkkxksaesacka V fn; k x; k gS A
2. i Q kj sugkbV i S µ v kfo"dkj t eZ
ekuk % u oS Kkfud i Q kjsugkbV usfd; kFkkAbl esafgeka d 320 F rFkkDoFkuka d
2120 F gkrsk gSchp dsHkkx dks180 cjkcj Hkkxksaesacka V fn; k x; k gS
A
3. j ~ ;w ej i S
ekuk %µ bl esafgekd
a 00 R rFkkDoFkuka d 800 R gkrskgSchp dsHkkx dks80 cjkcj Hkkxksaesacka V
fn; k x; k gSA
4. d s fYou i S
ekuk % µ bl esafgeka
d 2730 K rFkkDoFkuka d 3730 K gkrskgSchp dsHkkx dks100 Hkkxksaesacka Vk
x; kgS AdsfYou i S
ekusi j fgeka
d l suhps2730 K rki dks( 00 K) i je ' kw U; rki dgrsgS Abl dsuhpsdksbZ
rki l a Hko ughagsS
A
r ki eki h (Fhermometers) % µ rki eki u gsrqç; q
Dr ; =ak dksrki eki h dgrsgS A; g rki c<+ usi j nzoksaesagksus
okysçl kj dsfl ¼kUr i j dk; Zdjrk gS Av Ydksgy , oai kjk dk ç; ksx eq [ ; #i l s, lssnzo ds#i esafd; k t krk
gS
Av Ydkg sy dkç; ksx , slsrki ekfi ; ksaesafd; k t krkgSt ksµ 400 C uhpsrki dseki u gsrqç; q Dr gkrssgS Arki eki u
gsrqdbZçdkj dsrki eki h ç; q Dr gksrsgSµ
1- nzo r ki eki hµ bl esai kjsdk mi; kxs gksrk gSv kS j 3570 C rd dsrki dk eki u gkrsk gSD; ksa fd i kjsdk
DoFkuka d 3570 C gksrk gS
A
2- xS l r ki eki hµ 5000 Crd rki eki usgsrqgkbMªkst u rFkk15000 C rd dsrki eki u gsrqukbVªkstu dkç; ksx
gksrk gS A
3- Iy sfVue çfr j ksèk r ki eki hµ xS l eki eki h dh rq y uk esabl dk ç; ksx l jy gSbl ds}kjk 200 l s12000
Crd dsrki dkseki l drsgS A; g rki dsc<+ usi j èkkrqdsrkj dsfo| q r çfrjksèk esagku
ssokysi fjorZ u
dsfl ¼kUr i j dk; Zdjrk gS A
4- mÙkki eki h (Pyrometer)µ bl esarki eki h dksoLrqdsl Ei dZesaughaj[ kuk i M+ r k v fi rqnwj l sgh oLrq
l smRl ft rZ fofdj.k Åt kZdseki dj oLrqdk rki ysrsgS Aml ds}kjk 8000 Cl suhpsdk rki ughaeki rs
D; ksa
fd bl l suhpsrki i j oLrql sÅ"eh; fofdj.k dk mRl t Z u ughagksrk gS A
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…Ó½ããè¾ã ¹ãÆÔããÀ (Thermal Escpansion)

l kekU;r%rki c<+ kusai j i nkFkZdsv .kqv ksadschp dhnw j hc<+usl sml dsv k; ru esaof̀¼ gkst krhgSi jUrqi kuh
00 C l s40 C dschp] fl Yoj v k; kM skbM800 C l s1400 C dschp fl fydk 800 C dsuhpsdk rki c<+ kusai j l ad fqpr
gkrssgSAbl çdkj Å"ek çnku djusl si nkFkZdsv k; ru esagksusokysçl kj dksÅ"eh; çl kj dgrsgS A
Bksl ksad k çl kj % µ fdl h Bksl dksxeZdjrsgS arksbl dk l Hkh fn' kkv kasesaçl kj gksrk gS A
fdl h yEch NM+dksxeZdjusi j gksusokysçl kj dksjs[kh; çl kj dgrsgS A
v k; rkdkj oLrqesagku ssokysçl kj dks{ks=kh; çl kj dgrsgS A
?kukdkj oLrqesagku ssokysçl kj dksv k; ru çl kj dgrsgS A
Å"eh; çl kj dsmnkgj.kjs y dhi Vfj; kasdschp t xg dkNkM sk+t kuk] cSy xkMh +dsi fg; a si j gky p<+ krsl e; xeZ
djuk] xehZes aykys d ?kMh +dk l D qr gkusk] dkp
¡ dsfxykl es axeZpk; ; k i kuhMkyus ai j VV wuk vkfn bl dsmnkgj.k gS A
1- Ikk; jsDl dkp ¡ esaÅ"eh; çl kj de gku ssdsdkj.k bul scuscrZ u o fxykl ughaVw VrsgS A
nzoksad k çl kj % µ Bklsksadh Hkkf¡r nzoksadksHkh xeZdjusi j buesaçl kj gksrk gSi jUrqv kdkj v fuf' pr gksus
dsdkj.kbuesaek=kvk; ru çl kj gksrkgS Anzo dksft l crZ u esaxeZdjrsgS aml ds( crZ u) çl kj gksusdsdkj.kçkjEHk
esanzo dk ry dq N fxj t krk gS A
fdl hi nkFkZdsnzO;eku o v k; ru dsv uq i kr dks?kuRo dgrsgS AnzoksadksxeZdjusi j Bkslksadhv i s{kk bl ds
a
v k; ru esav fèkd çl kj gksrk gS A
i kuh d k v l kekU; çl kj % µ v fèkdka ' k nzoka
sdksxeZdjusi j v k; ru c<+ r k gS] o ?kuRo ?kVrk gSi jUrqi kuh
a
dks00 C l s40 C dschp xeZdjusi j v k; ru ?kVrkgSo ?kuRo c<+ r kgSA40 C l sv kxsxeZdjusi j i kuhdkHkhvk; ru
c<+ uso ?kuRo ?kVusyxrk gS Ai kuh dsbl h v l kekU; çl kj dsdkj.k B.Msaçns ' kksaesarkykcka sdk i kuh t e t kusds
ckot w n t yh; t ho t hfor jgrsgS Aci Q Zt eusi j i kuhdsv k; ru esaçl kj gksusdsdkj.ki kuhdsuy Vq VrsgS apV~ Vkusa
VwV t krh gS arFkk i sM Hkh i Q V t krsgS A
a
Å"ek d k l a j p. k (Transmission of Heat) % µ v fèkd rki l sfuEu rki dh vksj Å"ek dsLFkkukUrj.k dks
Å"ek dk l a pj.k dgrsgS AÅ"ek dk l a
a pj.k rhu fofèk; ksaµ pkyu] l a ogu , oafofdj.k fofèk; ksal sgksrk gS A
Pkyu (Conduction)µ i nkFkZdsd.kka sdk vi uk LFkku i fjorZ u fd; k fcuk Å"ek dk LFkkukUrj.k , d LFkku
l snwl jsLFkku dksgksuk pkyu fofèk l sl a pj.k gS ABkslksaes
aÅ"ek dk l a pj.k bl h çdkj gksrk gS ANM+ds, d fl jsdks
xeZdjusi j dEiu ' khy d.k Å"eh; Åt kZdksVdjk dj v kxsc<+ krsjgrsgS AÅ"ek pkydrk dsvkèkkj i j i nkFkZ
a
rhu çdkj dsgksrsgS µ
Pkkyd µ ft ul sÅ"ek l jyrk l sxeu djrh gS aµ l Hkhèkkrq ] v Eyh; t y] ekuo ' kjhj Å"ek dspkyd gS A
dq p ky d µ ft ul sgkd s j Å"ek l jyrk l su xeu djs; k cgq r de djsdq pkyd dgykrsgS At S
a l sµ ydM+ h]
dkp¡ ] fl fydk] xS l sa
] jcj v kfnA
Å"ekoj ksèkhµ ft ul sgkd s j Å"ek dk pkyu fcYdq y u gksÅ"ekojksèkhdgykrsgS at S
l sµ , sLosLV~ l ] , cksukbV
v kfnA
laogu (Convection)µ ft l çfØ; kesaÅ"ekdkpkyu i nkFkksZ adsd.kksadsLFkkukUrj.kds}kjkgksrkgSl o agu
dgykrh gS Ai nkFkZdsd.kksadsLFkkukUrj.k l sèkkjk, amRiUu gksrh gS aft Ugsal o
agu èkkjk, adgrsgS Abl fofèk l sÅ"ek
a
dk LFkkukUrj.k xS l ksa, oanzoksaesagksrk gSAÅ"ek l a ogu dsdkj.k gh fnu dsl e; l eq nzrVh; {ks=kksaes
a^l eq nzh l ehj*
rFkk jkf=k dsl e; ^LFkyh; l ehj* pyrsgS A?kjksaesaÅa
a pkbZi j jks'kunku dk yxk; k t kuk , oadkj[ kkuksadhfpefu; ksa
dk Åa pk gksuk Hkh l a ogu fofèk l sÅ"ek LFkkukUrj.k dk mnkgj.k gS A

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fofdj . k (Radiation) % µ pkyu] l a ogu dsfoi jhr fofdj.k }kjk Å"ek l a pj.k gsrqfdl h ekè; e dh
v ko' ; drkughai M+ r hAbl fofèk }kjk fuokZ r es aHkhÅ"ek dk l a pj.k gkrsk gS Al w
; Zl sÅ"ek bl hfofèkl si gq ¡prhgS A
mRl t Zu (Fmission) % µ çR;sd oLrql Hkh rki i j fofdj.k }kjk Åt kZdk mRl t Z u djrsgS abl Åt kZdks
fofdj.kÅt kZ; kÅ"eh; fofdj.kdgrsgS A; g fo| q r pqEcdh; rja xka
sds#i esaçdk' kdhpky l spyrhgS AoLrq v ksa
dkrki c<+ kusal sfudyusokyhfofdj.kdhek=kkc<+ r ht krhgS AmRl t Z u oLrqdsry dhçÑfr] {k= ski Q
y] rki vkfn
i j fuHkZ j djrhgS Apednkj o ' osr ry l sÅ"eh; fofdj.kdkmRl t Z u cgq r de rFkkdkyso [ kjqhnjsaryksal sÅ"eh;
fofdj.kdkmRl t Z u v fèkd gksrkgS At ksfi .Mvi usl rg l sl Hkhçdkj dsÅ"eh; fofdj.kdki w . krZ; kmRlt Z u djrk
gS] ml sÑf".kdk ( Bl ack Body ) dgrsgS A
v o' kks"k. k (Absorption) % µ fi .M}kjkÅ"eh; fofdj.kdsv o' kksf"kr gksusdhfØ; kdksv o' kks"k.k rFkkbl
çdkj dsfi .Mdksv o' kks"kd dgrsgS Afi .Mi `"B i j fxjusokysl Ei.wkZfofdj.k dksvo' kksf"kr ugh djrk gS
a av r%
fofdj.k vo' kksf"kr djusdh {kerk dsv kèkkj i j fi .Mksadksnksoxka Z
sesacka Vk x; k gS A
osfi .Mt ksv fèkdrj Å"eh; fofdj.kdksi jkofrZ r dj nsrsgS avPNsi jkorZ d rFkkcq j sv o' kk"skd gksrsgS al i Q
sn
o fpduh l rg dsfi .MAosfi .M t ksv i usÅi j v ki frr fofdj.k dk v fèkdrj Hkkx v o' kkfs"kr dj ysrsgS avPNs
v o' kks"kd rFkk cq j si jkorZd dgykrsgS At S
a l sdkyh o [ kq j njh l rg dsfi .MA
nSfud t hou esacgq r l smnkgj.k gSµ t lSsµ xehZes al i Qsn o B.Mh es ajaxhu di M+ sai guuk èkw i l scpusgsrq
l iQ sn Nkrksadkç; ksx] [ kkuki dkusokyscrZ uksadhfupyhl rg dkyho [ kq j njhcukuk] i kfy' kfd; st rwksal sde xehZ
yxuk] i gkM+ ksai j xehZdk ekS lelq gkouk gku skA
fd j pksiQd k fu; eµ t ksfi .Mfdl hrki i j v fèkd Å"ekdk mRl t Z u djrsgS aoghade rki i j Å"ekdk
v PNk ' kk"sk.k Hkh djrsgS arFkk vPNsvo' kks"kd v PNsmRl t Z d HkhgksrsgS abl dsfoi jhr cq j svo' kks"kd] cq j smRlt Z d
gksrsgS A
U;wVu d k ' khr yu d k fu; e % µ fdl h oLrqdsB.Msgksusdhnj oLrqrFkk ml dspkjksav ksj dsekè; e ds
rki kUrj dsv uq Øekuq i krh gksrh gSAoLrqt S l sB.Mh gksrh t krh gSml dsB.Msagku ssdh nj de gksrh t krh gS A
FkeZl Ýy kLd (Thermos Flask) % µ oLrq v ksadksnsj rd Ba M+ k; kxeZj[ kusdsfy, , d fo' ks"kçdkj dhcksry
dk ç; ksx fd; k t krk gSft l sFkeZ l IykLd dgrsgS Abl dk v kfo"dkj fMokj ( Dew r ) usfd; k FkkAFkeZ
a l esapkyu]
la ogu] fofdj.k ok"i u v kfn l Hkh çdkj l sÅ"ek dk vkuk t kuk cUn gkst krk gS A
xzhu gkml çHkko (Green House Effcet) % µ dkp ¡ ; k i kjn' khZIykfLVd ghpknjksal sfufeZ r çdks"B] ft l esa
çdk' k , oaÅ"ek ços'k rksdj t krh gSi jUrqÅ"ek ckgj ughafudy i krh v kS j çdk"B dk rki eku ckgj dsrki eku
l sv fèkd cukjgrk gS A, slsçdks"B dksxzhu gkml dgrsgS Açdks"B dsv Unj Å"ekdsl a d snz.kdsçHkko l srki of̀¼
dh ?kVuk dksxz hu gkml çHkko dgrsgS A
dkcZ u MkbZv kDl kbM+ ] feFkus] DyksjksÝyksjksdkcZ u] t yok"i ] ukbVªl v kDl kbM v kfn Å"ekjksèkh xS l sai F̀oh ds
pkjksav ksj v kPNkfnr gksd j Å"ekjksèkh ?ksjk cukrh gS abu xS l ksal sgksd j l kS j fofdj.k i F̀oh i j v k rkst krsgS ays fdu
; sxS l sfofdj.k l smRiUu Å"ek dksoki l v a
a r fj{k esat kusl sjksd nsrh gS aft l l sok; q e.My esafujUrj of̀¼ gksrht k
jghgS Abl sghoS f' od xzhu gkml çHkko dgk t krkgS Abl esaorZ eku esafofHkUu xS l ksadk; ksxnku Øe' k% µ Co – 55%,
2

CFC – 24%, CH – 15%, N O – 6% rFkk ' ks

4 2 "k v U; dk çHkko gS A, slk v uq eku gSfd ; fn i F̀ohdsrki eku es a3-50C
dhof̀¼ gkst k; rksèkzq oh; ci Q Zfi ?kyusal scgq r l srVh; uxj Mw c t k; sxasv kSj dqN }hi h; jk"Vªksadkv fLrRo ghl ekIr
gkst k; xskA
fof' k"V Å"ek (Specific Heat)µ fdl h i nkFkZds, d xz ke l gafr dk nzO;eku ys d j bl dk rki , d fMxzh
l .saVhxz M
s c<+ kusadsfy, i nkFkZdksnh xbZÅ"ek dksi nkFkZdh fof' k"V Å"ek dgrsgS A; fn l eku l a gfr dsfofHkUu
i nkFkksZadksfy; k t k; ] ft udk çkjfEHkd rki l eku gSrks, d fuf' pr rki rd xeZdjusdsfy, fofHkUu ek=kkv ksaesa
Å"ek dh vko' ; drk gksrh gS AfofHkUu i nkFkksZ adh fof' k"V Å"ek fHkUu fHkUu gksrh gSµ
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i nkFkZ fof' k"V Å"ek i nkFkZ fof' k"V Å"ek

Ikuh 1-0 Ckkyw -20
, Ydksgy -60 dkcZ u -17
ci Q Z -50 Ykksgk -11
Rkkji hu -42 ft a
d -093
eSXuhf' k; e -25 Ikhry -090
, Y; wfefu; e -21 l hl k -030
laxejej -21
l Hkh nzokas, oaBkslksadhv i s{kk i kuhdh fof' k"V Å"ek v fèkd gksrhgS avFkkZr ~fofHkUu i nkFkka sZdh l eku l g afr
dsrki es al eku of̀¼ dh t k; srksi kuh dksl cl sv fèkd Å"ek dhvko' ; drk gksxh v kS j ; fn l eku rki rd B.Mk
fd; k t k; rksl cl sv fèkd Å"ek dhçkfIr gksxhAbl hfy, B.Mh es adejsdksxeZdjusgs r qi kbi ksaesaxeZi kuhdh
v ki wfrZdh t krhgSv kS j l sdkbZdh ckrsy esaHkh i kuh Hkjh t krh gS A; fn i kuh dhfof' k"V Å"ek de gksrhrksl eq nz
dk t y ' kh?kzgh ok"Ik cu dj mM+t krkAl eq nzrVh; {ks=kksadsekSl e dk l q gkouk gksuk Hkh i kuh dh fof' k"V Å"ek
dsdkj.k gh gksrk gS a
xqIr Å"ek (Latent Heat)µ t c i nkFkZdhv oLFkk esi fjorZ u gksrkgSrksml dkrki fLFkj jgrk gS Av oLFkk
i fjorZ u dsl e; fLFkj rki i j i nkFkZdsfuf' pr nzO ; eku dksnhxbZvko' ; d Å"ek dhek=kk dksxq Ir Å"ekdgrsgS A
1 fdxzkci Q Zdks00 C l sfi ?kydj 00 C dst y es ai fjofrZr gksusdsfy, 80 fdyksdS y kjshÅ"ekdhv ko' ; drk
gkrshgSbl sghci Q Zdhxq Ir Å"ekdgrsgS Abl hçdkj 1 fdxzk t y dks1000 C l s1000 C dhHkki esi fjofrZ
a r gksus
dsfy, 540 fdyksd S y kjsh Å"ek dh vko' ; drk gksrh gS AbUghadkj.kksal sB.Msi s; dks00 C dsi kuhesaj[ kdj ci Q Z
l s<+ d ns usl sosv fèkd B.MsgksrsD; ksa fd , d xzke ci QZi kuhesai fjofrZ r gksrsl e; 336 t w y Å"ekv o' kkfs"kr djrk
gSAbl hçdkj 1000 C dst y dhvi s{kk 1000 C dsHkki l st yusi j v fèkd t yu gksrhgSD; ksa fd Hkki esat y dh
v i {skk v fèkd xq Ir Å"ek gksrh gS
xy u r Fkk xy uk¡d (Metting and Metting Point) % µ Bkls v oLFkk l si nkFkZdsnzo v oLFkk esai fjorZ u dks
xyu dgrsgS Aog rki ft l i j i nkFkZBkls v oLFkk l snzo voLFkk esai fjofrZ
a r gksrk gSBksl dk xyuk¡d dgykrk
gSAl kèkkj.kr%fi ?kyusai j IknkFkZdkçl kj gksrkgS Ao t eusi j l d aqfpr gksrkgSi jUrq ] ci Q] <yok¡] yksgk] foLeFkZbl ds
Z
v i okn gS A
aosi nkFkZt ksfi ?kyus ai j l adqfpr gksrsgS
amu i j nkc c<+ kusal smudkxyuk¡d de gkst krkgSt S l sµ ci Q ]
Z
eke s] ?khv kfn osi nkFkZt ksfi ?kyusai j çl kfjr gksrsgS amu i j nkc c<+ kusal smudk xyuk¡d c<+t krk gS Av i nz O;ksadks
feykusl sxyuk¡d de gkst krk gS00 C i j fi ?kyrh ci Q Zesaued ; k ' kksjk feykusl sci Q Zdk xyukd ¡ 00 C l sµ
220 C rd fxj t krkgS A, slsfeJ.kdksfge feJ.kdgrsgS Abudkmi; ksx dq
a Yi Q
h, oav kbl Øhe t ekusesfd; kt krk
gSaci Q ZdsnksVq d Mksadksv ki l esanckdj ncko gVkusai j xyuk¡d de gksusdsdkj.k nku sksavki l es afpi d t krsgS A
ok"i hd j . k (Evapoation) % µ nzo v oLFkk l sok"I esi fjorZ u dh çfØ; k dks^ok"i hdj.k* dgrsgS A
a; g
çfØ; k nzo dh l rg l sgksrk gS Aok"i hdj.k esanzo dsv .kqft udh Åt kZl kekU; l sv fèkd gksrh gSnzo dh l rg
NkM s+d j pyst krsgS aft l l snzo dk rki fxj t krk gS Aok"i hdj.k ok; e q.My esamifLFkr ok"Ik dhek=kk] nzo l rg ds
{k=ski Qy rFkk nzo dsrki i j fuHkZ j djrk gS Aok; qe.My esat yok"Ikdhek=kk dsdkj.kghxhysdi M+ sxfeZ; ksaesat Ynh
rFkk cjl kr esansj l sl w [ krsgSAl q j kgh dsi kuh dk B.Mk gksuk] i l huk l w [ kusl s' kjhj dksB.Md egl w l gksu] bF Zkj
; k i sVªkys dk gFksy hi j j[ kusi j B.Mkyxuk] v kfn ok"i u dsdkj.k ghgSt ksokf"i r gku ssdsfy, v ko' ; d Å"ek
lq j kgh dst y l s; k ' kjhj l sçkIr djrsgS A
DoFku r Fkk DoFkuk¡d (Boiling and Boiling Point)µ l kekU; #i esaok"i u nzo dhl rg l s, oaèkhehgksrh

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gSi jUrqrki c<+ kusai j nz o rst h l sok"Ik esai fjofrZ r gksusyxrk gS A, lsh fLFkfr t c nzo dk rki fLFkj gksd j l Ei.wkZ
i `"B l sok"i hdj.kdhçfØ; kçkjEHkgkst k; ^DoFku* dgykrkgSv kS j og fLFkj rki ft l i j DoFku gksrkgSDoFkuk¡d
dgykrk gS Ankc c<+ kusi j l kekU;r; k l Hkh i nkFkkasZdk DoFkuk¡d c<+t krk gS A
v ki sf{kd v knzZ r k (Relative Humidity)µ ok; q e.My esaok; qdsl kFk ?kq y h gqbZt yok"Ik dksv knzZ r k dgrsgS A
a
fdl h fuf' pr rki i j ok; qt yok"i dh , d fuf' pr ek=kk gh xz g.k dj l drh gSok; qdh bl v oLFkk dksl a r Ìr
( tSaurated ) voLFkkdgrsgS A; fn ok; qdsrki dksc<+
a kfn; kt k; rksok; qdksl a r ' Ir djusdsfy, v kS j t yok"i dh
v ko' ; drk gksxhAv r%fdl h fn; sgq , rki i j ok; qdsfdl h v k; ru es amifLFkr t yok"i dh ek=kk rFkk ml h rki
i j] ml hvk; ru dhok; qdksl a r ' Ir djusdsfy, v ko' ; d t yok"Ikdhek=kkdsv uq i kr dksv ki sf{kd v knzZr k dgrs
gS Av ki sf{kd v knzZ r k dksgkbxzksehVj (Hygrometer) uked ; a =k l seki rsgS Al eq nzrVh; {k= skksadsok; qesaok"i dh ek=kk
v fèkd gku ssdsdkj.kl w r h di M+
k m| ksx v fèkd fodfl r gSD; ksa fd t yok"i dsdkj.k çkIr uehl sèkkxset cw r rFkk
v kl kuh u Vw VusokyscursgS Av ki sf{kd v knzZ
r k dsdkj.k xehZdsfnuksaesaok; q e.My esamifLFkr t yok"i xehZi kdj
xeZgksrhgSv kS j t yok"Ik dk èkuRo ?kVrk gS A?kuRo ?kVusdsdkj.k t y ok"IkgYdhgksd j Åi j mBrhgS Aok; q e.My
dsÅi jhHkkx es ankc o rki de gku ssdsdkj.kt yok"Iki Q ySrhgSo i kuhdscw nksads#i esarS j rhgSft l sckny dgrs
gSAat c ok; q e.Myh; rki v kjSfxj fxj t krk gSrks; sNksVhNkV shcw n
¡ sacM+ hcwn
aksaesai fjofrZ r gksd j i F̀ohi j fxjusyxrh
gS aft l so"kkZdgk t krk gS a; fn ok; qe.Myh; rki fxjdj 00 Crd i gq ¡p t krk gSrks; scw nasaci Q Zesai fjofrZ
r gksd j fxjus
yxrh gS aft l sfgei kr ( v ksy kof̀"V) dgrsgS AB.Md dsfnuksesaok; q e.My dk rki fxj t kusl si F̀oh dh l rg i j
ok; qesa?kq y ht y ok"I NkV shNksVh cw ¡nksads#i esaèkw
y vkfn d.kksadsl kFk gokesarS j rh jgrhgSft l l si F̀ohdsfudV
dk ok; q e.My èka è
qkyk fn[ kkbZnsrk gSbl sdksgjk dgrsgS An' ' ; rk dsvkèkkj i j ; g dbZçdkj dk gksrk gS µ
gYdk d ksgj k 1100 eh- r d n' ' ; r k
Ekkè; e d ksgj k 1100 l s550 eh- r d
èkuk d ksgj k 550 l s330 eh- r d
v fr l èku d ksgj k 330 eh- l sd e n`' ; r k
Okr kuqdwy u (Air Conditioning) % µ l kekU;r %euq "; dsLokLF; o v uq d yw t yok; qdsfy, µ 230 Cl s250
Crki ] 60 çfr' kr v ki s f{kd v knzZ
r krFkk -75 eh-@ feuV l s2-5eh-@ feuV dschp ok; qdhxfr gksuhpkfg, A; fn fdl h
LFkku dh t yok; qbu i fjfLFk; ksadsv uq #i ughagSrksog euq "; dsfy, v kjkensg , oaLokLF; dj ughagksxhAv r%
t yok; qdksv uq dw y cukusdsfy, cká i fjfLFkfr; ksadksÑf=ke #i l sfuèkkfZjr , oafu; a f=kr djusdh çfØ; k dksgh
okrkuq dwy u dgrsgS A


194
 SCIECNE

¹ãƇãŠãÍã (Light)
d k' k (Light) % µ çdk' k, d çdkj dhÅt kZgS ] t ksgekjhvk[¡ kka sdksl oafsnr djrkgS Açdk' kl kzrs l sfudydj i gys
oLrqi j i M+ r k gSrFkk bu oLrq v ka
sl sykV Sdj gekjhv k[¡ kka sdksl oafsnr djdsoLrqdh fLFkfr dk Kku djkrk gS A
rkjk] l w
; Z, oav Urfj{kdsv U; xz g çdk' kdsçkÑfrd l zksr gS ArkjksaesagkbMªkst u dsl ay ; u l smRiUu Åt kZl sosçdk' k
, oaÅ"ek dk mRlt Z u djrsgS Al w; Z4 X 1026 t wy@ l sd s.Mdh nj l sÅt kZnsjgk gSv kS j 4 X 109 fdxzk@ l sd s.Mdhnj
l sv i uk nzO;eku de dj jgk gS Adq N çk.kh( t qxuwv kfn) Hkhçdk' kdkmRlt Z u djrsgS a, slsçdk' kdkst S u çdk' k
dgrsgS Aekfpl ] eksecÙkh] fo| q r cYc v kfn Ñf=ke çdk' k dsl zksr gS Açdk' k dsv kèkkj i j oLrq v ksadsfuEu çdkj
gSµ
1- çnhIr oLr ,qa(Luminous Bodies) % µ ost ksLo; adsçdk' k l sçdkf' kr gksat S l sµ l w;Z] fo| q
r ] cYc v kfnA
2- v çnhIr oLr q , a(Nonlumenous Bodies) % µ osoLrq , aft uesaLo; adk çdk' k ughagksrk i jUrqçdk' k i M+ usi j
fn[ kkbZnsusyxrh gS at S
l s% µ dq l hZ
] est ] fdrkc v kfnA
3- i kj n' kZ d oLr q , a(Transparent Bodies) % µ ft ul sgkd s j çdk' k fdj.ksai kj fudy t krh gS At S
a l s% µ ' kh' kkA
4- v èkZ i kj n' kZd oLr q , a(Translucent Bodies) % µ , slh oLrq , ¡ft u i j çdk' k dhfdj.ksai M+ usi j mdk dq N Hkkx
v o' kksf"kr gkst krk gSrFkk dq N Hkkx ckgj fudy t krk gSt sls% µ rsy yxk gq v k dkxt A
5- v i kj n' kZ d oLr q , a( Opaque Bod i es) %µ , slhoLrq , aft ul sçdk' kdhfdj.ka sckgj ughai krhgSt S l sèkkrq , ]aydM+ h
v kfnA
Nk; k (Shadow) % µ çdk' kl zksr dsl keusfdl hv i kjn' kZ d oLrqdksj[ kusl soLrqdsi hNscuusokyhdkyhv kÑfr
dksNk; k dgrsgS A; g çdk' k l zksr dh v kÑfr i j fuHkZ j djrk gS A; fn l zksr dksbZfcUnql zksr gSrkscuusokyh Nk; k
dksçPNk; k (Umbra) v kS j ; fn o' gr~l zkrs gSrkscuusokyh Nk; k dksmiNk; k ( Penumbra) dgrsgS A
çd k' k d k l a p j . k (Propagation Of Light) % µ çdk' k fdj.ksa; | fi l hèkh js [ kk es
axeu djrh gSfi Q j Hkh vojksèkksa
dsfdukjsi j dq N eq Mr+hv o' ; gSrja x nSè; Zv R;ar NksVhgksusdsdkj.kegl lw cgq r de gksrhgS Açdk' kdkvojksèkksa
dsfdukjseq M+usdh ?kVuk dksçdk' k dk foorZ u (Diffraction) dgrsgS A
çd ' k d hpky (Velocity Of Light) % µ fHkUu fHkUu ekè; eksaesaçdk' kdhpky fHkUu fHkUu gksrhgS Aok; qrFkkfuokZ r
esaçdk' kdhpky l okfZèkd gksrhgS Apky ekè; e dsv i orZ ukd
¡ (ReFractive Indese) i j fuHkjZdjrhgS Aft l ekè; e
dk v i orZ uk¡d ft ruk v fèkd gksrk gSml es açdk' k dh pky mruh gh de gkrsh gS afdl h ekè; e esçdk' k dh pky
Kkr djusgsrql = wk µ u = c/ µ dk ç; ksx djrsgS at gk¡ u çdk' k dh pky] c çdk' k dhfuokrZ esapky rFkk µ ekè; e
dk v i orZ uk¡d gS A
fofHkU
u ekè; eksaesaçdk' k d h pky
ekè; e çd k' k d h pky ( eh-@ l sd s.M)
fuokZr 3-00 X 10 8

Ikuh 2-25 X 10 8

dk¡p 2-00 X 10 8

rkji hu rsy essa 2-04 X 10 8

ukbyksu 1-96 X 10 8

Ik' Foh rd v kusesal ;wZdsçdk' k dksyxHkx 500 l sd sa M ; k feuV yxrsgSA

a
lw ;Z µ t c pUnzek] l w
xzg. k (Solar Eclipse) % ; ZrFkk i F̀oh dschp v k t krh gSrksl w
; Zdk çdk' k i F̀ohrd
ughai gqp
¡ i krk gS abl fLFkfr dksl w; Zxzg.k dgrsgS
A; g v ekoL; k frfFk dksgh gksl drk gS A
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pUnzxzg. k (Lumar Eclipse) % µ t c i F̀oh] l w ; ZrFkk pUnzek dschp v k t krk gSrc l w ; Zl sfudyusokyk
çdk' k pUnzek i j ughai krk gS, slh fLFkfr pUnzxzg.k dgykrh gS A; g i fw.kZ
ek dksgh gksl drk gS A
çd k' k d ki j kor Z u (Reflection of Light) % µ t c çdk' kfdl hfpdus; kpednkj i `"B i j i M+ r kgSrksbl d
v fèkdka ' k Hkkx fofHkUu fn' kkv ksaesaoki l ykV S t krk gSbl çdk' k fdl hi `"B l sVdjkdj çdk' k dsoki l ykS Vusdh
?kVuk dksçdk' kdk i jkorZ u dgrsgS a; fn i `"B v i kjn' kZd gSrksbl dkdq N Hkkx v o' kksf"kr gkst krkgS; fn i kjn' kZd
gSrksdq N Hkkx i `"B dsi kj fudy t krkgS Afpduso pednkj i kW fy' k fd; sl rg v fèkdka ' k çdk' kdksi jkofrZ r dj
nsrsgS Al ery ni Z
a . kçdk' kdkl cl sv PNk i jkorZ d gksrkgS Ai jkorZd i `"B dsyEcor~l hèkhjs [ kk dksv fHkyEc rFkk
t ksfdj.k i jkorZ d ry i j v kdj fxjrh gSml sv ki krh fdj.k , oat ksfdj.k i jkorZ u dsIk' pkr~oki l ykV S t krhgS
ml si jkofrZ r fdj.kdgrsgS Av ki krhfdj.ko v fHkyEc dschp dsdks.kdksv ki ru dk.sk, oav fHkyEc , oai jkofrZ r
fdj.k dschp dsdks.k dksi jkorZ u dks.k dgrsgS A
çd k' k d k i j kor Z u nksfu; eksai j v kèkkfj r gksrk gS% µ
1-v ki kr h fdj . k] i j kofr Z r fd j . k o v fHky Ec , d gh r y esagksrsgS A
2-v ki r u d ks.k] i j kor Z u d ks.k d scj kcj gksrk gS A
çd k' k d k v i or Z u (Refraction of Light) % µ çdk' k dk , d eè; e l snw l jseè; e esaçdk' k djrsl e; ]
nwl jsekè; e dh l hek i j v i usjs[kh; i Fk l sfopfyr gksusdh ?kVuk dk çdk' k dk v i orZ u dgrsgS A
t c çdk' k dh fdj.k fojy ekè; e l sl èku ekè; e esaços'k djrh gSrksfdj.k l èku ekè; e dsi `"B l s
v fHkyEc dh v ksj eq M+t krhgS At c fdj.k l èku ekè; e l sfojy ekè; e es aços'k djrhgSrksfojy ekè; e dsi `"B
l sghv fHkyEc l snw j gV t krhgS Aysfdu t ksfdj.k yEcor~fdl hHkhekè; e es aços ' k djrh gSog fdl hHkh rji Q
u >q d dj l hèksfudy t krh gS Açdk' k dsvi orZ u dk dkj.k fHkUu fHkUu ekè; eksaesaosx dk fHkUu fHkUu gksuk gS A
fdl h ekè; e dk vi orZ uka
d fHkUu ja xksadsçdk' k dsfy, fHkUu fHkUu gksrk gS Açdk' k dhrja x nSè; Zc<+usds
l kFk v i orZ uka
d dk eku de gksrk t krk gS An' ' ; çdk' k esayky ja x dk v i orZukda l cl sde rFkk cS xuh jax dk
l cl sv fèkd gkrsk gSdkj.k yky ja x dh rja x nSè; Zl cl sv fèkd o cS xuh jax dh l cl sde gksrh gS Arki c<+ usds
l kFk v i orZ uka
d dk eku de gksrk t krk gS av i orZ u dh fØ; k esaçdk' k dh pky] rja xnSè; ZrFkk rhozrk cny t krh
gSi jUrq v kof̀ÙkughacnyrhgS Av i orZ u dsdkj.kghi kuhesaMw chgq bZdksbZydM+ h; kpEep ckgj l sns[kusi j V< s+h
fn[ krh gS Ajkf=k esarkjka sdk fVefVekuk] rkykc dhxgjkbZde çrhr gksuk] l w ; Zdk f{kfrt dsuhpsgksusi j Hkh fn[ kkbZ
nsuk v kfn v i orZ u dsdkj.kgksrsgS At y esafdl hoLrqdhv kHkkl hxgjkbZKkr gksusi j bl es at y dsv i orZ uka
d dk
xq. kk dj nsusl sokLrfod xgjkbZdk i rk py t krk gS A
iw . kZv kU r fj d i j kor Zu (Total Internal Reflection) % µ t c çdk' k l èku ekè; e l sfojy ekè; e l sços'k
djrk gSrksv i ofrZ r fdj.k vfHkyEc l snw j gVrht krhgS At Sl sv ki ru dks.k dk eku c<+ kust krsgSv i ofrZ r fdj.k
v fHkyEc l snw j gVrht krhgS, d fLFkfr , slhv krhgSt c v ki ru dks.kdsfy, v i orZ u dks.kdk eku 900 gkst krk
gSA, slhfLFkfr ft l es av i ofrZr dks.k dk eku 900 gksog v ki ru dks.k ØkfUrd dks.kdgykrkgS At c v ki frr dks.k
dksØkfUrd dks.k l sv kS j cM+ k dj fn; kt krk gSrksfdj.k i q u%ml hekè; e esaykS V t krh gSft l ekè; e l spyhFkh
bl h?kVuk dksçdk' k dk i w . kZv kUrfjd i jkorZ u dgrsgS Abl dscgq r l smnkgj.k gS at S l sµ ghjsdk peduk] xeZo
B.Msçns ' kksaesaejhfpdk(Looming) dkfn[ kk; hnsuk] VV wsdkp a dkv fèkd peduk] v ka f' kd t y l sHkjhi j[ kuyhdks
t y esaMq ckusi j pka nhdh rjg peduk v kfn gS A
esfMdy] çdk' kh; fl Xuy dsl a pj.k] fo| q r fl XuyksadksHktsuso çkIr djuses av kfIVdy i Q kbcj dk mi; ksx
gkrsk gSt ksi .wkZv kUrfjd i jkorZ u dsfl ¼kUr i j dk; Zdjrk gS A
çfr fcEc (Image)µ t c dksbZoLrqni Z . k dsl keusj[ kht krh gSrksoLrql spyusokyh çdk' k fdj.ksani Z .k
dsry l si jkofrZ r gksd j n' kZd dhv ka [ kksai j i M+r h gS
aft l l sn' kZ
d dksoLrqdh v kÑfr fn[ kkbZnsrh gSbl v kÑfr
196
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dksgh oLrqdk çfrfcEc dgrsgS A

fdl h l zkrs l spyusokyh çdk' k fdj.ksafdl h ry l si jkorZ u ; k vi orZ u dsIk' pkr~ft l fcUnqi j feyrhgS
og fca nql zksr dkokLrfod çfrfcEc dgykrkgSrFkkçdk' kfdj.ka si jkorZ u ; kv i orZ u dsIk' pkr~ft l fca nql si Q ySrh
gqbZçrhr gksog fcUnql zkrs dk vkHkkl hçfrfcEc dgykrk gS Av kHkkl h çfrfcEc dksi jnsi j ughafy; k t k l drk gS
t c fd okLrfod çfrfcEc dksi nsZi j fy; k t k l drk gS A
l ery ni Z . k l scuk oLrqdk çfrfcEc ni Z . k dsi hNsmruh ghnw j h i j curk gSft ruh nw j h i j oLrqni Z . k ds
l keusj[ khgksrhgS Ani Z . kesacusçfrfcEc esai k' oZmEØe.kgksrkgSv FkkrZ~ni Z . kdsl keus[ kM+ kO;fDr ; fn vi ukck; ka
gkFk mBkrk gSrksçfrfcEc esaml dk nk; kagkFk mBrk fn[ ksxkAni Z . k esaoLrqdk l Ei w . kZçfrfcEc ns[kusdsfy, de
l sde ni .Zk dhyEckbZoLrqdhv kèkhgku shpkfg, Ani Z . k dsl keus; fn dksbZO;fDr fdl hpky l si kl ; knw j t krk
gSrksml sv i uk çfrfcEc nq xquh pky l si kl ; k nw j t krk gSrksml sv i uk çfrfcEc nq xquh pky l si kl ; k nw j çrhr
gkxskA; fn fdl hdks.k i j >q d sgq, nksl ery ni Z . kka
sdschp dkb sZoLrqj[ k nsa r ksml ol rqdsdbZçfrfcEc fn[ kkbZ
i Mr+sgS AçfrfcEcksadh l a [ ; k nksuksani Z. kksadschp cusdk.sk i j fuHkZ j djrh gS A
çfrfcEcka sdh l a [ ; k ¾360
ni .Zkksadschp dk dks.k
; fn nksl ery ni Z . k , d nw l jsdsl ekukUrj j[ kfn; st ka ; rksbudschp ' kw U; v a ' k dk dks.k cusxk v ksj ni Z . kksa
dschp j[ kh oLrqdsv uUr çfrfcEc cus xasAcgq ewfrZn' khZ( Kalei doscope) dsv Unj nksl ery ni Z . k 600 i j >q d sgksrs
gSaft l l soLrqdsdbZçfrfcEc fn[ krsgS A
xksy h; ni Z . k (Spherical Mirror) % µ xkys h; ni Z . k fdl h [ kks[kysxksy sdsxksy h; i `"B gksrsgS A; g nksçdkj
a
dsgksrsgS aµ mÙky , oav ory ni .ZkAmHkjsgq , ry okysft l esai kW fy' k v Unj dhv ksj dh t krhgSmÙky ni Z . k] rFkk
nwl jkft l dkry nckgksrkgSi kW fy' k ckgjhl rg i j gksrhgSv ory ni .ZkdgrsgS AmÙkj ni Z . kesaçdk' kdki jkorZ u
mHkjsagq , ckgjh l rg l s, oav ory ni Z . k esai jkorZ u ncsgq , v kjrfjd l rg l sgksrk gS A
xkys h; ni Z. k ( mÙky ; k v ory) dsi jkorZ d ry dseè; fca nqdksni Z . k dk èkq zo dgrsgS A
ni .Zk ft l xksy sdk Hkkx gksrk gSml dsdsUnzdksni Z . k dk oØrk dsUnzdgrsgS A
ni .Zk dsèkq zo dh oØrk dsUnzdksfeykusokyh js[kk dksni Z . k dk eq [ ; v {k dgrsgS A
ni .Zkdseq [ ; v{kdsl ekukUrj v kusokyhfdj.ksani .Zkl si jkorZ u dsIk' pkr~ft l fca nqi j feyrhgS a; kfeyrh
çrhr gksrh gSml fca nqdkseq [; iQ ksd l (Principle Focus) dgrsgS A
eq[; iQ kd
s l rFkk èko z dschp dhnw
q j hdksi Q ksd l nw j hdgrsgS ]ai Q kd
s l nw j hèkzo
q o eq [; iQ ksd l dsBhd chp
esai M+r h gS A
ni Z. kksad h i gpku % µ ni .Zkksadksnksfofèk; ksal si gpkursgSµ
1Li ' kZd j d s% µ ; fn i jkorZ d ry , dne l ery gSrksni Z . k l ery] ; fn i jkorZ d ry chp esamHkjk rks
mÙky v kS j ; fn i jkorZ d t y chp esanck gq v k gSrksni Z . k v ory ni .Zk gkxskA
2çfr fcEc d ksns[k d j d s% µ ; fn ni Z . k esacuk çfrfcEc oLrqdksni Z . k l snw j yst kusi j NksVk gksrk t krk
gSArksni Z . k mÙky gksxk] ; fn oLrqdk çfrfcEc l hèkk gSo oLrqnw j yst kusi j c<+ r k t krk gSrksni Z . k vory gksxk
v kjS; fn çfrfcEc dk vkdkj fLFkj jgrk gSrksni Z . k l ery ni Z . k gksxkA
xksy h; ni Z . kksad smi ; ksx
1v or y ni Z . k% µ lw ; Zl svkrh gq bZfdj.ksani Z . k l si jkofrZ r gksd j i Q kd
s l nw j h i j feyrh gS abl dk mi; ksx
dj l w ; Zl sçkIr Å"ekdks, df=kr djuses al ksy j dq d j esafd; kt krkgSD; kfsad bl l sdki Q hek=kkesaÅ"ekdks, df=kr
fd; kt kl drkgS Av kdk' kh; fi .Mka ]srkjksavkfn dhi Q kV
sksxzki Qhdjusdsfy, i jkorZ d nw j n' khZesacMs+cMs+v ory ni Z . kksa
197
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dkmi; ksx gksrkgS Adku] ukd o xysdsv kW r fjd Hkkxksadht k¡p dsfy, Hkhbl dk mi; ksx gksrkgSD; ksa fd ; fn dksbZ
oLrqv ory ni Z . kdsl ehi ml dhi Q ksd l nw j hl sde nw j hi j fLFkj dht krhgSrksoLrqdkl hèkk] v kHkkl ho oLrq
dsv kdkj l scMk+çfrfcEc curkgS Al pZ y kbV rFkkeksVjxkfM+ ; kasdsgsMykbV esai joy; kdkj v ory ni Z . kç; q Dr gksrk
gSD; ksafd bl dsl ehi yxscYc l sfudyusokyhçdk' kfdj.ka sni Z. kl si jkofrZ r gksd j rhoz r kdhfdj.kksaesai fjofrZ r
gkst krh gS A
2mÙky ni Z . k% µ mÙky ni Z . k esaoLrqdk çfrfcEc v kHkkl h, oaoLrql sNksVk, oal hèkkgksrkgS Av FkkZ r ~mÙky
ni .Zkesadki Q hcM+ s{ks=kdhoLrqdkçfrfcEc NkV ss{k=skesacu t krkgS ALi "V gSfd mÙky ni Z . kdkn' f"V {ks=kv fèkd
gkrsk gSbl dk mi; ksx µ eksVj xkfM; ksaesapkyd dscxy i hNsdsn' ' ; ka sdksns[kusdsfy, fd; k t krk gS Al M+ d
i j yxsi jkorZ d yS Ei ka
sesaHkh bl dk mi; ksx gksrk gSD; ka fsd ; sçdk' k dksvfèkd {ks=k esai Q ySkrsgS a
A
y sUl (Lenses) % µ nksryksal sf?kjkft l dsnksuksary nksxksy ksadsi kjn' kZ d [ k.MgkrssgS aysal dgykrkgS Abudk
mi; ksx l Hkh çdk' kh; ; U=kka st Sl s% µ dS ejk] çkstD sVl Z ] VsfyLdksi , oal w {en' khZv kfn esafd; k t krk gS A ; sdk¡p
( eq[ ; r% ) ; k IykfLVd dscusgksrsgS A; snksçdkj dsgkrssgS
a aµ mÙky ysa l , oavory ys lA
a
- mÙky y sa
a l (Convesc Lens) % µ mÙky ysa l chp esaekV sk rFkk fdukjksai j i ryk gkrsk gS AmÙky ysa l vuUr
l sv kusokyh fdj.kksdksfl dksM+ r k gSbl hfy, bl sv fHkl kjh ( Conv ergi ng Lens) Hkh dgrsgS A
a mÙky ysa l rhu çdkj
dsgksrsgS aµ mHk; ksÙky] l ery mÙky] v orykÙ sky ys lA
a
b-v or y y s l (Concave Lens) %
a µ ; g chp es ai ryk , oafdukjka si j eksVk gksrk gS Av ory ys la v uUr l s
v kusokyhfdj.kksadksi Q y krk gSbl sv i l kjh ys
S la (Diverging Lens) HkhdgrsgS A; g Hkh rhu çdkj dsgksrsgS aµ
mHk; koÙkr] l ery v oryr rFkk mÙkykory ys lA
a
ysla dsnksuksaryksadsoØrk ds nzksadkst ksM+
a usokyhjs[kkysa l dk eq [ ; v {kdgykrhgS Aysa l ka
sesanksi Qksd l rFkk
nksoØrk dsUnzgksrsgS Aysa l dsf}rh; i Q kds l dkseq [; iQ ksd l Hkh dgrsgS AmÙky ys
a l esai Q
a kd
s l okLrfod rFkk
v ory ysa l esavkHkkl h gksrk gS AmÙky ysa l dh i Q kd
s l nw j h dksèkukRed rFkk v ory ysa l dh Í .kkRed gksrh gS A
ysla dseè; esafLFkr fcUnqdksysa l dk çkdkf' kd dsa nzdgrsgS A; fn ysa
a l dsnksusav ksj dk ekè; e , d l eku
gksrksysa l dh nksuksai Q ksd l nw fj; k¡ cjkcj gksrh gS A
y sa
l d h {ker k (Power of a Pens) % µ mÙky ysa l esat c çdk' k fdj.ksaeq [ ; dsl ekukUrj pyrh gq bZysal
i j v ki frr gksrhgS arks; g ysa l v i orZ u dsIk' pkr~mu fdj.kksadkseq [ ; v {k dhvksj eksM+nsrk gSrFkkv ory ysa l
bu fdj.kksadkseq [ ; v {k l snw j gVk nsrk gSbl çdkj ys l dk dk; Zml i j vki frr gksusokyh fdj.kksadkseksM+
a uk
gS] bl hdksys la dh{kerk dgrsgS At ksysa
a l fdj.kksadksft ruk v fèkd ekM s+r k gSml dh{kerk mruhghv fèkd gksrh
gSAde i Q ksd l nw j h dsysa l ksdh{kerk v fèkd rFkk i Q ksd l nw j hdsys l ksdh {kerk de gksrhgS
a Aysal dh{kerk dk
ek=kd Mk; ksIVj (Dioptre) gS AmÙky ysa l dh {kerk èkukRed , oav ory ys la dh Í .kkRed gksrh gS Anksys laksadks
l Vkdj j[ kusi j mudh{kerk, at q M+t krhgS At c l eku i Q ksd l nw j hdsmÙky o vory ys l ksadksi jLi j feyk; kt krk
a
gSrks; sl ery dk¡p dh Hkk¡fr O;ogkj djrsgS abudh {kerk ' kw U; , oai Q ksd l nw j h v uUr gksrh gS A
ysla dksfdl h nzo esaMq ckussi j ysa l dh i Q kd
s l nw j h o {kerk nksuksai fjofrZ r gkst krh gS A
; fn , slsnzo esfdl hysa l dsMq cks;kt k; ft l dkv i orZ uk¡d ys la dsvi orZ uk¡d l sde gksrksysa l dhi Q ksd l
nwj h c<+ r h gSvkS j {kerk ?kV t krh gS Ai jUrqysa l dh çÑfr v i fjofrZ r jgrh gS A
; fn , slsnzo es ays la dksMq cks;k t k; ft l dk v i orZ uk¡d ysa l dsv i orZ uk¡d dscjkcj gksrksysa l dh i Q ksd l
nwj h v uUr o {kerk ' kU w; gkst krh gSv kS j ys la l ery IysV dh Hkk¡fr O ; ogkj djsxk o fn[ kkbZughans xkA
; fn , slsnzo es afdl hysa l dksMcqks;k t k; fd ft l dk v i orZ uk¡d ysa l dsv i orZ uk¡d l sv fèkd gksrksysa l
dhçÑfr cny t k; sxhAbl h dkj.k i kuh esaMw ck gok dk cq y cq y k ( mÙky çÑfr gS ) v ory ysa l dh Hkkf¡r O;ogkj
djrk gS aD; ksafd t y dk v i orZ uk¡d gok l sv fèkd gksrk gS A
198
 SCIECNE

çd k' k d k o. kZfo{ksi. k (Dispersion of light) % µ lw ; Zdkçdk' kt c fdl hfçTe l sxq t jrkgSrc v i orZ u
dsdkj.k fçTe dsv kèkkj dh v kjs>q d usdsl kFk l kFk fofHkUu ja xksadsçdk' k esacW V t krk gS Abl çdkj çkIr ja xksa
dsl ew g dkso.kØ Ze (Spectrum) dgrsgS ArFkkçdk' kdsfofHkUu ja xkasesafoHkDr gksusdho.kZfo{ksi.k dgrsgS Al w;Z
dsçdk' kl sçkIr ja xksaesacS xuh ja x dk fo{ksi.kv fèkd gksusdsdkj.kl cl suhpsrFkk yky ja x dk fo{ksi.kde gksus
dsdkj.kl cl sÅi j çkIr gksrkgS Auhpsl sÅi j dhv ksj fofHkUu ja xksadkØe Øe' k%cS xuh] t keq
uh] uhyk] gjk] i hyk]
ukjaxh rFkk yky gS A bl sl a {ksi es acSt uhgi hukyk (VIBGYOR) dgrsgS A ykyja x dh rja x nS è; Zl cl sv fèkd o
v i orZ uk¡d l cl sde rFkk osx Hkhl okZ fèkd gkrskgS AcS xuhja x dsçdk' kdhrja xnS è; Zl cl sde o osx Hkhl okZ fèkd
gkrsk gS AcS xuhja x dsçdk' k dh rja xnS è; Zl cl sde o osx Hkh de gksrk gSD; ksa fd bl dk v i orZ uk¡d v fèkd gksrk
gSAçdk' k dh rja x nSè; Zdks, a XLVªke esaeki rsgS Afdl hi nkFkZesat S l st Sl sçdk' k dsja xksadk v i orZ uk¡d c<+ r k t krk
gSoS l sekè; e es aml dhpky de gksrh t krh gS A
bUnzèkuq "k(Rainbow) % µ bUnzèkuq "kcuusdkdkj.ki jkorZ u] iw . kZv krafjd i jkorZ u rFkkv i orZ u gS AbUnzèkuq"k
ges ' kk l ;wZdsfoi jhr fn' kk esafn[ kk; h nsrh gS av kS
j ; g çkr%i f' pe esa, oal k; a d ky i w oZfn' kk esagh fn[ kk; h nsrh
gSAbUnzèkuq "k nksçdkj dh gksrh gSµ çkFkfed , oaf}rh; dA
t c cw nksai j v ki frr l w ; Zfdj.kksadksnksckj v i oZ u rFkk , d ckj i jkorZ u gksrk gSrksçkFkfed bUnzèkuq "k curk
gSAbl esaykyja x ckgj v kS j cS xuh ja x vUnj dhv ksj gksrk gS A
t c cw nksai j v ki frr l w ; Zfdj.kksadk nksckj v i orZ u rFkk nksckj i jkorZ u gksrksf}rh; d bUnzèkuq "k curk gS
bl esaykyja x v Unj dh v ksj dq n èk¡è
qkyk fn[ kk; h nsrk gS A
çd k' k d k çd h. kZ u (Scattering of Light) % µ tc lw ; Zdk çdk' k ok; e q.My l sxq t jrk gSrksçdk' k
ok; qe.My esamifLFkr d.kksa}kjkfofHkUu fn' kkv ksaesai Q y t krkgS
S ] bl hçfØ; kdksçdk' kdkçdh.ku Z dgrsgS Afdl h
ja
x dk çdh.kZ u ml dh rja x nS è; Zi j fuHkZ j djrk gS Aft l ja
a x dsçdk' k dh rja x nS è; Zde gksrh gSml dk çdh.kZ u
v fèkd rFkk v fèkd rja x nS è; Zokysdk çdh.kZ u de gkrsk gS Al w ; Zdsçdk' k es acS xuh ja x dk rja x nS è; Zl cl sde
gkussdsdkj.kçdh.kZ u l okZ fèkd rFkkyky ja x dhrja x nSè; Zl okZfèkd gku ssdsdkj.kçdh.kZ u l cl sde gksrkgS AcS xuh
ja
x dk çdh.kZ u l okZ fèkd gku ssdsdkj.kghv kdk' k uhykfn[ kkbZnsrkgS Av kjs yky ja x dsçdh.kZ u de gksusdsdkj.k
ghMw crso mxrsl e; l w ; Zyky fn[ kkbZns r k gSD; ksa
fd v U; ja xkasdk çdh.kZ u gkst krk gS Açdh.kZ u dsdkj.kghl eq nz
dki kuhHkhuhykfn[ kkbZnsrkgS Av Urfj{kl sv Urfj{k; kf=k; ka sdksv kdk' kdkykfn[ kkbZnsrkgSD; ksa fd ogkaok; q e.My
u gksusdsdkj.k çdk' k dk çdh.kZ u ughagksrk gS ApUnzek l sHkh v kdk' k dkyk gh fn[ kkbZnsrk gS A
a
oLr q v ksad k j a
x (Colour og Objects) % µ çdk' k fdjksat c oLrq v ksai j i M+ r hgS arksosoLrql si jkofrZ r gksd j
ns[kusokysdh v k¡[ kksaesaços'k djrh gSv kS j oLrqfn[ kkbZns usyxrh gS AoLrq , açdk' k dk dq N Hkkx i jkofrZ r djrh
gSarFkk dq N Hkkx v o' kksf"kr djrhgSçdk' k dk i jkofrZ r Hkkx ghoLrq v ksadk ja x fuèkkfZjr djrk gS A
at Sl sxqy kc dh
i fÙk; k¡ gjsja x dksrFkk i [akq fM;+k¡ yky çdk' k dksi jkofrZ r djusdsdkj.k gjh , oayky fn[ krh gS A' ks"k çdk' k dks
v o' kksf"kr dj ysrh gS A; fn xq
a y kc dksgjsçdk' k es ans[kk t k; rksi fRr; kagjh , oai a [ kq
fM;+kadkyhfn[ kkbZnsrhgSog
ml ja x dsçdk' k dksi jkofrZ r rFkk ' ks"k ja xksadsçdk' k dksvo' kksf"kr dj ysrh gS A
jaxksadk feJ . kµ uhysyky , oagjsja xka
sdksmi; q Dr ek=kk es afeykdj vU; ja xksadksçkIr fd; k t k l drk gS A
bU gs
açkFkfed ja x dgrsgS ajaxhu Vyshfot u es abUghadkç; kxs fd; kt krkgS Ai hyk] eS tVa
sk] i hdkW d µ Cywdksf}rh; d ja x dgrs
gSAft u nksja xka
sdksi jLi j feykusl sl i Q n
s çdk' k mR i Uu gkrskgSmU gsai jwd ja x (Complementary Colour) dgrsgS A
v k¡[ k (Eye) % µ ' kjhj dkegRoi .wkZv xa , d dS ejsdhrjg dk; Zdjrk gS AckgjhHkkx n' <+ i Vy uked dBksj
v i kjn' khZf>Yyh l s<+ d h jgrh gS An' <+ i Vy dsi hNsmHkjk gq v k Hkkx dkfuZ ; k dgykrk gS A( us=knku esadkfuZ ; k gh
fudkyht krhgS A) dkfuZ ; k dsi hNsus=kkn s (Aqucous Humour) uked i kjn' khZnzo Hkjk gkrsk gS AdkfuZ ; k dsi hNsfLFkr
i nkZv kbfjl v k[¡ kesaços'kdjusokysçdk' kdksfu; a f=kr djrkgSt ksde çdk' kes ai Qy , oavfèkd çdk' kesafl dq
S M+
t krk gS Abl h fy, ckgj l sde çdk' k okysdejsesaços'k djusi j dq N ns j rd gesade fn[ kkbZns r k gS
Ai qr yhds
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i hNsfLFkr ysa l }kjkoLrqdk mYVk] NksVk rFkkokLrfod çfrfcEc jsfVuki j curk gS Av k¡[ kesafLFkr i sf' k; k¡ysa l ij
ncko Mky dj i `"B dhoØrkdks?kVkrhc<+ krhjgrhgS Aft l l si Qkd
s l nw j hHkhde T; knkgksrhjgrhgS A, DVdi Vy
(Choroid) çdk' kdkv o' kks"k.kdj ysrkgSvkS j çdk' kdki jkorZ u ughagksi krkgS Afdl hoLrql spyusokyhçdk' k
fdj.ksadkfuZ ; krFkkus=kksn l sxq t jusdsi ' pkr~ysa l i j i Mr+hgS aysa
l l sv i ofrZ r gksd j dk¡pkHk nzo l sgksrhgq bZjsfVuk
i j i M+ r hgS ajsfVuk i j oLrqdk mYVk , oaokLrfod çfrfcEc curk gS AçfrfcEc cuusdk l a ns'k cuusdk l n as'k n`' ;
rafydkv ka s}kjk efLr"d rd i gq ¡prk gSv kS j oLrqn' kd Z dksfn[ kk; h nsusyxrh gS A
v k¡[ k d hl ea t u {ker k (Power of accommodation) % µ Li "V ns[kusdsfy, v ko' ; d gSfd oLrql spyus
okyh fdj.ksajs fVuk i j ghdsfUnz r gks] fdj.kksadsv kxsi hNsdsfUnz r gksusi j oLrqfn[ kk; hughansxhAoLrqdksèkhjsèkhjs
v k[¡ k dsl ehi yk; sao i Q kd
s l nw j hdksmruhghj[ ksarksoLrql spyusokyhfdj.ksajs fVuk dsi hNsi Q kd
s l gku ssyxs xha
v kjSoLrqfn[ kk; h ughansxhAoLrqdksT; ksT; ksvk¡[ k dsi k; ykrsgSi {ekfHkdhi sf' k; k¡] ysa l dhi Q ksd l nw j hdksde
djds] , slsl ek; ksft r dj nsrhgS afd oLrqdkçfrfcEc jsfVuk i j ghcurk jgs Abl çdkj vk¡[ k dh i sf' k; ksa}kjk us=k
dh i Q ksd l nw j h dsl ek; kst u dsxq . k dks^us=k dh l ea t u {kerk* dgrsgS A
us=k dsl keusdh og fudVre nw j h t gk¡ i j j[ kh oLrqus=k dksLi "V fn[ kk; h ns r h gSus=k dh Li "V nf̀"V dh
U;uwre nw j hdgykrh gSl kekU; v k¡[ k dsfy, ; g 25 l e sh gkrshgS Abl svk¡[ k dk fudV fcUnqdgrsgS AfudV fcUnq
dhrjg nw j fcUnqHkhgksrkgSl kekU; v k¡[ kdsfy, ; g vuUr gksrhgS Aeuq "; dhv k¡[ kdkfoLrkj 25 l sehl sysd j
v uUr rd gksrk gS A
fudV nf̀"V nks"k (Myopia) % µ bl esaO;fDr dksi kl dh oLrq , ¡Li "V fn[ kkbZnsrh gSfda r q, d fuf' pr nw jh
l sv fèkd nw j h dhoLrq , Li "V ughafn[ krhbl es aoLrqdk çfrfcEc v k¡[ k dsjs fVuk i j dq N v kxscu t krkgS Abl ds
fuokj.k gsrqv ory ys l dk ç; ksx fd; k t krk gSD; ka
a fsd vory ys l fdj.kksadksi Q
a y kdj jsfVuk i j dsfUnz
S r dj nsrk
gSA
nwj nf̀"V nks"k (Hypermetropia) % µ bl esaO;fDr dksnw j dh oLrq , arksLi "V fn[ kk; h nsrh gS ai jUrqi kl dh
oLrq , aughafn[ kk; h nsrh gS abl esaçfrfcEc jsfVuk i j u cudj dq N i hNscuusyxrk gS Abl dsfuokj.kkFkZmÙky ysa l
dk ç; ksx fd; k t krk gSD; kfsad mÙky ys la fdj.kksadksfl dksM+dj jsfVuk i j dsfUnzr dj nsrk gS A
a
çd k' k d k foor Z u (Diffraction of light) % µ çdk' k dsv ojksèkksadsfdukjksai j eq Mu
+sadh?kVuk dksçdk' k
dk foorZ u dgrsgS AfoorZ u dsdkj.k v ojksèk dh Nk; k dsfdukjsrh{.k ughagksrsAbl h dkj.k nw j n' khZesarkjksdh
çfrfcEc rh{.k fcUnq v ksads#i es au fn[ kk; hnsd j v Li "V èkCcksads#i es afn[ kk; hnsrsgS Açdk' k dk foorZ
a u v ojksèk
dsv kdkj i j fuHkZ j djrk gS a; fn v ojkè sk dk v kdkj çdk' k dh rja x nSè; ZdhdksfV dk gSrksfoorZ u Li "V gksrk gS
; fn v ojkè sk dk v kdkj çdk' k dh rja x nS è; Zdh rq y uk esacgq r cM+ k gSrksfoorZ u mi{sk.kh; gksxkAfoorZ u çdk' k
dsra ja
x çÑfr dh i q f"V djrk gS Aèofu rja xsav ojkè skksal sv kl kuh l seq M+t krh gS av kS
j Jksrk rd i gq ¡p t krh gS A
çd k' k r j a xksad k O ; fr d j . k (Interfernce of light) % µ t c l eku vkof̀Ùko l eku v k; ke dhnksçdk' krja xs
rksew y r%, d ghçdk' k l zkrs l s, d gh fn' kk esal p afjr gksrh gS arksekè; e dsdq N fcUnq v ka
si j çdk' k dh rhozrk
v fèkdre o dq N fcUnq v ksai j rhozrkU;u wre i k; ht krhgS Abl ?kVukdksghçdk' krja xka
sdkO ; frdj.kdgrsgS Aft u
fcUnq v ksai j çdk' kdhrhoz r kv fèkdre gksrhgSogk¡gq , O;frdj.kdksl a ; kst hO ; frdj.k(Constructive Interference)
rFkk ft u fcUnq v ksai j rhoz r k U;wure gksrh gSogk¡ gq , O;frdj.k dksfouk' kh O ; frdj.k (Destructive Interference)
dgrsgS AnksLora =k l zksrksal sfudysçdk' k rja xksaesaO;frdj.k dh ?kVuk ughagkrsh gS At y dhl rg i j i Q ySsfeV~ Vh
dsrsy rFkk l kcq u dscq y cq y ksadk ja xhu fn[ kkbZnsuk O;frdj.k dk mnkgjk gS A
O;frdj.k esa' kw U; rhozrk okysLFkkuka sdhÅt kZu"V ughagksrh cfYd ft ruh Åt kZu"V gksrhgSmruh ghÅt kZ
v fèkdre rhozrk okysLFkkuka si j çdV gkst krh gS A
çd k' k r j a xksad k èkzq o. k (Polarisation of light waves) % µ çdk' k rja xsa, d çdj dhfo| q r pq Ecdh; rja xsgS a

200
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ft uesafo| q
r o pq Ecdh; {ks=k , d nw l jsdsyEor~gkrssgS ao rja
xsadsl pj.k dh fn' kk dsyEor~ryka sesadEi u djrs
gSaçdk' k dsl paj.k dsfy, fo| q r dEi u gh eq [ ; #i esamÙkjnk; h gksrsgS
apw
¡fd çdk' k rja
xsavuq çLFk rja
xa
sgSav r%
; sfo| q
r dEi u rjaxlp aj.kdhfn' kkdsyEor~gksrsgS At c ; sdEi u ry esafLFkr gj fn' kkesa; kn' PN #i l sforfjr
gkrssgSrks, lsh rja
x dksv èkqzfor rjax v kjS; fn fo| q
r dEi u ry esal Hkh fn' kkvksaes
al eku #i l sforfjr u gksd j
, d gh fn' kk esagh rksçdk' k rjaxksadksèkqzfor rja
xsdgrsgS A

ukbVªksl sy yqkts rFkkgji F skkbVdsfeJ.kl scusfi Q Ye dksdkp ¡ dhnksIysVksadschp j[ kdj i ksy jkbMdkfuekZ .k
dj Łkq zfor mRiUu fd; kt krkgS Abl dkmi; ksx i jkofrZ r › dk’ kdhpdkpkS Łkl scpusrFkkf=kfoehi fl usekdksns[kus
a
dsfy, Hkhbudk mi; ksx gksrk gS A
dS ej k (Camera) % µ dS ejsaes
amÙky ysa l dh l gk; rk l sokLrfod çfrfcEc çkIr fd; k t krk gS AdS ejk èkkrq
dk çdk' kjksèkh cDl k gksrk gS Av ki frr fdj.k dksv i ' kksf"kr djusdsfy, vUnj dh nhokj dkyh dj nh t krh gsA
v xysHkkx ysa l rFkk fi Nysv Unj dh nhokj dkyh dj nh t krhgS AvxysHkkx esaysa l rFkk fi NysaHkkx esafl Yoj
czksekbM rFkk ft ysfVu dh i ryh i rZp<+ h l sy w
y kbM dh fi Q Ye yxh gksrh gS Aysa l dsBhd ft ysfVu yxsi nsZdks
Mk; kÝke dgrsgSMk; kÝke dsNsn dksv ko' ; drkuq l kj NksVk ; k cM+ k dj l drsgS Ays l dsi hNsyxk di kV [ kyqus
a
l s› dk’ k ( 1@ 10 l s1@ 50 l a d
s s.M rd) fi Q Ye i j Mkyk t krk gS Afi Q Ye i j dk’ k i M+ r k gSml smn~ Hkkl u dky
(Escposure Time) dgrsgS; g çdk' kdhrhozrki j fuHkZ j djrkgS Afi QYe dkst y es aèkkds j] èkqy hfi Q Ye dksl ksfM; e
Fkk; kslYi Q sV( gkbi ks) dst yh; ?kkys esaMky fn; kt krkgS Abl si q u%èkkso l [qkkdj fuxs fVo çkIr dj dj ysrsgS Aft l l s
okLrfod çfrfcEc dkxt i j çkIr dj ysrsgS AfuxsfVo esal i Q sn Hkkx dkyso dkysHkkx l i Q sn fn[ kkbZnsrsgS A
n' kZu d ks.k (Visual Angle) % µ oLrqv k¡[ ki j ft rukdks.kcukrhgS ] ml sn' kZ u dks.kdgrsgS aoLrqdkv kdkj
bl hi j fuHkZ j djrk gS An' kZ u dk.sk cM+ k gku
ssi j oLrqcM+ h rFkk NksVk gksusi j NksVhfn[ kkbZnsxhAnw j n' khZo l w {e n' khz
}kjk n' ku Z dks.k c<+ kdj oLrqdk v kHkkl h v kdkj c<+ ; k t k l drk gS A
l jy l w { en' khZ(Simple Microscope) % µ ; g , slk ; a =k gSft l dh l gk; rk l sl w {e oLrq v kasdksns[k l drs
gSA
a bl es aNksVh i Q kd
s l nw j h dk mÙky ys l yxk gksrk gS
a At c dkb sZoLrqbl es ayxsysa l dsl keusbl dhi Q ksd l nw j hl s
de nw j hi j j[ krsgSrc oLrqdk v kHkkl h] l hèkko cMk+çfrfcEc fn[ kkbZnsrkgS Abl dk mi; ksx t hok.kq v ksadksns[kus]
fi Qxjfça
a V dh t k¡p o NksVsi S ekusdksi <usesafd; k t krk gS Av fr l w {e d.ksadksns[kusdsfy, bysDVªku l w {en' khZdk
mi; ksx gksrk gS Aft l esaçdk' k fdj.ksadsLFkku i j bysDVªku i a tqksadk ç; ksx gkrsk gS A; g l kèkkj.k l w {en' khZdh v i {skk
oLrq v ksadk v kdkj 5000 xq uk cM+ k fn[ kkrh gS
A
la ;qDr l w { en' khZ(Compounal Microscope) % µ l jy l w {en' khZl sv fèkd v koèkZ d {kerk çkfIr gs r ql a;q
Dr
lw {e n' khZdk mi; ksx fd; k t krk gS Abl esanksmÙky ysa l yxsgksrsgS a, d dksv fHkn' ' ; d (Objective) o nw l jsdks
usf=kdk (Eye Piece) dgrsgS Ausf=kdk rFkk v fHkn' ' ; d esaft ruh gh de i Q ksd l nw j h dsysa l ksadk mi; ksx gksrk gS
lw {en' khZdh v koèkZ u {kerkmruhgh v fèkd gkrshgS Abl dk mi; ksx l w {e ouLi fr; ksa, oat Urq v ksadksns[kusrFkk [ kw u
o cyxe dh t k¡p esafd; k t krk gS A
nwj n' khZ(Telescope) % µ bl dk mi; ksx v kdk' kh; fi .Mka spUnzek] rkjksa, oav U; xzgksav kfn dksns[kusesafd; k
t krk gS Abl esanksmÙky ys la , d vfHkn`' ; d i j , oanw l jk usf=kdk i j yxsgkrssgS Av fHkn`' ; d ysa l , d csy ukdkj
uyhds, d fdukjsi j rFkk usf=kdk ysa l uyh dsnw l jsfdukjsi j yxk gksrk gS AcM+ sys l ksadsfuekZ
a . k esadfBukbZdks
n' f"Vxe djdsi jkorZ d nw j n' khZcuk; k t kjgk gSft l es av ory ni Z . k dk ç; ksx i jkorZ d ry ds#i es agksrk gSAdq N
nwj nf' kZ; ksaesai joy; kdkj ni Z . k dk Hkh ç; ksx gksjgk gS A



201
 SCIECNE

ãäÌã²ãì¦ã (Electricity)
dkWp dh NM+dksjs'ke l s; k , cku skbV dh NM+dksfcYyhdh [ kky l sjxM+ usi j buesadkxt dsNksVsVq d Mk+sa
dksv kdf"kZ r djusdk xq . k vk t krk gS Ai nkFkkZa
sesa; g xq . k fo| q r e; rk( El ect ri Fei d ) dsdkj.k v krk gS Aog dkj.k
ft l l sdkb sZi nkFkZfo| qr e; gkst krkfo| q r dgykrkgS Ai nkFkka sZesa?k"kZ
. kl st ksv kos'kdhek=kkl a fpr gkrshgSml sfLFkj
fo| qr dgrsgS Aog v kos'k t ksfdl h pkyd i nkFkZesaçokfgr gksrk gSml sfo| q r èkkjk dgrsgS A
v kos'k(Chrge) % µ l oZ çFke csa t kfeu Ýd sa fyu usèkukRed o Í .kkRed v kos'kuke fn; kAog v kos'kt ksdkW p
dksjs'ke l sjxMu +si j NM+i j l fapr gksrkgSèkukos'krFkkt ksv kos'k, cksukbV i j fcYyhdh[ kky l sjxM+ usi j l fapr
gkrsk gSÍ .kkos ' k dgk x; kAoLrq v ksaesav kos'k bysDVªkuksadsLFkkukUrj.k l sv krk gSbl esaçksVªku vkx ughays r sgS
At c
fdl h oLrqi j bysDVªkuksadh deh gksrh gSrksml èkukos'k v kS j t c bysDVªkuksadh v fèkdrk gksrh gSt ksml i j Í .k
v kos' k v krk gS A
pkyd ] v pky d o v o~ èkZpky d % µ , slsi nkFkZft ul sfo| q r v kos'kçokfgr gksrsgS apkyd dgykrsgSt S ls
µ vfèkdk'akèkkrq ,a] v Ey] {kkj o yo.kksadkt yh; foy; u] ekuo ' kjhj v kfnA, slsi nkFkZft ul sv kos'kçokfgr ugha
gkrskgSv pkyd dgykrsgSt S l sµ jcj] ydMh +] v Hkd
z ' kq ¼ v kl q r t y vkfnAdq N i nkFkZl kekU; v oLFkkesav kos'kksa
dsv pkyd gksrsgS abudk rki c<+ kus; k dq N v' kq f¼; kafeykusi j bul sv kos ' k çokfgr gksusyxrk gSv ¼Z pkyd
dgykrsgS at S l sdkcZ u] t esfZu; r fl fydku v kfnApkyd i nkFkksZesaeq Dr bysDVªku gksrsgS at cfd v kpkydksaesabudh
v uqi fLFkfr gksrh gSvkS j v¼Z pkydksaes arki c<+ k dj ; k v ' kq f¼; kafeykdj eq Dr bysDVªkuksadksçkIr fd; k t k l drk
gSAi nkFkZdh pkydrk ; k vpkydrk bUghaeq Dr bysDVªkuka si j fuHkZ j djrh gS A
fdl h [ kk[skysxksy pkyd i j l Ei w . kZv kos'k ml dsckgjh i `"B i j gh gksrk gSfd cUn dkj i j fct yh fxjus
i j v Unj cS Bs; k=kh l q
j f{kr jgrs agS Abl h çdkj pkyd dsuq
a d hysHkkx i j Hkh v kos'k dk èkuRo l okZ fèkd gksrk gS A
r fM+r pkyd ( Li ght ni ng Cond uct or ) % µ bl dk ç; kxs Hkouksadh l q j {kk gsr qfd; k t krk gS Abl dk Åi jh
uqd hyk fl jk cknyksal sçkIr v kos'k dksxzg.k dj i F̀oh esaHkst dj Hkouksadksl q j f{kr dj nsrk gS A
fo| qr èkkj k (Electric Current) % µ v kos'k dsçokg dksfo| q r èkkjk dgrsgS A
aBksl pkydksaesafo| q r èkkjkdk
çokg bysDVªkuka sdsLFkkukUrj.k dsdkj.k] t cfd nzoksaesao xS l ka
sesav k; uksadhxfr dsdkj.k gksrk gS Afo| q r èkkjk dh
fn' kk èkukos'kdsxfr dhv ksj rFkk Í .kkos'kdsxfr dhfoi jhr fn' kkesaekuht krhgS Afo| q r èkkjkdk ek=kd , fEi; j
gSAt c fdl hi fji Fkes aèkkjk, d ghfn' kkesacgrhrksml sfn"V èkkjk(Direct Current) v kS j ; fn èkkjkdhfn' kkyxkrkj
cnyrh gSrksml sçR;korhZèkkjk (Atternative Current) dgrsgS A
foHkokUrj (Potentia; Defference) % µ fdl hrkj esaèkkjkçokfgr djusi j eq Dr bysDVªku xfr djrsgq , pkyd
dsi jek.kq v ksal sVdjkrsjgrsgS Abl l sbudhxfr esav ojksèk mRiUUk gksrk gSv kS j bysDVªku bl v ojkè sk dsfo#¼ vi uh
xfr dkscuk; sj[ kusgsrqt ksdk; Zdjrk gSml sfoHkokUrj dgrsgS Abl dk ek=kd oksYV gS A
fo| qr l ys (Electric Cell) % µ fo| q r l sy esajkl k; fud fØ; kv ksal sjkl k; fud Åt ksdksfo| rq Åt kZesa
i fjofrZ r fd; k t krk gS Abues aèkkrqdh nksNM+ sgS aèkukos'k dks, ukM s+o Í .kkos ' k dksdS FkksM+dgrsgS A; snksçdkj ds
gkrssgS açkFkfed , oaf}rh; d l sy A
çkFkfed l ys jkl k; fud Åt kZdksl hèksfo| rq Åt kZes ai fjofrZ r djrkgS At Slµs okY sVh; ] ys Dyk'aks, oaMfsu; y l sy A
f}rh; d l ys i gysfo| q r Åt kZdksjkl k; fud Åt kZesafi Q j jkl k; fud Åt kZdksfo| q r Åt kZes ai fjofrZr djrk
gSAbl çdkj ç; ksxµ dkj] Vªd ] VªDVj v kfn es afd; k t krk gS A
çkFkfed l sy esal a fpr jkl k; fud Åt kZdk , d ckj ç; ksx dj ysusdsIk' pkr~oscsd kj gkst krsgS at cfd
f}rh; d l ys ksaesal fapr jkl k; fud Åt kZl ekIr gksusi j bUgsai q u%vkosf' kr (Charg) dj fy; k t krk gS A

202
 SCIECNE

cksYVh; l sy % µ v kfo"dkj 1799 esa, fyt k.MksaokY sVkusfd; kFkkdka p dscrZ u esal YÝ; w fjd v Ey Hkjkjgrk
gSft l esa, d t Lrsdh ( dS FkksM+
) rFkk , d rk¡cs( , UkksM+ ) dh NM+Mw ch jgrh gS A
y sDy ka ' khl sy % µ dkp a dscrZ u es av eksfu; e DyksjkbM+(ukS l knj) dkl a r ' Ir foy; u HkjkjgrkgS Abl esaMw ck
t Lrk ( dS FkksM+) Mw ck jgrk gS AdkcZ u dh NM+( , uksM+ ) eS xuht Mkbv kDl kbM o dkcZ u dsfeJ.k dschp j[ kh jgrh
gSAbl dkç; ksx ogk¡fd; k t krk gSt gka#d #d dj fo| q r èkkjk dhv ko' ; drkgksrhgSt lSsµ fo| q r ?kaVh] Vsy hi Qksu
v kfnA
' kq
"d l sy (Dry Cell) % µ bl l sy es at LrsdscrZ u esaeS
xuht Mkbv kDl kbM+uklSknj o dkcZ u dk feJ.k Hkjk
gkrsk gS
Aft l dschp j[ kh dkcZ u dhNM+, uksM+dk dk; Zdjrh gSvkS j t Lrsdk crZ u dS FkksM+dk dk; Zdjrk gS Abl
l sy dk fo| q r okgd cy 1-5 oksYV gksrk gS Aç; ksx VkpZ ] js
fM; ka
]s VsifjdkMjZ v kfn esagksrk gS A
fo| q r èkkj k d sçHkko % µ bl dsrhu çHkko µ Å"eh; ] jkl k; fud , oapq Ecdh; ns[kusdksfeyrsgS A
fo| q r èkkjk dsçokfgr djusi j xfreku bysDVªku pkyd dsi jek.kq v ksal sVdjkrsjgrsgS av kjS Åt kZdk
#i kukUrj.k djrsgq , pkyd dsrki dksc<+ k nsrsgSabl sghfo| rq èkkjk dkÅ"eh; çHkko dgrsgS Abl dk ç; ksx fo| q
a r
ghVj] çsl] cYc] V~ ;wy kbV v kfn esans[kusdksfeyrk gS A
fo| q r ghVj esaIykLVj v kW i Qi sfjl i j feJèkkrqukbØkse dk rkj mPp çfrjksèk okyk ç; q Dr gksrk gS A
fo| q r çsl esaHkh ukbØkse dk rkj v Hkzd dh IysV i j fyi Vk jgrk gS A
fo| q r cYc esaVa xLVu èkkrqdk i ryk rUrq uqek dq . Myh; rkj yxk gksrk gSD; ksfd Va xLVu dk xyuka d vfkd
( 35000C) gksrk gS AcYc esavkDl hdj.k jkd s usgs r qfuokZfrr dj fn; k t krk gS AdHkh µ dHkhfuokZ frr djusdsct k;
v fØ; xS l st S
a l sµ v xZ u Hkh Hkj fn; k t krk gS A
V~;w cykbV dka p dh uyh gksrh gSft l dsHkhrjhl rg i j i Q kLVj dk ysi p<+ k gksrk gSv kjSv Unj v fØ; xS l
( v kxZ
u i kjsdsl kFk) HkjhgksrhgS Anksuksafdukjksai j csfj; e v kDl kbM+dhi jr p<+ hrUrqyxhgksrhgS ArUrq v ksaesaèkkjk
çokfgr djusi j bysDVªku mRlft Z r gksrsgS; sV~ ;w
c esaHkjh xS l dksvk; uhÑr nsrsgS AxehZi kdj i kjk ok"i hÑr gksrk
gSi jkcSxuhfdj.ksamRl ft rZ gksrhgS Av kS
a j iQ kLi Qj i j i M+dj fuEu v kof̀Ùkdkçdk' kmRiUu djrhgS AV~ ;w
c esai QkLi Q j
dsdkj.k l i Q sn nwfèk; k çdk' k mRiUu gksrk gS A
j kl k; fud çHkko % µ fo| q r èkkjk dsjkl k; fud çHkko dsdkj.kfdl hyo.k dst yh; foy; u esafo| q r èkkjk
çokfgr djusi j ml dk vi ?kVu gkst krk gS Afoy; u dsyo.kka sdk nksçdkj dsvk; uka sesaVw V t kuk fo| qr v i ?kVu
dgykrkgS Av i ?kVu dsIk' pkr~èkuk; u dS FkksM+dhv ksj rFkkÍ .kk; u , uksM+dhv ksj çokfgr gksusyxrsgS Abl dkç; ksx
fo| qr ysiu] èkkrq' kksèku rFkk fo| q r eq nz.k esagksrk gS A
rkcasi j pka nhdhi jr fl Yoj ukbVªsM(Ag CO ) dkt yh; foy; u ysd j rka
3 csdhIysV dkdS FkksM+o pkanhdh
Iys V dk , uksM+crkrsgS At yh; foy; u es afl Yoj ukbVªsM µ fl Yoj o ukbVªsM esaVV w t krk gSfl Yoj vk; u ds#i
esarkacsdh IysV dh v ksj çokfgr gksusyxrk gSv kS j rkcasi j i jr t eusyxrh gS Aft l èkkrqi j ysiu djuk gksrk gS
ml sdS FkksM+cukrsgS A
fo| q r èkkjk dspq Ecdh; çHkko i j v kèkkfjr midj.k Vsy hi Q ksu] Vsy hxzki Q] fo| qr ?ka Vh] i a
[ kk eksVj v kfn gS A
dw y kWe d k fu; e % µ l eku çdkj dsv kos'k , d nw l jsdksçfrdf.kZ r djrsgS arFkk foi jhr çdkj dsv kos'k
, d µ nw l jsdksv kdf"kZ r djrsgS Anksvkos'kksadseè; yxusokyscy dksoS
a |q r cy dgrsgS A
nksfLFkj v kos'kksadschp yxusokyk cy] mudhek=kk dsxq . kui Q y dsvuq Øekuqi krho mudschp dh nw j hds
oxZdsO;q RØekuq i krh gksrk gSA
çfr j ksèk% µ fdl hpkyd es afo| rq èkkjkçokfgr djusi j xfr' khy bysDVªku jkLrses avkusokysi jek.kvqksal sVdjkrs
jgrsgS aft l l sÅt kZdk âkl gkrsk gS Aèkkjk çokg es amRiUu bl O ; oèkku dksgh çfrjkè sk dgrsgS Abl dk ek=kd vke s gS A
203
 SCIECNE

çfrjkèskka
sdk l ;aktsu nksçdkj l sgkrsk gSµl ekukUrj Øe o Js . kh Øe
Js.kh Øe esal ;aksft r çfrjksèkka
sdk rq
Y; çfrjksèk l eLr çfrjksèkksads
; kxs dscjkcj gksrk gS A
R= R1 + R2 + R3 +……………

l ekukU
rj Øe es
al ;akfst r çfrjkè
skka
sdsl erq
Y; çfrjkè
sk dkO
;R
qØe mudsçfrjkè
skka
sdsO
;R
qØeka
sds; kxs dscjkcj gkrskgS
A
1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 ……………
fo| q r l keF; Z% µ dk; Zdjusdh nj dksl keF; ZdgrsgS A
a
fo| q r l keFkZ¾O;; Åt kZ @ yxk l e; ^bl dk ek=kd ^okV* gS A
1 fdyksokV ¾103 okV
1 es xkokV ¾106 okV
1 v ' o' kfDr ¾746 okV
?kjksaesaç; D
qr fo| rq midj.kksa}kjk [ kpZdh xbZdq y Åt kZdseki u gsrqfdyksokV µ ?ka Vk ehVj (eh-) uked
;a=k ç; kxs gksrk gS
AO;; Åt kZdksokV µ ?ka Vk ; k fdyksokV ?k.Vk esaeki rsgS A, d ^okV ?k.Vk* Åt kZdh og ek=kk gS
t ks1 okV dh {kerk dk midj.k , d ?ka VsesaO;; djrk gS; g 3600 t w y dscjkcj gksrk gS A
v ehVj µ (Ammeter) fo| q r èkkjkdks, fEi; j esaeki usokyk; a =kgSbl si fji F
akes aJs.khØe esat kM
s+
r sgS
Av kn' kZ
v ehVj dk çfrjkè sk ' kw
U; gksrk gS
A
oksYVehVj (Voltmeter) % µ bl dk ç; kxs i fji Fk es anksfcUnqv ksadschp foHkokUrj eki usgsrqfd; k t krk gSbl s
Hkh Js.khØe esagh yxkrsgS av kn' kZoksYVehVj dk çfrjksèk v Uur gksuk pkfg, ft l l si fji Fk esaçokfgr èkkjk esadksbZ
i fjorZ
u u gksA
fo| q r Ý; w
t % µ i fji Fk esayxsmidj.kksadh l q j {kk gs
r qç; D
qr gksrk gSa; g rka ck] fVu , oal hl k dh feJ èkkrq
l scuk gksrk gS; g de xyuka d dk , oafuf' pr {kerk , oaeksVkbzdksgksuk pkfg, Arkj dh eksVkbZft ruh vfèkd gksh
ml esaçokfgr èkkjk dk eku mruk gh v fèkd gksxkAi fji Fk esabl sJs.kh Øe esayxk; k t krk gS A
a



204
 SCIECNE

Þã콺ã‡ãŠ¦Ìã (Magmeism)
pqEcd Ro (Magmeism) % µ l oZ çFke 600 bZ -iw- , f' k; kekbuj dseS Xuhf' k; e uked LFkku i j pq Ecdh; xq . kksa
l s; qDr i RFkjkasdsi k; st kusdsdkj.k budk uke eS xusV i M+ kA
pqEcd d sxq . k (Properties of Magnets) % µ pq Ecd esayksgk] bLi kr v kfn dq N èkkrqv ksadksv i uh v ksj
v kdf"kZ r djusdk xq . k i k; k t krk gS
A
pqEcd dksLora =krki o
wZd yVdkusi j bl dkmÙkjhèkq o
z mÙkj dhvksj , oanf{k.khèkq zo nf{k.kfn' kkdhvksj Bgjrk
gSAbl sØe' k%mÙkjh èkzq o o nf{k.kh èkq zo dgrsgS A
pqEcd dsl eku èkzq oksaesaçfrd"kZ. k , oafoi jhr èkqzoksaesav kd"kZ
. k dk xq. k i k; k t krk gS ApqEcd dksnksVq d Mk+sa
esaoka V nsusi j nksuksaVdq Msai w
. kZpqEcd ds#i esadk; ZdjusyxrsgS A
pqEcd h; {ks=k (Magnetic Field) % µ fdl h pq Ecd dspkjksav ksj dk og {ks=k] ft l esanw l jk v kd"kZ
.k ; k
çfrd"kZ . k cy dk v uq Hko djrk gSpq Ecdh; {ks=k dgykrk gS Abl dk ek=kd xkS l gS A
fo| q
r èkkjk çokfgr gksjgsfdl h pkyd dsi kl pq Ecdh; l b qZyst kusi j l q bZfo{ksfi r gkst krh gS; fn èkkjk
dk çokg cUn dj fn; k t k; rksl q bZpkyd rkj dsl ekukUrj fLFkj gkst krh gS Abl l sLi "V gSfd fdl hpkyd esa
èkkjk çokfgr djusi j ml dsvksj , d pq Ecdh; {k= sk mRiUu gkst krk gS A
fo| qr pq Ecd (Electro Magnet) % µ fo| q r èkkjk dspq Ecdh; çHkko dkç; ksx dj fo| q r pq Ecd cuk; st krs
gSA
a bl scukusgsrq?kksM+ sdh uky dsv kdkj dh yksgsdh NM+ysd j ml i j rka csdk rkj yi sV fn; k t krk gSrkj ds
fl jksal sèkkjk çokfgr djusi j NM+fo| q r pq Ecd cu t krk gS Abl dk mi; ksx µ v k¡[ k] dku] ukd ; k ' kjhj dsv U;
fgLl ksaesa?klqsaykgssdsv o; oksadksfudkyusrFkk fo| q r ?kVah] Vªka
l iQkeZj vkfn es afd; k t krk gS A
pq
Ecd dsçdkj µ
çfr pq Ecd h; i nkFkZ(Dia Magnetuc Substances) % µ pq Ecdh; {ks=k dsfoi jhr fn' kk es apqEcdh; gksusokys
i nkFkksZ
adksdgrsgS At Lrk] fcLeFk] rka ck] pka
nh] l ksuk] ghjk] ued] t y vkfn çfr pq Ecdh; i nkFkZgS A
v uqµ pq Ecd h; i nkFkZ(Paramagnetic Substances) % µ pq Ecdh; {ks=kesav kusi j FkksM+hek=kkes apqEcfdr gksus
okysi nkFkksZdksdgrsgS At S l sµ l ksfM; e] , Y; q
fefu; e] eS xuht ] dkW i j] DyksjkbM v kfnA
y kS
g pq Ecd h; i nkFkkZ(Ferromagnetic Substances) % µ pq Ecdh; {ks=kesav kusi j çcy pq Ecfdr gksusokys
i nkFkksZdksdgrsgS At Sl sµ yksgk] fufdy] dksckYV v kfnA
Mksesu ( Domains) % µ ykg S pqEcdh; i nkFkksZdsHkhrj v l a [ ; i jek.kvqksads] v frl w{e l a
j pukdksdgrsgS A, d
Mksesu esa1018 l s1021 rd i jek.kqgkrssgS AykSg pq Ecdh; i nkFkksZaesapqEcdh; xq . kMkseu
sksadsi jLi j çfrLFkki u o ?kw
. kZ
u
dsdkj.k gksrk gS A
D; w
j h r ki (Curie Temperature) % µ og rki ft l dsÅi j i nkFkZv uq pqEdh; o ft l dsuhpsykg S pqEcdh;
gkst krk gS Ayksgsdk D; w j h rki 7800 gksrk gS A
ueZyksgs( Cast Iron) dk pq Ecdu o fopq Ecdu nku sksavkl kuh l sgkst krk gSt cfd bLi kr dk pq Ecdu o
fopq Ecdu dfBu gksrk gS Abl hfy, v LFkkbZpq Ecd xeZyksgsl s, oaLFkkbZpq Ecd bLi kr l scuk; st krsgS
q Afo| rq ?kV
a ah]
Vªklai QkeZ
j v kfn ueZyksgsdsrFkk ykmMLi hdj fo| q r eki d ; U=kksadspq Ecd bLi kr dscuk; st krsgS A
Hkw
µ pqEcdRo (Earth Magnetism) % µ i F̀oh, d pq Ecd dhHkk¡fr O;ogkj djrhgS AHkwµpq Ecd dk nf{k.kh
èkq
oz µ mÙkjh èkq zo i j rFkk mÙkjh èko
zq µ nf{k.khèkq zo i j fLFkr gS Ai F̀oh dspq Ecdh; xq . k dsdkj.kksadk v Hkh Li "V
dkj.k Kkr ughagS A; fn fdl h ykg
a ssdh NM+dksi F̀oh esaxkM+fn; k t k; rksml es apqEcdh; xq . k v k t krk gS
A
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fo| q r pq Ecd h; çsj. k (Electro Magnetic Induction) % µ fo| qr pq Ecdh; çHkko l si Q j kMsusçHkkfor gks
S
ç; ksx fd; k fd fdl h pq Ecd dks] èkkjkeki hl st qM+hdq. Myhdsi kl ykus; k nw j yst kusi j ml es afo{ksi gkrsk gSt ks
dq . Myh es amRiUu fo| rq okbd cy dsdkj.k gksrk gAèkkjkeki h esafo{kis eku pq Ecd dh xfr dsdkj.k ughagksrk
v fi rqpq Ecd dksfLFkj djdsdq . Myhdkspq Ecd l snw j yst kus; ki kl ykusi j Hkhfo{kis gksrk gS Abl l sLi "V gq vk
fd èkkjkeki hesagq v kfo{ksi pqEcdRo dq . Myhdschp v ki sf{kd xfr i j fuHkZj djrkgS Abl l si Q j kMsausfu"d"kZfudkyk
S
fd t c fdl hdq . Myho pq Ecd dschp v ki sf{kd xfr gksrhgSrksdq . Myhes a, d fo| q
r okgd cy mRiUu gkst krk
gSft l sçsfjr fo| q r okgd cy dgrsgS Abl fo| q r okgd cy dsdkj.k dq . Myh esaèkkjk cgrh gSft l sçs fjr èkkjk
dgrsgSbl ?kVuk dksgh fo| q r pqEcdh; çsj.k dgrsgS Afo| qr pqEcdh; çsj.k fl ¼kUr i j Mk; ueka ]s fo| qr ekV
sj]
Vªka
l iQkeZ
j ] ekbØdksiQ ksu] ykmMLi hdj v kfn dk; ZdjrsgS A
Vªka
l iQ j dhl gk; rk l sçR;korhZoksYVrk dksde ; k v fèkd fd; k t krk gS; g v i pk; h (Step Down) rFkk
keZ
mPpk; h (Step - Up) nksçdkj dk gksrk gS AVªklai Q
keZj dk ç; ksx dsoy çR;korhZèkkjk (A.C.) es afd; k t krk gSfn"V
èkkjk (D.C.) es augha A


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‚ãã£ãìãä¶ã‡ãŠ †Ìãâ ¹ãÀ½ãã¥ãì ¼ããõãä¦ã‡ãŠãè (Mordern and Atomic Physics)

Ekw
y d . k% µ HkkS frdhesaosew y d.k gS aft udh l a j puk fdUgh v kS j d.kksal sughagksrhrFkkft udka sfoHkkft r ugha
fd; k t k l drkA
ew yd . k [ kkst dr kZ
bys DVªku ( Í .kkRed) t s-t s- Fkkel u
çkVsku (/ kukRed) jnji Q ksMZ
U;V wªku ( mnkl hu) pS Mfod
i kft Vªku ( / kukRed) , .Mjl u
U;fw Vªukas( mnkl hu) Ikmyh
i kbZeS l ksu nks/ kukRed o ( Í .kkRed) ;qd kok
iQ kV
sku ( ; sÅt kZo.My gS )
a
ukfHkd % µ i jek.kqdk l eLr nzO;eku bl dsukfHkd esads fUnzr jgrk gS abl dk l a ?kVu çksVku , oaU;w Vªku l sgksrk
gSAukfHkd dki Q h l ?ku , oan`<+gksrk gS AukfHkd dschp çksVkuksa, oaU;w Vªkuksadschp , d v kd"k.Zk cy dk; Zdjrk
gSt ksbu d.kka sdksv ki l esacka èksjgrk gS AbUghacyksadk ukfHkdh; cy dgrsgS AukfHkdh; cy dkdkj.k u; sçdkj
dsd.kksaeS l kus dh mRifÙk gS At ksukfHkd dsHkhrj çksVku µ U;w Vªku dschp i jLi j fofue; l smRiUu gksrsgS A
l eLFkkfud (Isotopes) % µ , d gh rÙo dsi jek.kqft udsnzO;eku fHkUu µ fHkUu rFkk i jek.kqØeka d l eku
gkasl eLFkkfud dgykrsgS AbuesabysDVªku o çksVªku dh l a [ ; k l eku i jUrqU;w Vªku dh l a [ ; k fHkUu fHkUu gksrh gS A
l eLFkkfud dsjkl k; fud xq . k , d l eku gksrsgS A
a
l eHkkj h(Isobars) % µ osrÙo ft udsi jek.kqHkkj l eku gksi jUrqi jek.kqØeka d vFkkZ r ~bysDVªku o çksVku dh
la[ ; k fHkUu fHkUu gksl eHkjh dgykrsgS Abudsjkl k; fud xq
a . k fHkUu fHkUu gksrsgS A
j sfM; ks, fDVor k (Radioactivity) % µ dq N rRoka sl svn' ' ; fofdj.kLor%mRl ft rZ gksrsjgrsgS A; sfofdj.k
v i kn' khZi nkFkksZ adkxt v kfn dkscsèkusrFkk i Q kV
sksxzkfi Qd IysV dksçHkkfor djusdh {kerk j[ krsagS Abu v n' ' ;
fofdj.kka sdksjsfM; ksa , fDVo fdj.ksarFkk i nkFkZdsbl xq . kdksjsfM; k,sfDVork dgrsgS av kS j , slsi nkFkkZa
sdksjsfM; ks, fDVo
i nkFkZdgrsgS Abl esaµ ; jwsfu; e] jsfM; e] Fkksfj; e] i kys ksfu; e v kfn v krsgS A
jnji Q ksMZusbu fdj.kksadksfo| q r {k= sk l sxq t kj dj rhu çdkj dh fdj.kksav Yi Q k ( ± èkukRed)] chVk ( ²
Í .kkRed) rFkk xkek ( ³ mnkl hu) ds#i esai gpku dhA
v ) v k; q(Half Life) % µ ft rusl e; kUrjky esafdl h js fM; ks,fDVo i nkFkZdh ek=kk fo?kfVr gksd j vi us
çkjfEHkd ek=kk dh v kèkh jg t krh gSml l e; kUrjky dksv ¼Zv k; qdgrsgS A
j sfM; ksl eLFkkfud % µ dq N rRoka si j U;w Vªkuksa; k mPp Åt kZokysd.kksadh ceokjh djdsbudkscuk; k t krk
gSAbl çdkj fufeZ r js fM; ksa, fDVo l eLFkkfud çkÑfrd jsfM; ksa, fDVo i nkFkkZ sdh HkkW fr dk; ZdjrsgS Abudk mi; ksx
a
v k"Skfèk; ksaesa
] jksxkisapkj esa, oaÑf"k esagksrk gS A
j sfM; ksa, fDVo {k; (Radioactive Decay) % µ jsfM; ksa, fDVo i nkFkZl s±, ², ³ d.k dsmRl t Z u l smudsi jek.kq
Hkkj o Øeka d cnyrst krsgS Ao u; srRoksadk t Ue gksrk gSbl ?kVuk dksjsfM; ksa, sfDVo {k; dgrsgS Al eLr jsfM; ksa
, fDVo i nkFkZ{k; gksd j l hl sesai fjofrZ r gkrssgS AjsfM; ksa , fDVo fdj.ksai jek.kqdsukfHkd l smRlft Z r gksrhgS av r%bu
i j rki ] nkc v kfn cká dkjd dk dksbZçHkko ughai M+ r k gS
A{k; çkjEHk esarsth l sgksrk gSfi Q j bl dh nj yxkrkj
?kVrh t krh gS A

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j sfM; ks, fDVor k d smi ; ksxµ

jsfM; ksal eLFkkfudksadk mi; ksx ukfHkdh; fo?kVu] çdk' k l a ' ys"k.k v kfn dsv è; ; u esafd; k t krk gS AjsfM; ksa
, fDVo l eLFkkfud ( l ksfM; e) dk i fjl a pj.k ra =k] i kpu ra =k dsv è; ; u] ' kjhj esa[ ku w dh ek=kk Kkr djusdsfy,
fd; k t krk gS AjsfM; ka sl eLFkkfudksadksv uq j s[kdkasdh rjg djdsi kè Skksa}kjk fofHkUu moZ j dksadsxzg.k djusdh {kerk
dk vè; ; u djuses afd; k t krk gS Axbxs j eq y j x.kd (Geiger Muller Counter) ds}kjk i kè Skkas}kjk yhxbZmoZ j d dh
ek=kk Kkr dht krhgS Axkek fdj.kka sdk mi; kxs Ñf"k es agkfudkjd t hoka s, oat hok.kvqkasdsekjuses aHkh fd; k t krk gS A
jsfM; ksa, fDVo dksckYB dkmi; ksx dS l j jksx esa
a ] v k; ksMhu dkv oVqxza fFkdsmipkj rFkk v kl S fud dk mi ; ksx
jDr l Eca èkh jkxsksadsmipkj es afd; k t krk gS A
jsfM; ksa, fDVo l eLFkkfudka sdk mi; ksx t ehuhi kbi ksa}kjk rsy Hkst us] Va xLVu o dksckYV dk l eLFkkfudka sdk
ç; ksx e' khuksadh [ kjkch Kkr djusesafd; k t krk gS A
jsfM; ksa, fDVo rRo dkcZ u (C o C ) dk ç; ksx t hok' eksa
12 14 ] e' r t hoksao i sM+i kS èkksadh v k; qKkr djusrFkk
;wj sfu; e dk ç; kxs pV~ Vkuksa, oai F̀oh dh v k; qKkr djuses afd; k t krk gS A
ukfHkd h; fo[ kMu (Nuclear Fission) % µ og çfØ; k ft l esadksbZHkkjh ukfHkd nksyxHkx l eku v kdkj ds
ukfHkdksaesafo[ kf.Mr gkst krk gSukfHkdh; fo[ k.Mu dgykrk gS A; g dk; Zl oZ çFke nkst eZ u oS KkfudksagkW u rFkk
LVªkl eS u us; w j sfu; e i j U;V wªkuksadh ceckjh djdsfd; k FkkA
ukfHkd h; l a y ; u (Nuclear Fusion) % µnksgYdsukfHkd v ki l esafeydj , d HkkjhukfHkd dkfuekZ . kdjrs
gSvkS j v i kj Åt kZeq Dr gksrh gS A
ukfHkdh; l a y ; u èkukosf' kr ukfHkdksadschp gksrkgSt c , slsnksukfHkd l ehi vkrsgSrksmuesarhozçfrd"kZ .k
cy yxrk gSbu ukfHkdksadsl a y ; u dsfy, v R;ra mPp nkc , oamPp rki (108 fMxzh dsfYcu) dh v ko' ; drk
gkrsh gSt ksi jek.kqce dsfoLi Q ksV l sgh l EHko gksi krk gS A
i j ek. kqce (Atom Bomb) % µ ; g ukfHkdh; fo[ k.Mu dsfl ¼kUr i j v kèkkfjr gSft l esav fu; fU=kr Ja à
[ kyk
v fHkfØ; kgksrhgSv kjSv i kj Åt kZeq Dr gksrhgS Ace esaç; q Dr gksusokysi nkFkZesa; g v ko' ; d gSfd ml dknzO;eku
, d fuf' pr ek=kkl svfèkd gks] bl ek=kkdksØkfUrd nzO;eku dgrsgS Ai jek.kqce dsfoLi Q ksV l syxHkx 1070Crki
o vR;kfèkd mPp nkc , oav k[akksadksv è akk dj nsusokyh ped o cgq r l sjsfM; ksèkehZçnw "k.k mRiUu gksrsgS A
gkbMªkst u ce (Hydrogen bomb) % µ ; g ukfHkdh; l a y ; u çfØ; k i j v kèkkfjr gS Ai jek.kqce dh v i {skk
1000 xq ukv fèkd ' kfDr' kkyhgksrk gS AgkbMªkst u ce dsfoLi Q kV
s l si gysi jek.kqce foLi Q kV
s djkuk v ko' ; d gksrk
gSAv r%gkbMªktsu ce dkscukusdsfy, i jek.kqce cukuk v ko' ; d gS Av Hkh rd ukfHkdh; l a y ; u Åt kZdks
fu; fU=kr djdsjpukRed dk; Zughgksi k jgk gS AD; kfsad ft l rki i j ; g çfØ; kl EIkUu gksrhgSml i j i jek.kq v ksa
l sl Hkh feJ.k dksIykTek dgrsgS AorZ eku es aoSKkfudka sdsl keusIykTek l a j {k.k , d dfBu l eL; k gS A
ukfHkd h; Åt kZ(Nuclear Energy) % µ ukfHkdh; fo[ k.Mu l sçkIr Åt kZdksukfHkdh; Åt kZdgrsgS A
;wj sfu; e ds, d ukfHkd dsfo[ k.Mu l syxHkx 200 Mev ( fefy; u bysDVªku okY sV) Åt kZçkIr gkrsh gS A, d xzke
;wj sfu; e dsfo[ k.Mu l sbruhÅt kZçkIr gksrhgSft ruh20 Vu Vh-, u-Vh- (Tri – Nitro - Tolone) dsfoLi Q ksV l sçkIr
dh t k l drh gS AukfHkdh; Åt kZdk mi; kxs ukfHkdh; fj, DVjksaes adjdsfo| rq Åt kZdk mRiknu fd; k t k jgk gS A
i j ek. kqHkV~ Vh (Atomic Pill) % µ i jek.kqHkV~ Vh esafu; a f=kr Ü k̀[akyk vfHkfØ; k }kjk Åt kZmRiUu fd; k t krk
gSAi gyh i jek.kqHkV~ Vh f' kdkxksafo' ofo| ky; (U.S.A) es açks- i QehZdsfunsZ ' ku esacuk; k x; k FkkAHkV~ Vh esaU;w Vªkuksa
dhxfr dksèkhehdjusdsfy, Hkkjht y o xz isQ
kbV dk ç; ksx fd; kt krkgS AfoLi Q ksV l sçkIr Å"ekl st y dksHkki
esai fjofrZ r djdsVckZ bu e' khu dh l gk; rk l sfo| q r mRiUu dh t krhgS Agkfudkjd fofdj.k dsmEl t Z u dksjkd s us
dsfy, fj, DVj dspkjksav kjs da ØhV dheksVh nhokj cukbZt krh gS Av fHkfØ; k dksfu; a f=kr djusdsfy, dS Mfe; e

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dhNM+ ksadkmi; ksx ^fu; a =kd NM*+ds#i esafd; kt krkgS Al ;wZrFkkczãk.Mdsv U; rkjksadhÅt kZdkl zksr ukfHkdh;
la y ; u gS Al w ; ZdsHkhrjh Hkkx dk rki eku 1070 dS fYou gSt ksgkbMªkst u ukfHkd dsl a y ; u l smRiUu gksrk gS A
çd k' k fo| q r çHkko (Photo Electro Effect) % µ dq N èkkrq v ksai j mPp v kof̀Ùk dk çdk' k Mkyusi j budh
l rg l sbysDVªku mRl ft Z r gksrsgS Abys DVªkuksadsbl çdkj mRlt Z u dh ?kVuk dksçdk' k fo| q r çHkko dgrsgS Abl dk
ç; ksx dj çdk' k fo| q r l sy dk fuek.Zk fd; k t krk gS A; sdbZçdkj dsgksrsgS at S
l sµ çdk' k mRlt Z d l ys (Photo
Emissive Cell) çdk' k okY sVh; l sy (Photo Voltaic Cell) çdk' k pkydh; l sy (Photo Conductive Cell) v kfnAbu
l sy ksadkç; ksx fl usek?kjksaesaèofu i q u#Riknu esa ] Vys hfot u esa] l M+ d ka
si j pkfyr ykbVka ]s Lopkfyr njokt ksa ] rFkkcS d
a ks
dsfrt ksfj; ksaesapksjh jksd us] v a r fj{k; kuksadh cS Vfj; ksadh pkft a xZ esafd; k t krk gS Abudk l kjScS Vjh (Solar Battery)
Hkh dgrsgS A
j eu çHkko (Raman Effect) % µ çdk' kt c fdl hBksl] nzo ; kxS l dsi kjn' khZekè; e l sxq t jrkgSrksbl dk
dq N Hkkx çdhf.kZ r gkst krk gSbl çdhf.kZ r çdk' k dksLi sDVªe }kjkns[kusi j dbZykbusaçkIr gkrshgS aft uesadq N dk
rjax nS è; ZçkjfEHkd çdk' kdscjkcj rFkkdq N dkde o dq N dkv fèkd gkrskgS Abl çdkj çdk' kdsçdhf.krZ gksd j
fofHkUu rja x nS è; Zokyh ykbuksaesafoHkDr gksusdh ?kVuk dksbZ eu çHkko dgrsgS Abl dh [ kkst Hkkjrh; oS Kkfud l j
l h- oh- jeu us1928 bZ - esafd; k FkkA
çfr nhfIr (Eluorescence) % µ cgq r l s, slsi nkFkZgSaft u i j Å¡phv kof̀Ùk; kfuEu rja x nSè; Zdkçdk' kMkyus
i j osv o' kksf"kr dj fuEu vkof̀Ùk o mPp rja x nS è; Zdk çdk' k mRlft Z r djrsgS Amul sa; g mRl t u Z rHkhrd gksrk
gSt c rd mu i j çdk' k i M+ r k jgrk gS A; g ?kVuk çfrnhfIr vkS j , lssi nkFkZçfrnhfIr dgykrsgS Abl dsmnkgj.kµ
Ýyksj] Li kj ] i sVªkys ] dq uhu l Yi Q sV] ; w
j sfu; e v kDl kbM+ ] csfj; e l k; ukbM v kfn gS A
bl dkmi; ksx i jkcS xuhfdj.kksao , Dl fdj.kksadki rkyxkusesafd; kt krkgS Abl ds}kjkV~ ;wc ykbV l sfofHkUu
ja
xksadk çdk' k çkIr fd; k t k l drk gS A
V~ ;w
c y kbV esay sfi r i nkFkZ çkIr j a xhu çdk' k
dS Mfe; e cksjsV xq
y kch çdk' k
Ftad fl fyds V gjs ajax dk çdk' k
eS Xuhf' k; e Va xLVsV gYdsuhysja x dk çdk' k
Ftad cs j hfy; e fl fydsV i hysja x dk çdk' k
Li Q w
j nhfIr (Phosphorescence) % µ , slsi nkFkZft u i j dq N l e; rd çdk' k Mky dj cUn dj nsusi j Hkh
mul smudhv o' kks"k.k {kerk dsv uq l kj dq N nsj rd çdk' k dk mRl t u Z gksrk jgrk gS, slh ?kVuk ^Li Q j nhfIr* rFkk
q
i nkFkksZ
adks^Li Q jqnhfIr i nkFk*ZdgrsgS Abl dsmnkgj.k µ ft a d l Yi Q kbM] dS fY' k; e l Yi Q kbM] csfj; e l Yi Q kbMvkfn
gSAçdk' kMkyukcUn dj nsusi j ft rusl e; rd çdk' kdkmRlt Z u ; g xq . ku"V gkst krkgS A?kM+ hdhl w b; ksa
] l kbu
ckMsksZ] fct yh cksMksZi j bu i nkFkksZdk ysi p<+ k; k t k jgk gS A
v fr pky d r k (Supercoductiseity) % µ bl dh [ kkts ^dsejfya ?k v ksUl* usdh FkhAl kekU;r%pkyd èkkrq v ksa
dkçfrjkè skrki de djusi j ?kVr t krkgSrki dksv kjSfuEu fd; kt k; rksçfrjksèkrst hl s?kVrkgq v k' kwU; gkst krk
gSAbl v oLFkk esaèkkrq , av frpkyd dgykrhgS Abl voLFkkesaèkkrq v ksadkrki ' kw U; fMxzhdsfYou dsl ehi ; kdq N
Åi j jgrk gS Av frpkydrk dh n' kk esaèkkrq v ksaesafo| q
r èkkjk cxS j fdl h okâ; l zksr dscgrh jgrh gS Aèkkrq v ksadh
pkydrk pq Ecdh; {ks=k dsçHkko }kjk u"V gkst krh gS A
j Mkj (Radar) Radio Detection and Ranging) % µ ; g çfrèokZ u dsfl ¼kUr l sfeyrkt q y rkgS Abl esa, fj; y
l st q Msnks; U=k js sçs.kh (Trasmitter) o vfHkxzkgh (Receiver) gksrsgS
fM; ka AVªka l ehVj l sfo| q r pqEcdh; rja xsv a r fj{k
esaHkst h t krh v kS j ok; q; ku v kfn l sVdjkdj v kusi j fjl hoj }kjk xzg.k dj yh t krh gsAbl dk fo' ys "k.k djds
ok; q; ku dhfLFkfr , oafn' kk dkKku çkIr dj fy; kt krkgSAbl ds}kjk ok; ;qku dsjkLrsesav kusokysckny] i gkM+
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 SCIECNE

rFkkt y; ku dsl eq nzhekxZesafge[ k.M] pV~ Vkuksa

] i F̀ohdsxHkZesafNi s[ kfut ksadki rk yxkusdsl kFk&l kFkekS l e dh
Hkfo"; ok.kh Hkh dh t krh gS A
y sl j (Laser) - Light Amplification By Stimulated Emission of Radiation % µ bl dk v FkZgS^fofdj.k ds
mn~nhi u mRl t Z u }kjk çdk' k dk çoèkZ u*Abu fdj.kksaesa, do.kZ r k fn' kkRedrk] l Ec¼rk] mPprhozrk dsxq . kgksrsgS A
yslj fdj.ksaµ fuv ku] v kxZ u] dkcZ u MkbvkDl kbM] xS fy; e i Q kLi Q
kbM] fu; ksfMfe; e ; kx] v kfn l smRiUu dh t k
l drh gS A mÙksft r djusgsrqt hou ÝyS ' k ySa
i fØIVku yS i dk ç; kxs fd; k t krk gS
a A fpfdRl k foKku esabl dk
mi; ksxµv k¡[ kksadsv kW i js'ku] dkafuZ
; k dsèkko] nkW r ksadsjksxksa] dS l j] V~
a ;ewj] i V
s dsjksxka ]s Ropk v kfn dh fpfdRl k esa
fd; k t krk gS AjsfVuk dsmipkj gs r qjs
Vhuy i Q ksVksd ksxywsVj ; a=k l sfd; k t krk gS A
m| ksxksaesaèkkrqv ksadksdkVus ] mues aNsn djust ksM+ us] eqnz.k L; kgh dksl q [ kkus] pV~VkuksadksrksM+ uso l q j xasacukus
esaHkh fd; k t krk gS A
;q¼ {ks=kesafel kbyksadk i rk yxkus] yslj jkbi Q y] fi LVy] ce cukus] ukfHkfdl foLi Q kV
sksagsrqv ko' ; d Åt kZ
çnku djusesafd; k t krk gS Av esfjdk usoknk esa, Dl jsysljksadk fodkl dj jgk gS A
esl j (Maser) Microwave Amplification By Stimulated Emission of Raoliation : - v FkZgS µ fofdj.k ds
mn~nhi u mRl t Z u }kjkekbØksarja xksadkço) Z u*Al oZ çFke eslj dkv kfo"dkj VkmUl usfd; kFkkyslj es açdk' kfdj.ksa
mRiUu gkrshgS At cfd eslj esal {we rja xsamRiUu gksrhgS Abl dsv kfo"dkj usv Urfj{kesau; s; q x dk i nki Z. kgq v kgS
A
jMkj esami; ksx dj Ñf=ke mixzgka sdh l Vhd t kudkjh çkIr dh t k l drh gS A

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