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Beyond the breakup: Heterosexual

and homosexual post‐dissolutional
relationships
a b
Pamela J. Lannutti & Kenzie A. Cameron
a
Assistant Professor in the Department of Communication ,
Boston College , Chestnut Hill, MA, 02467
b
Assistant Professor in the Department of Speech
Communication , University of Georgia , Athens, GA, 30602
Published online: 21 May 2009.

To cite this article: Pamela J. Lannutti & Kenzie A. Cameron (2002) Beyond the breakup:
Heterosexual and homosexual post‐dissolutional relationships, Communication Quarterly, 50:2,
153-170, DOI: 10.1080/01463370209385654

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 Beyond the Breakup:
Heterosexual and Homosexual
Post-Dissolutional Relationships

Pamela J. Lannutti and Kenzie A. Cameron

Although most romantic relationships will dissolve, few studies have examined the
relationship formed between dating partners after their romance terminates. This study
examines the post-dissolutional relationships experienced by participants who were
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involved in same-sex (N = 298) and opposite-sex (N = 272) romantic relationships.

The degrees to which ex-partners experience interpersonal contact, emotional and sexual
intimacy, and satisfaction in their post-dissolutional relationships was examined. Fur-
ther, two types of influences on post-dissolutional relationship qualities were investi-
gated. Variables that originated within the dyad or individuals (personal) had a stron-
ger influence on relationship qualities than did variables that originatedfrom the dyad's
environment (structural). The importance of understanding post-dissolutional rela-
tionships and future research suggestions are discussed.

KEY CONCEPTS post-dissolutional relationships, relational termination, in-

terpersonal contact, intimacy, satisfaction

Pamela J. Lannutti (Ph.D., The University of Georgia, 2001)is an Assistant

Professor in the Department of Communication at Boston College, Chestnut
Hill, MA 02467. Kenzie A. Cameron (Ph.D., Michigan State University, 1998)
is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Speech Communication at the
University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602.

R elational disengagement models provide an understanding of the decline of

romantic relationships and imply that once a couple passes through the disso-
lution stages, the members of the couple no longer have a relationship with one
another (Duck, 1982; Knapp, 1984). Whereas Duck (1982) suggests that renegotiating
the role of one's ex-partner as part of one's social network may occur during the social
phase of relational dissolution, little detail is paid to this possible renegotiation. The
relational dissolution models and research that exists contribute to our understanding
of the disengagement process (Baxter, 1982; Baxter, 1984), yet fail to provide a detailed
account of the relationships that remain after the romance has ended. However, anec-
dotal evidence in the form of the common "let's just be friends" termination strategy
suggests that couples do not always exit or attempt to exit a dating relationship to
enter a relational black hole. Heterosexual men and women, gay men, and lesbian
participants report becoming friends with former dating partners (Nardi, 1992; Weston,

Communication Quarterly, Vol. 50 No 2 Spring 2002, Pages 153-170

 1991; Wilmot, Carbaugh, & Baxter, 1985). Post-dating friendships, however, have been
shown to be qualitatively different from friendships with no romantic past (Schneider
& Kenny, 2000). Further, the redefinition of a romantic relationship into a post-
dissolutional relationship may be challenging. Kurdek (1991a) surveyed same-sex part-
ners after their romantic relationship had terminated and reported the greatest diffi-
culty faced by the participants was negotiating the current relationship with one's ex-
partner. In addition, Foley and Fraser (1998) found that ex-partners had difficulty inte-
grating a post-dissolutional relationship into a shared social network.
While the available studies have shown post-dissolutional relationships to be im-
portant and challenging to formerly dating partners, more research on these relation-
ships is needed.1 Initial descriptions of post-dissolutional relationships (Metts, et al,
1989; Schneider & Kenny, 2000) and the role of post-dissolutional relationships in so-
cial networks (Foley & Fraser, 1998) utilized samples of heterosexual ex-partners only.
In other aspects of relating, same-sex and opposite-sex romantic relationships have
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been found to share more similarities than differences. Specifically, similarities be-
tween same-sex and opposite-sex romantic relationships have been found in studies of
closeness (Peplau & Cochran, 1990), commitment (Duffy & Rusbult, 1986; Lewis, Kozac,
Milardo, & Grosnick, 1981), jealousy (Bevan & Lannutti, 2002), love level (Peplau &
Cochran, 1990), maintenance behaviors (Haas & Stafford, 1998), satisfaction (Duffy &
Rusbult, 1986; Peplau & Cochran, 1990) and sexuality (Kurdek, 1991b). Yet, because
same-sex romantic relationships exist in an environment that often does not condone,
rarely encourages, and offers few relational role models (Demo & Allen, 1996; Kurdek,
1991b), the differences in the social context of same-sex and opposite-sex romantic
relationships may lead to significant differences between the qualities of and influ-
ences on the two types of post-dissolutional relationships.
This study seeks to contribute to the understanding of post-dissolutional relation-
ships by accomplishing three goals. First, to expand the descriptions of post-dissolutional
relationships by examining four qualities of post-dissolutional relationships: the de-
grees of interpersonal contact, emotional and sexual intimacy, and satisfaction experi-
enced in the relationship. Second, to examine the development of post-dissolutional rela-
tionships by examining the influence of structural and personal variables on these quali-
ties. Finally, to diversify the relational literature by examining the post-dissolutional rela-
tionships formed between opposite-sex and same-sex ex-partners.

Qualities of post-dissolutional relationships

At present, the relational literature sheds little light on the qualities that are present
in relationships formed by dating partners after their romance has terminated. Whereas
Schneider and Kenny (2000) demonstrated that post-dissolutional relationships are
qualitatively different from friendships that never had a romantic component, the post-
dissolutional relationships themselves have proven difficult to describe. Consider an
attempt at describing lesbian ex-lover relationships offered by Becker (1988) who pro-
vides a typology ranging from "fictitious friendships" in which the ex-partners pay lip
service to their friendship yet rarely communicate with each other, to "family" rela-
tionships in which the ex-partners view each other as integral parts of their lives. Al-
though this typology may be informative, it is neither inclusive nor differentiated enough
to provide useful assessment of post-dissolutional relationships. For example, is it true
that ex-partners who talk only occasionally do not feel emotionally close to one an-
other? Similarly, is it true that because ex-partners perceive themselves as a part of a

154 Lannutti and Cameron

 "family" that they do not want the relationship to change? Furthermore, it may be
possible that being a part of one's "family" may involve widely varying amounts of
communication across ex-couples. Another description of the relationship between
former dating partners is offered by Metts et al. (1989), who limited their characteriza-
tion of post-dissolutional relationships to a single, dichotomous description: friend-
ship or no friendship. Although Metts et al.'s (1989) description of post-dissolutional
relationships avoids the broad vagueness of Becker's (1988) categories, it subsequently
is too narrow to provide an adequate picture of the relationships that emerge between
former dating partners because the communication, intimacy, and satisfaction within
these relationships is not measured or described.
Instead of employing a typology of relational types or a dichotomous categoriza-
tion, it seems more useful to examine post-dissolutional relationships in terms of the
qualities intrinsic to these relationships. In order to provide descriptions of post-
dissolutional relationships based on important and commonly studied relational aspects,
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the amount of interpersonal contact, intimacy (emotional and sexual), and satisfaction in
heterosexual and homosexual post-dissolutional relationships are examined.
Interpersonal contact. Examining the amount and depth of interpersonal communi-
cation in a relationship has been a benchmark in the field of relational communication
(e.g. Burgoon & Hale, 1984; Parks, 1982). Further, the degree of interpersonal commu-
nication has been found to have significant influence on the maintenance and longev-
ity of relationships (e.g. Gottman, 1994; Guldner & Swenson, 1995). Thus, the first post-
dissolutional relationship quality examined, interpersonal contact, describes the amount
(quantity of communication) and depth (type of communication including self-disclo-
sure and socially supportive messages) of communication in which ex-partners en-
gage-

RQla: What degree of interpersonal contact occurs between same-sex and

opposite-sex former dating partners?

Intimacy. One of the primary reasons for attempting to redefine a relationship after
a romantic dissolution has occurred may be to minimize emotional distress by salvag-
ing the emotional closeness built during the romance (Foley & Fraser, 1998; Kurdek,
1997; Simpson, 1987). Former romantic partners have been found to continue physical
intimacy, albeit in low amounts (Foley & Fraser, 1998). Thus, the second quality exam-
ined, intimacy, is defined as how emotionally and sexually involved the ex-partners
continue to be after the romantic dissolution.

RQlb: What degree of emotional and sexual intimacy exists between same-
sex and opposite-sex former dating partners?

Satisfaction. Similar to degree of interpersonal contact, communication satisfaction

has been a powerful predictor (Rusbult, 1980) and popular descriptor in the study of
romantic relationships (Anderson, Eloy, Guerroro, & Spitzberg, 1995; Manusov, 1995;
Miczo, Sergin, & Allspach, 2001). Satisfaction is especially important in the study of
post-dissolutional relationships because the relationships can be presumed to have a
history of dissatisfaction leading to the dissolution of the romance. Yet the question as
to whether or not ex-partners can be satisfied with the redefined relationship born of
the end of an unsatisfactory romance remains. Thus, satisfaction is defined as the de-

Post-Dissolutional Relationships 155

 gree to which the ex-partners feel positively about the post-dissolutional relationship
and how little they desire change in the relationship.

RQlc: What degree of relational satisfaction is reported by same-sex and op-

posite-sex former dating partners?

Variables that influence post-dissolutional relationship qualities

Relational commitment research offers a guide for examining possible predictors
of contact, intimacy, and satisfaction in post-dissolutional relationships. Whereas rela-
tional commitment models have some variations, most models point to both external
(structural) and internal (personal) variables as barriers to relational dissolution
(Attridge, 1994; Johnson, 1982; Rusbult, 1980; Rusbult & Buunk, 1993). Personal vari-
ables are those that emerge from the dyad or individual, such as feelings about one's
ex-partner (Schneider & Kenny, 2000) or a personal belief system about relationships
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(Fitzpatrick & Sollie, 1999; Murray, Holmes, Griffin, Bellavia, & Rose, 2001). Struc-
tural variables are those emerging from the social environment, such as having mutual
friends (Agnew, Loving, & Drigotas, 2001; Foley & Fraser, 1998; Parks & Adelman,
1983; Simpson, 1987) or sharing a workplace (Dillard & Broetzmann, 1989; Solomon &
Williams, 1997).
Although both personal and structural variables are expected to affect the quali-
ties of post-dissolutional relationships, research suggests that structural variables may
have the most powerful influence. The idea that the social environment in which a
relationship exists has important consequences for the dynamics of that relationship is
oft echoed in interpersonal research (Parks & Eggert, 1991; Felmlee, Sprecher, & Bassin,
1990; Sanders, 1997). Johnson (1982) portrays structural variables as the walls that
form around relationships functioning to hold partners together. Among the struc-
tural variables, shared social networks have been found to influence qualities of ro-
mantic relationships. Klein and Mirardo (1993) suggest that a couple's social network
serves a function in creating the standards by which each partner evaluates the rela-
tionship. Support from friends and family and sharing social networks with one's part-
ner have been associated with increased stability and decreased uncertainty in roman-
tic relationships (Parks & Adelman, 1983; Parks, Stan, & Eggert, 1983). Despite evi-
dence that structural variables have a strong influence on commitment in on-going
romantic relationships, the relative influence of structural and personal variables on
the qualities of post-dissolutional relationships has not been previously examined. Thus,

RQ2: What is the relative influence of personal and structural variables on

the amounts of interpersonal contact, intimacy (emotional and sexual),
and satisfaction reported in post-dissolutional relationships between
former dating partners?

Summary
This project expands the study of relationships formed between former dating
partners by examining qualities of post-dissolutional relationships and variables that
may influence those qualities. Specifically, the goals of the study are to assess the amount
of interpersonal contact, intimacy (emotional and sexual), and satisfaction in the post-
dissolutional relationships and to explore structural and personal variables that influ-
ence these qualities. In order to contribute to the diversity of the relational literature,

156 Lannutti and Cameron

 homosexual and heterosexual relationships are examined.

METHOD
Two samples, one homosexual and one heterosexual, were independently collected.
While both samples were collected to examine the degree of interpersonal contact,
intimacy, and satisfaction in post-dissolutional relationships and the influence of per-
sonal and structural variables on those post-dissolutional relationship qualities, the
specific data collection method and personal and structural variables differ according
to the sexual orientation of the sample.

Sample 1 Method: Same-sex post-dissolutional relationships

Participants
Gay men (N = 131) and lesbian (N = 167) participants were recruited at a large
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Southeastern Pride celebration. Participants ranged from 18 to 59 years of age (M =31.2,

Mdn = 30, SD = 8.9). Participants had identified as gay or lesbian for a mean of 12.3
years (Mdn =10, SD = 9.7). The average length of the romantic relationship that evolved
into the post-dissolutional relationship under investigation was 3.0 years (Mdn = 2, SD
= 3.4). These romantic relationships had terminated an average of 2.9 years before data
collection (Mdn = 2, SD = 3.6). The sample consisted of one Asian, 19 Black/African-
Americans, 247 Whites, eight Hispanics, eight individuals who reported other ethnic
backgrounds, and 16 participants who did not indicate their ethnicity.

Procedure
The researchers rented space in the market area of the Pride celebration and asked
passers-by if they would like to complete a questionnaire about gay and lesbian rela-
tionships. If interested, participants were escorted to a seat and administered a consent
letter and questionnaire. All materials were completed anonymously. Participants were
asked to think about their most recently terminated romantic relationship while com-
pleting the questionnaire. Throughout the questionnaire, written instructions reminded
participants to think of only one relationship while answering questions. The average
time needed to complete the questionnaire was 20 minutes. Participants placed their
completed questionnaire in a box, were given a debriefing letter, and thanked.

Measurement
Participants completed a 106 item questionnaire.2 Many of the measures were cre-
ated for this study or had not been applied to same-sex relationships in the past, there-
fore scales for each variable were tested for unidimensionality using principal compo-
nents factor analysis with varimax rotation. To be included in a factor, and item had to
load above .65 on that factor and not exceed a loading of .30 on any other factor. The
factor compositions suggested by the factor analyses were further examined using a
"scale if item deleted" reliability analysis. Only items that seemed to make a theoreti-
cal contribution to the construct and contributed to an acceptable overall scale reliabil-
ity (a > .70) were included in the final analyses. A total of 71 items were retained for
further examination.

Dependent variables
The dependent variables in this study are four qualities of post-dissolutional rela-

Post-Dissolutional Relationships 157

 tionships: interpersonal contact, emotional and sexual intimacy, and satisfaction. Cor-
relations among the dependent variables are reported in Table la. Although emotional
and sexual intimacy were highly correlated, they were treated as separate dependent
variables in further analyses because continued sexual interaction with one's former
partner is a phenomenon worthy of specific examination.
The amount of interpersonal contact experienced by the ex-partners was measured
using six Likert-type items with possible responses ranging from 1 (never) to 7 (al-
ways). Sample interpersonal contact items include "How often do you spend free time
with your ex-partner?" and "How often do you discuss your problems and concerns
with your ex-partner?" Participant responses were averaged to form one interpersonal
contact score (a = .87).
Emotional intimacy was measured using eight Likert-type items adapted from
Wheeless (1978) with possible responses ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly
agree). Sample items include "My relationship with my ex-partner is important to me"
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and "My ex-partner and I are very close." The responses were averaged to form one
emotional intimacy score (a = .93).
Sexual intimacy was measured by employing four Likert-type items. Possible re-
sponses to these items ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Sample
items include "My ex-partner and I currently have sexual contact" and "My ex-partner
and I flirt with each other." The responses were averaged to form one sexual intimacy
score (a = .85).
The final dependent variable, satisfaction with the post-dissolutional relationship,
was assessed using five Likert-type items adapted from Duffy and Rusbult (1986),
with endpoints of 1 (strongly disagree) and 7 (strongly agree). Sample items include
"Overall, I am satisfied with my relationship with my ex-partner" and "I wish that my
relationship with my ex-partner could be different (reverse coded)." The responses
were averaged to form one satisfaction score (a = .79).

Independent variables
The independent variables for this study are the structural and personal variables.
All independent variables were measured using Likert-type items with possible re-
sponses ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). In addition, the de-
mographic variables of age, length of the romantic relationship, and the length of time
since the breakup were included as independent variables in the regression equations.

TABLE la
Means, standard deviations, and correlations among the qualities of post-dissolutional relationships
for the same-sex sample

Interpersonal Emotional Sexual Satisfaction

contact intimacy intimacy
Mean 2.29 3.20 1.88 4.48
Standard deviation 1.38 1.82 1.45 1.64
Interpersonal contact 1.0
Emotional intimacy .44* 1.0
Sexual intimacy .48* .77* 1.0
Satisfaction -.02 .21* .18* 1.0
Note. 7V= 298. All variables were measured using Likert-type items with possible responses ranging from 1
(low degree of variable) to 7 (high degree of variable). Asterisks indicate significant correlations at p < .05.

158 Lannutti and Cameron

 Structural variables. Based on previous research (e.g. Foley & Fraser, 1998; Rusbult,
1980), two structural variables are expected to influence the qualities of same-sex post-
dissolutional relationships.3 First, the participant's perceptions of and involvement
with the general gay/lesbian community was measured using eight items. Sample
items include "The gay/lesbian community in my area is small (reverse coded)" and
"I consider myself to be a part of the lesbian/gay community." The responses were
averaged to form one community score (a = .73).
The second structural variable is an assessment of the degree to which the ex-
partners share a social network, referred to as a "chosen family" (Weston, 1991), which
was assessed using four items, including "My close friends are also my ex-partner's
close friends" and "My ex-partner is part of a group of friends I consider to be family."
The responses were averaged to form one shared chosen family score (a = .70).
Personal variables. Based on previous research findings (Metts et al., 1989; Schneider
& Kenny, 2000; Weston, 1991), personal variables expected to influence qualities of
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same-sex post-dissolutional relationships are the extent to which the ex-partners had a
pre-romantic friendship, the participant's desire to rekindle the romance with his or
her ex-partner, the amount of liking the participant has for his or her ex-partner, the
perceived uniqueness of the relationship with one's ex-partner, and the extent to which
one's identity is related to the relationship with one's ex-partner.
The extent to which the ex-partners enjoyed a friendship before they began a ro-
mantic relationship was assessed using four items. Sample items included "Before our
romance, my ex-partner and I were friends" and "My romance with my ex-partner
grew out of a friendship." The responses were averaged to form one pre-romantic
friendship score (a = .88). The participant's hope for romantic renewal was measured
with four items. Sample items include "I hope that my ex-partner and I will have a
romantic relationship again" and "I am still in love with my ex-partner." The responses
were averaged to form one hope for romantic renewal score (a = .81). The amount of
liking for one's ex-partner was assessed using three items ("If I could never be around
my ex-partner, I would feel miserable," "I generally speak about my ex-partner in
positive ways," and "I think my ex-partner is a good person"). The responses were
averaged to form one liking score (a = .90).
The perceived uniqueness of the relationship one has with one's ex-partner was
assessed using five items. Sample items include "My ex-partner is unlike most people
in my life" and "My ex-partner's space in my life would be hard to fill." The responses
were averaged to form one uniqueness score (a = .71). The final personal variable
considered in this study is the extent to which the participant's gay/lesbian identity is
dependent on the relationship with his or her ex-partner. Five items were used to as-
sess this variable, including "I learned a lot about being gay/lesbian from my ex-part-
ner" and "My relationship with my ex-partner is an important part of my being gay/
lesbian." The responses were averaged to form one identity score (a = .79)

Sample 2 Method: Opposite-sex post-dissolutional relationships

Participants
Students attending a large, southeastern university (N = 272; 115 men, 154 women,
3 who did not indicate a sex) participated in fulfillment of a research requirement or to
earn extra credit. All indicated they were heterosexual. The sample consisted of seven
Asians, 25 Black/African-Americans, 230 Whites, six individuals who reported other

Post-Dissolutional Relationships 159

 ethnie backgrounds, and 4 participants who did not indicate their ethnicity. Partici-
pants ranged in age from 17 to 24 (M = 20.63, Mdn = 21, SD = 1.36). The average length
of the romantic relationships that became the post-dissolutional relationships under
investigation was 16.65 months (Mdn = 11, SD = 15.25, ). On average, it had been 19.47
months (Mdn = 13.5, SD = 16.72) since the termination of the romance at the time of
data collection.

Procedure
Participants were assigned a research appointment. Approximately ten partici-
pants were scheduled for each data collection time. Instructions were the same as those
for the same-sex sample. After completing the questionnaire, participants were thanked
and debriefed in writing.

Measurement
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Participants completed a 109 item questionnaire.4 With a few exceptions, the mea-
sures were similar to those for sample 1 and therefore only different measures are
detailed below. The same data reduction methods and criteria employed for sample 1
were used for sample 2. A total of 52 items were retained for examination.

Dependent variables.
The dependent variables are the amounts of interpersonal contact, emotional and
sexual intimacy, and satisfaction in the post-dissolutional relationship. The items used
to measure the four dependent variables were identical to those used in Sample 1. The
internal consistencies for the dependent variables were acceptable (interpersonal con-
tact: " = .87; emotional intimacy: a = .92; sexual intimacy: a = .87; satisfaction: a = .91).
Correlations among the dependent variables are reported in Table lb.

TABLE lb
Means, standard deviations, and correlations among the characteristics of post-dissolutional relation-
ships for the opposite-sex sample
Interpersonal Emotional Sexual Satisfaction
contact intimacy intimacy
Mean 2.43 3.53 2.10 3.87
Standard deviation 1.53 1.61 1.66 1.69
Interpersonal contact 1.0
Emotional intimacy .77* 1.0
Sexual intimacy .51* .52* 1.0
Satisfaction -.23* -.18* .10 1.0
Note. N= 272. All variables were measured using Likert-type items with possible responses ranging from
1 (low degree of variable) to 7 (high degree of variable). Asterisks indicate significant correlations at p <
.05.
Independent variables.
The independent variables are the personal and structural variables expected to
influence the qualities of the post-dissolutional relationships. All independent vari-
ables were measured using Likert-type items with possible responses ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).
Structural variables. Based on previous research (Fitzpatrick & Sollie, 1999; Foley &
Fraser, 1998), two structural variables were expected to influence the qualities of oppo-

160 Lannutti and Cameron

 site-sex post-dissolutional relationships. First, the degree to which the ex-partners share
a social network is examined. Social network overlap was measured using four items.
Sample items include "My ex-partner and I have many friends in common" and "My
ex-partner and I do not have many friends in common" (reverse coded). The responses
were averaged to form one social network overlap score (a = .70).
The second structural variable is the degree to which the ex-partner's social net-
work has norms for post-dissolutional relationships. These norms were measured us-
ing four items. Sample items include "Most people I know stay friends with their ex-
partners," and "It is common for my friends to be friends with their ex-partners." The
responses were averaged to form one social network norms score (a = .73).
Personal variables. The personal variables examined for the heterosexual sample are
the extent of a pre-romantic friendship, one's liking for one's ex-partner, amount of
hope for romantic renewal, and extent of personal norms for post-dissolutional rela-
tionships. The extent of pre-romantic friendship (a = .93), liking for ex-partner (a =
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.93), and hope for renewal (a = .94) were measured as in sample 1. The final personal
variable, the participant's norms about post-dissolutional relationships, was measured
using four items. Sample items include "It is common for me to be friends with my ex-
partners" and "I think that it is important to stay friends with ex-partners." The re-
sponses were averaged to form one participant norms score (oc = .78).

GENERAL RESULTS
RQ1: Qualities of post-dissolutional relationships
Research question 1 asks what degrees of interpersonal contact, intimacy (emo-
tional and sexual), and satisfaction are reported in post-dissolutional relationships. To
examine RQ1, the means and standard deviations for the independent variables are
presented in Table la (same-sex sample) and Table lb (opposite-sex sample). Gay and
lesbian participants indicated a high degree of satisfaction, moderate amounts of emo-
tional intimacy and interpersonal contact, and low amounts of sexual intimacy in their
post-dissolutional relationships. Heterosexual participants reported moderate amounts
of satisfaction and emotional closeness and low amounts of interpersonal contact and
sexual intimacy in their post-dissolutional relationships.

RQ2: Influence of structural and personal variables on the qualities of post-dissolutional rela-
tionships
Unless otherwise noted, separate regression procedures using the stepwise method
with all structural, personal, and demographic variables entered as possible predictors
was performed to determine the significant predictors for each dependent variable for
each sample.5 Final models, including Beta weights and partial correlations, are pre-
sented in Table 2a (same-sex sample) and Table 2b (opposite-sex sample).
Predictors of interpersonal contact. Four significant predictors of the degree to which
same-sex ex-partners engaged in interpersonal contact emerged. Time since the break-
up (demographic variable) was a significant negative predictor suggesting that as more
time passes after a break-up has occurred, the less interpersonal contact the ex-part-
ners have with one another. There were three significant predictors in a positive direc-
tion: extent to which the ex-partners shared a "chosen family" (structural variable),
the uniqueness of the relationship (personal variable), and how much the participant
liked his or her ex-partner (personal variable).

Post-Dissolutional Relationships 161

 TABLE 2a
Significant predictors of the qualities of same-sex post-dissolutional relationships
Predictors of Interpersonal Contact

Adjusted R 2 '.46 SE =1.00 F(4,241) = 53.68,p<.001

Variable t P Beta Partial r

Time since break-up -2.28 .02 -.11 -.15

Shared chosen family 5.17 <.001 .26 .32
Uniqueness 6.25 <.001 .32 .37
Liking for ex-partner 6.27 <.001 .32 .37

Predictors of Emotional Intimacy

Adjusted R2=.7O SE = .98 F(5,234)=114.67,p<.001

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Variable t P Beta Partial r

Length of romance -2.15 .03 -.08 -.14

Hope for renewal 2.04 .04 .09 .13
Shared chosen family 5.14 <.001 .19 .32
Uniqueness 6.91 <.001 .29 .41
Liking for ex-partner 14.01 <.001 .56 .68

Predictors of Sexual Intimacy

Adjusted R2".30 SE =121 F(3,240) = 35.97,p<.001

Variable t P Beta Partial r

Length of romance -2.26 .03 -.12 -.14

Uniqueness 2.84 .01 .17 .18
Hope for renewal 6.82 <001 .42 .40
Predictors of Satisfaction •

Adjusted R2 M 5 SE =1.50 F(4,241)=12.06,p<.001

Variable t P Beta Partial r
Length of romance -2.11 .04 -.13 -.14
Time since break-up 2.35 .02 .14 .15
Liking for ex-partner 4.02 <.001 .25 .25
Hope for renewal -5.51 <.001 -.35 -.33

Four significant predictors of the degree to which opposite-sex ex-partners en-

gaged in interpersonal contact emerged. The extent to which the participant's social
network had norms about break-ups (structural variable) was a significant negative
predictor, such that more extensive norms were associated with less interpersonal con-
tact. Three personal variables were significant positive predictors: the extent to which
the participant had norms for break-ups, the extent to which the participant hoped for
romantic renewal, and how much the participant liked his or her ex-partner.
Predictors of emotional intimacy. Five significant predictors of degree of emotional
intimacy in same-sex post-dissolutional relationships emerged. The length of the ro-
mance (demographic variable) was a significant negative predictor suggesting that
longer romances are associated with less emotional intimacy in the post-dissolutional
relationship. One structural variable, the extent to which the ex-partners shared a "cho-

162 Lannutti and Cameron

 TABLE 2b
Significant predictors of the qualities of opposite-sex post-dissolutional relationships
Predictors of Interpersonal Contact

Adjusted R 2 -.54 SE =1.07 F(4,257) = 78.86,p<.001

Variable t P Beta Partial r

Participant norms 2.61 .01 .12 .16
Social network norms -3.49 .001 -.16 -.21
Hope for renewal 5.92 <.001 .33 .35
Liking for ex-partner 7.47 <.001 .42 .42

Predictors of Emotional Intimacy

Adjusted R 2 -.63 SE = .98 F(6,250) = 70.67,p<.001

Variable t Partial r
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P Beta
Time since breakup 1.97 .05 .08 .12
Social network norms -2.47 .02 -.10 -.15
Length of relationship -2.40 .02 -.09 -.15
Participant norms 3.20 .001 .14 .20
Hope for renewal 3.81 <.001 .20 .23
Liking for ex-partner 12.07 <.001 .64 .61

Predictors of Sexual Intimacy

Adjusted R2-.45 SE =1.24 F(2,259)=109.26,p<.001

Variable t P Beta Partial r

Hope for renewal 14.73 <.001 .68 .68

Extent of pre-romantic -2.53 .01 -.12 -.16
friendship

Predictors of Satisfaction

Adjusted R 2 -.04 SE =1.67 F (1,258)-11.46, p =.001

Variable t P Beta Partial r

Time since break-up -3.39 .001 -.21 -.21

sen family," was a significant positive predictor. The remaining significant positive
predictors were personal variables: the extent to which the participant hoped for ro-
mantic renewal, the uniqueness of the relationship, and how much the participant liked
his or her ex-partner.
For the opposite-sex sample, the final regression model revealed six significant
predictors of emotional intimacy. Two demographic variables, the length of time since
the break-up and the length of the relationship, were significant predictors, with the
length of time since the break-up being positively related to emotional intimacy and
the length of the relationship being a negative predictor of emotional intimacy. The
extent to which the participant's social network had norms about break-ups, a struc-
tural variable, was a significant negative predictor such that more extensive norms
were associated with less emotional intimacy. Three personal variables were signifi-
cant positive predictors: the extent to which the participant had norms for break-ups,

Post-Dissolutional Relationships 163

 the extent to which the participant hoped for romantic renewal, and how much the
participant liked his or her ex-partner.
Predictors of sexual intimacy. Three significant predictors of the degree of sexual
intimacy in same-sex post-dissolutional relationships were identified. The length of
the romance (demographic variable) was a significant negative predictor suggesting
that longer romances are associated with less sexual intimacy in the post-dissolutional
relationship. Two personal variables, uniqueness of the relationship and the extent to
which the participant hoped for romantic renewal, were significant positive predictors.
Two significant predictors of sexual intimacy in opposite-sex post-dissolutional
relationships were identified. The extent to which the participant hoped to renew the
romance, a personal variable, was a significant positive predictor such that higher
amounts of hope were associated with higher amounts of sexual intimacy. In addition,
the extent of the pre-romantic friendship, also a personal variable, was a significant
negative predictor such that the greater the pre-romantic friendship, the less likely the
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ex-partners were engaging in sexual intimacy following the dissolutional of their ro-
mantic relationship.
Predictors of satisfaction. Four significant predictors of the gay and lesbian partici-
pants' satisfaction with the current post-dissolutional relationship were identified. The
length of the romance (demographic variable) was a significant negative predictor sug-
gesting that longer romances are associated with less satisfaction with the post-
dissolutional relationship. The extent to which the participant hoped to renew the rela-
tionship with his or her ex-partner (personal variable) was also a significant negative
predictor. There were two significant positive predictors of satisfaction: time since break-
up (demographic variable) and how much the participant liked his or her ex-partner
(personal variable).
There was only one significant predictor of satisfaction with the post-dissolutional
relationship between heterosexual ex-partners. Time since break-up (demographic
variable) was a significant negative predictor; thus, increased time was associated with
decreased satisfaction with the current state of the relationship.

GENERAL DISCUSSION
This study examined the degree to which four qualities of post-dissolutional rela-
tionships were experienced; specifically, the degrees of interpersonal contact, emo-
tional and sexual intimacy, and satisfaction in post-dissolutional relationships. It also
examined the influence of structural and personal variables on the qualities of post-
dissolutional relationships. Finally, the study expanded the relational literature be-
yond a traditional focus on heterosexual relationships to include same-sex romances.

Qualities of post-dissolutional relationships

By examining the degree to which ex-partners experience interpersonal contact,
emotional and sexual intimacy, and satisfaction in their current relationship, this study
expanded the descriptions of post-dissolutional relationships beyond the dichotomous
"friends or not friends" (Metts et al., 1989). In both samples, participants reported rela-
tively high amounts of satisfaction, moderate amounts of emotional intimacy and in-
terpersonal contact, and low amounts of sexual intimacy in their post-dissolutional
relationships. Although these results do not exhaustively describe post-dissolutional
relationships between former dating partners, they investigate qualities often studied
in on-going romantic relationships (Parks, 1982; Rusbult, 1980; Simpson, 1987). The

164 Lannutti and Cameron

 degree to which these qualities were experienced in the post-dissolutional relation-
ships echo findings reported by Schneider and Kenny (2000) suggesting that post-
dissolutional relationships are distinct from both romantic relationships and consis-
tently platonic relationships. For example, romantic relationships may be character-
ized by more sexual intimacy than are post-dissolutional relationships; yet, the amount
of emotional intimacy reported in post-dissolutional relationships may be higher than
that experienced in friendships that have never involved a romantic element.

Variables that influence qualities of same-sex post-dissolutional relationships

Referencing the relational commitment literature, several structural and personal
variables were explored as predictors of the qualities of same-sex post-dissolutional
relationships. In general, personal variables (especially amount of liking for one's ex-
partner, uniqueness of the relationship, and hope for romantic renewal) were the stron-
gest predictors of post-dissolutional relationship qualities. Perhaps personal variables
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are extensions of the aspects that initially attracted the couple to a romance, and thus
continue to be predictors of any continuing relationship.
The relatively weak predictive power of structural variables on post-dissolutional
relationship characteristics was surprising, particularly as much emphasis is placed on
structural variables in the relational literature (Johnson, 1982; Sanders, 1997) as well as
in studies assessing the salience of social network variables to same-sex relationships
(Kurdek, 1991b; Rutter & Schwartz, 1996; Weston, 1991). However, our findings re-
garding the role of structural variables mirror those reported by Schreurs and Buunk
(1996) who found that support from the social environment and involvement in the
lesbian community did not significantly influence relational satisfaction of lesbian
couples.
The salience of personal variables over structural variables may be interpreted as
evidence consistent with claims that same-sex relationships are not dependent on "in-
stitutionalization" from structural variables (Becker, 1988). That is, because same-sex
relationships are denied legal and often social recognition, the longevity of same-sex
relationships is dependent on the interaction of the dyad. Such a perspective would
suggest that personal variables would have a stronger influence on same-sex post-
dissolutional relational qualities than would structural variables.
Whereas these results suggest that the influences upon post-dissolutional relation-
ship qualities may strike a different balance than the influences upon ongoing roman-
tic relationships, caution should be used when extrapolating these results due to the
cross-sectional nature of the data. Perhaps longitudinal data would reveal varied ef-
fects. As time progresses the extent to which ex-partners share a social network may
have a stronger influence on the amount of post-dissolutional contact than would lik-
ing for one's ex-partner. If one began to dislike one's ex-partner over time, one may
still have contact with that ex-partner because of involvement with a mutually close
social network. Future research should attempt to examine post-dissolutional relation-
ships at various points in time in order to further investigate the influences of personal
and structural variables on relational qualities.
Although the variables that served as significant predictors provide a useful start-
ing point for understanding post-dissolutional relationships, variables that failed to
influence the relational qualities are also worthy of discussion. One surprising finding
is that the existence of a pre-romantic friendship did not serve as a significant predic-
tor for any quality. The unimportance of pre-romantic friendships contradicts the find-

Post-Dissolutional Relationships 165

 ings of Metts et al. (1989). This inconsistency may be related to differences of assess-
ment of post-dissolutional relationships between Metts et al. (1989) and the present
study. It appears that when one considers a range of qualities characteristic of a post-
dissolutional relationship, as opposed to merely dichotomizing the relationships as
friendships or not friendships, the influence of pre-romantic friendship on that rela-
tionship is less important.
Structural and personal variables as predictors. The variables suggested by commit-
ment models produced models with moderate (amount of interpersonal contact in the
opposite-sex sample) to high predictive strength (amount of emotional intimacy in the
same-sex sample). Interestingly, the final model with the least predictive strength in
both studies was that for the amount of satisfaction in post-dissolutional relationships.
Although amount of satisfaction had the highest mean for the samples, predictive
strength of the final regression models were low. The low predictive ability for satis-
faction may be a function of what is meant by satisfaction with a post-dissolutional
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relationship. Some participants are satisfied to have ongoing relationships with their
ex-partners, whereas others are satisfied to not continue an interpersonal relationship
with their former partners. The ability for the concept of post-dissolutional satisfaction
to encompass both of these opposing viewpoints may have contributed to the poor
predictive power of the models in this study. Future research should strive to stan-
dardize what is meant by post-dissolutional satisfaction.
It should also be noted that demographic variables had significant and strong pre-
dictive strength for many of the post-dissolutional characteristics in both studies. Spe-
cifically, the length of the romance and time since the break-up often were strong nega-
tive predictors of the relational characteristics. Although these findings do not offer
support for the age-old saying "Time heals all wounds," they do suggest that time is
an important factor to consider when attempting to understand post-dissolutional re-
lationships.

Limitations
The present data is an initial step in understanding same-sex and opposite-sex
post-dissolutional relationships and the variables that influence these relationships.
These data were limited to the perspective of only one ex-partner. Duck (1982) points
out that as part of the dissolutional process, each of the ex-partners will reconstruct
their perception of the former relationship to fit their own ego needs. It is likely that a
fuller picture of the post-dissolutional relationship could be garnered from the combi-
nation and comparison of the perspectives of both former partners. Future research
also should consider other predictors of post-dissolutional qualities. Metts et al. (1989),
found that the type of dissolutional strategies used during relational termination influ-
enced the existence of a post-dissolutional friendship and Dillow (2000) found that
perceptions of the disengagement strategy used influenced future perceptions of the
ex-partner. Type of disengagement strategy may also affect the relationships formed
between ex-partners.

Conclusion
The study of post-dissolutional relationships is meaningful because the majority
of the romantic relationships we experience will fail and some form of post-dissolutional
relationship may emerge. This study describes qualities of same-sex and opposite-sex
post-dissolutional relationships and examines some influences on these relationship

166 Lannutti and Cameron

 qualities. Future research should continue to explore the way in which romantic rela-
tionships are redefined and the continuing role of ex-partners in each other's lives.

NOTES
1) We acknowledge the growing literature examining heterosexual post-divorce relationships
(see Metts & Cupach, 1995, for review). We chose to examine non-institutionalized relation-
ships because this area has received less attention in the literature than post-divorce relation-
ships. Due to the institutionalization of heterosexual marriage in the American legal and
social system, the influences upon the dissolution and reformulation of marriages may be
different from that of dating relationships. We grant that recent trends encouraging and
accepting same-sex unions may be viewed by some as a way of institutionalizing homosexual
unions, yet, given the conservative nature of the larger American system, we feel that the
post-dissolutional character of such relationships will differ from formerly married hetero-
sexual couples. Further research is needed to test these claims.
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2) Complete questionnaire and factor scores available from first author upon request.
3) Eight items were used to measure a third structural variable in the same-sex sample: the
perceived norms for ex-partner relationships in the gay and lesbian community. Acceptable
reliability could not be found for gay male norms about ex-partner relationships, therefore
this variable was excluded from analyses.
4) Complete questionnaire and factor scores available from first author upon request.
5) Stepwise regression procedures were employed because there were not specific predictions
about the relative influence of the potential predictors on the qualities of the relationships.
Following the advice of Montgomery and Peck (1992), backward regressions with the same
predictors and dependent variables were also performed. The differences between the two
types of procedures were minimal: the two type of procedures indicated that the significant
predictors for the dependent variables were the same, yet produced slightly different beta
weights. Additionally, a third set of regressions employing the enter method was performed.
The order of entry of the variables was consistent across regression analysis, with the struc-
tural variables entered first, personal variables entered second, and demographic variables
entered last. Each subset was entered in the order listed in this manuscript. The results of this
enter procedure were quite similar to that of the stepwise and backward regression proce-
dures. Given the exploratory nature of this study and the minimal differences between the
results using the various procedures, the stepwise regression procedure is reported.

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