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Three rules
WHEN A NUMBER is repeatedly multiplied by itself, we get the powers of that number (Lesson
1).
Now, rather than write the third power of 2 as 2· 2· 2, we write 2 just once -- and place an
exponent: 23. 2 is called the base. The exponent indicates the number of times to repeat the
base as a factor.
In part c), the parentheses indicate that 5a is the base. In part d), only a is the base. The
exponent does not apply to 5.
Problem 5. Write out the meaning of these symbols. In each one, what is the base?
Problem 6. Evaluate.
a) 24 = 16.
(−2)4 = +16.
When the base is negative, and the exponent is odd, then the product is negative. But when the
base is negative, and the exponent is even, then the product is positive.
Problem 7. Evaluate.
Three rules
aman = am + n
Why do we add the exponents? Because of what the symbols mean. Problem 4a.
Solution. The problem means (Lesson 5): Multiply the numbers, then combine the powers of
x:
3x²· 4x5· 2x = 24x8
Two factors of x -- x² -- times five factors of x -- x5 -- times one factor of x, produce a total of 2 +
5 + 1 = 8 factors of x : x8.
a) x· x5 b) 2· 25
Solution.
a) x· x5 = x6
b) 2· 25 = 26
Part b) has the same form as part a). It is part a) with x = 2.
One factor of 2 multiplies five factors of 2 producing six factors of 2. 2· 2 = 4 is not an issue.
(ab)n = anbn
ab· ab· ab = aaabbb.
= x8y7z9 Rule 1.
(am)n = amn
Solution. Within the parentheses there are three factors: 2, x3, and y4. According to Rule 2,
we must take the fifth power of each one. But to take a power of a power, we multiply the
exponents. Therefore,
(2x3y4)5 = 25x15y20
Solution. (x4)2 = x8.
(−6)(−6) = +36.
In summary: Add the exponents when the same base appears twice: x²x4 = x6. Multiply the
exponents when the base appears once -- and in parentheses: (x²)5 = x10.
a) 2x² + 3x4 Not possible. These are not like terms (Lesson 1).
c) 2x3 + 3x3 = 5x3. Like terms. The exponent does not change.
MULTIPLYING OUT
m(a + b) = ma + mb
That is called the distributive rule. m multiplies a, then it multiplies b. We say that we have
"distributed" m to a and b.
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It follows, then, that we may change all the signs on both sides of an equation.
This equation
−x + a −
= c
b
implies this one:
x − a + b = −c.
5(x + 4) = 5x +
a) b) 5(x − 4) = 5x − 20
20
2x(3x² + 5x − 6) = 6x3 + 10x² −
c) x(x + 1) = x² + x d)
12x
e) 3x2(4x3 − 3x² + 5x − 8) = 12x5 − 9x4 + 15x3 − 24x2
f) −5x4(x3 − 4x² + 2x − 6) = −5x7 + 20x6 − 10x5 + 30x4
h) −4xy²(x3y − 6xy² − 2x + 3y + 1)
Problem 3. Multiply out and simplify, that is, add the like terms.
= 23x + 7y
= 3x + 6
= a3 − 2a²b + ab² − ba² + 2ab² − b3
A sum by a sum
(a + b + c)(x + y + z)
Then distribute b.
Then distribute c.
(a + b + c)(x + y + z)
= ax + ay + az + bx + by + bz + cx + cy + cz
Problem 4. Multiply (p − q)(x − y + z). Observe the Rule of Signs (Lesson 4).
Example 3. Multiply out (x − 2)(x + 3). Simplify by adding the like terms.
The student should not have to write the first line, but should be able to write the second line --
x² + 3x − 2x − 6
-- immediately.
= x² + 7x + 10
b) (x + 5)(x −
= x² − 2x + 5x − 10
2)
= x² + 3x − 10
c) (x − 5)(x −
= x² − 2x − 5x + 10
2)
= x² − 7x + 10
= 2x² + 7x − 4
= 12x² − 7x − 10
f) (5x −
= (5x − 1) (5x − 1)
1)²
= 25x² − 5x − 5x + 1
= 25x² − 10x + 1
g) (6x + 1)(6x −
= 36x² − 6x + 6x − 1
1)
= 36x² − 1
− 4x² − 12x + 40
Notice: Upon distributing −4, we have anticipated the like terms by aligning them. However,
that is not strictly necessary.
− 3x² + 18x − 27
= x3 − 9x² + 27x − 27
c) (3x − 4)(x² − 7x − 2) = 3x3 − 21x² − 6x
− 4x² + 28x + 8
− x3 − x² − x − 1
= x4 − 1
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50 = 2· 25 = 2· 5· 5
2(a + b) = 2a + 2b.
2a + 2b = 2(a + b),
then we have factored 2a + 2b as the product 2(a + b).
In the sum 2a + 2b, 2 is a common factor of each term. It is a factor of 2a, and it is a factor of
2b. This Lesson is concerned exclusively with recognizing common factors.
3x − 3y = 3(x − y)
Problem 3. Rewrite each of the following as the product of 2x and another factor.
Solution. 5 is a common factor of each term. Display it on the left of the parentheses:
If we multiply the right-hand side, we will get the left-hand side. In that way, the student can
always check factoring.
Also, the sum on the left has three terms. Therefore, the sum in parentheses must also have three
terms -- and it should have no common factors.
Problem 4. Factor each sum. Pick out the common factor. Check your answer.
a) 2 + 6 + 10 + 14 + 18 = 2(1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9)
Again, the number of terms in parentheses must equal the number of terms on the left . And the
terms in parentheses should have no common factors.
Polynomials
A monomial in x is a single term that looks like this: axn, where n is a whole number. The
following are monomials in x:
5x8, −3x², 6.
(We say that the number 6 is a monomial in x, because as we will see in Lesson 21, 6 = 6x0 =
6· 1.)
When we write a polynomial, the style is to begin with the highest exponent and go to the lowest.
4, 3, 2, 1.
The degree of a polynomial is the highest exponent. The polynomial above is of the 4th degree.
The constant term is the term in which the variable does not appear. In other words, it is the
number at the end. In that example, the constant term is −2.
(It is called the constant term, because it does not depend on the variable, and therefore even
though the value of the variable changes, the value of the constant term does not change.)
Problem 6. Describe each polynomial in terms of the variable it is "in," and say its degree.
Factoring polynomials
x7 + 3x6 + 2x5 + x4
x7= x4· x3
x6= x4· x2
x5= x4· x
Rule 1 of exponents.
The lowest power, x4 in this example, typically appears on the right. Again, when we write a
polynomial, we begin with the highest exponent and go to the lowest. 7, 6, 5, 4.
Once more, to say that we have factored the polynomial on the left --
-- means that we will obtain that polynomial if we multiply the factors on the right.
Problem 7. Factor these polynomials. Pick out the highest common factor.
c) x3 + x² = x²(x + 1)
Problem 8. Factor each polynomial. Pick out the highest common numerical factor and the
highest common literal factor.
There is no common literal factor. The sum in parentheses has no common factors.
Solution. The highest common factor (HCF) will contain the lowest power of each letter. The
HCF is x²yz3. With that as the common factor, reconstruct each term:
Problem 9. Factor.
In a polynomial, the leading term is the term with the highest exponent. Normally, it is the first
term on the left. In this polynomial,
3x² − 6x + 9,
Now we like the leading term to be positive. (We will see that when we factor trinomials.)
Therefore, if we have the following,
−3x² + 6x − 9,
Problem 11. In each sum, remove the factor xn by displaying it on the left.
c) xn + 3 − xn = xn(x3 − 1) d) xn + 1 + xn = xn(x + 1)
where xn + 1 is the lower power. On multiplying out, we would add the exponents (Lesson 13)
and obtain the left-hand side.
Problem 13. The Rule of Signs. By applying the definition of the negative of a number, prove
that, if ab is positive, then (−a)b is the negative of ab. That is, prove: Unlike signs produce a
negative number:
(−a)b = −ab.
ab + (−a)b = [a + (−a)]b = 0· b = 0.
Therefore, since a number has one and only one negative,
(−a)b = −ab.
This is similar to adding like terms. In the first term, x is the coefficient of (x + 5). In the second
term, 3 is its coefficient. We add the coefficients of (x + 5). And we preserve the common
factor on the right.
Solution. Group the first and second terms -- find their common factor. Do the same with the
third and fourth terms.
x²(x + 1) + 3(x +
a) x3 + x² + 3x + 3 =
1)
= (x² + 3)(x + 1)
2x²(x − 3) + 5(x −
b) 2x3 − 6x² + 5x − 15 =
3)
= (2x² + 5)(x − 3)
3x²(x − 5) − 2(x −
c) 3x3 − 15x² − 2x + 10 =
5)
= (3x² − 2)(x − 5)
2x²(6x + 1) − 3(6x +
d) 12x3 + 2x² − 18x − 3 =
1)
= (2x² − 3)(6x + 1)
x²(x + 2) − (x +
e) x3 + 2x² − x − 2 =
2)
= (x² − 1)(x + 2)
6x²(2x − 1) − (2x −
f) 12x3 − 6x² − 2x + 1 =
1)
= (6x² − 1)(2x − 1)
(1 + x)² + x(1 +
= (1 + x)3.
x)²
(1 + x)² + x(1 + (1 +
= (1 + x)²
x)² x)
(1 + x)² is the common factor;
= (1 + x)3
px − q = rx + s
1. Transpose the x's to the left and everything else to the right:
px − rx = s + q
2. Factor:
x(p − r) = s + q
3. Solve for x:
s+q
x=
p−r
ax + bx= c
x(a + b)= c
c
x=
a+b
ax + b= cx + d
ax − cx= d − b
x(a − c)= d − b
d−b
x=
a−c
ax − a= x
ax − x= a
x(a − 1)= a
a
x=
a−1
QUADRATIC TRINOMIALS
Products of binomials
Vocabulary
For example,
2x² − 7x + 5
Products of binomials
(2x + 3)(x + 5)
Multiplying binomials come up so often that the student should be able to write the product
quickly and easily. It is one of the skills of algebra. Therefore, let us multiply those binomials
and see what results. First, we will distribute 2x, then we will distribute 3.
A quadratic trinomial.
Now, the first term of the trinomial is no mystery: It is 2x· x. And the last term is no problem
either -- it is 3· 5. And so the only question is: Where does the middle term 13x come from?
Therefore, if we say that when multiplying binomials, there are four steps,
then which steps produce the like terms?
It is skillful to be able to pick out the like terms quickly. Because in the next Lesson we will
want to factor 2x² + 13x + 15.
Will it be factored as
(2x + 5)(x + 3) ?
Or as
(2x + 3)(x + 5) ?
The key lies in choosing the combination that correctly gives the middle term, 13x.
In the first possibility, can we make 13x by combining the Outers plus the Inners: 6x with 5x ?
10x + 3x = 13x.
To check that, the student should be skillfull in adding the like terms mentally. That is, to
multiply
(2x + 3)(x + 5) ,
With practice, your eye will get used to picking out the Outers plus the Inners. You do algebra
with your eyes. Those are the like terms.
Example 1. (3x − 1)(x + 2). Write only the sum of the like terms.
6x − x = 5x.
Answer. 3x² + 5x − 2
Problem 4. Write only the trinomial product -- do not write all four terms.
When we add the outers plus the inners, the coefficient of x is the sum of the two numbers. The
constant term, as always, is their product.
The outers plus the inners give 4x. More simply, the coefficient of x is −1 + 5. The constant
term is −1· 5.
h) (x + 2)(x − 8) = x² − 6x − 16
Solution. We can multiply only two factors at a time. First multiply the binomials, then
distribute 2:
= −x² + x + 20.
Multiply two of the binomials. Then multiply that product with third. (Lesson 14, Example 4.)
Problem 7. Multiply.
FACTORING TRINOMIALS
2nd Level:
FACTORING IS THE REVERSE of multiplying. Skill in factoring, then, depends upon skill in
multiplying: Lesson 16. As for a quadratic trinomial --
2x² + 9x − 5
(? ?)(? ?)
Now, how will 2x² be produced? There is only one way: 2x· x :
(2x ?)(x ?)
And how will 5 be produced? Again, there is only one way: 1· 5. But does the 5 go with 2x
or with x ?
How shall we decide between these two possibilities? It is the combination that will correctly
give the middle term, 9x :
2x² + 9x − 5.
(2x 5)(x 1)
Is it possible to produce 9x by combining the outers and the inners: 2x· 1 with 5x ?
No, it is not. Therefore, we must eliminate that possibility and consider the other:
(2x 1)(x 5)
(2x − 1)(x + 5)
Skill in factoring depends on skill in multiplying -- particularly in picking out the middle term
Note: When the constant term is negative, as in parts a), b), c), then the signs in each factor will
be different. But when that term is positive, as in part d), the signs will be the same. Usually,
however, that happens by itself.
Nevertheless, can you correctly factor the following?
(x a)(x b)
What are the factors of 10? Let us hope that they are 2 and 5:
x² + 3x − 10 = (x 2)(x 5).
We must now choose the signs so that the coefficient of the middle term -- the sum of the outers
plus the inners -- will be +3. Choose +5 and −2.
x² + 3x − 10 = (x − 2)(x + 5).
Note: When 1 is the coefficient of x², the order of the factors does not matter.
(x − 2)(x + 5) = (x + 5) (x − 2).
Solution. We must find factors of 12 whose algebraic sum will be the coefficient of x : −1.
Choose −4 and + 3:
x² − x − 12 = (x − 4 )(x + 3).
Problem 4. Factor. Again, the order of the factors does not matter.
a) x² + 5x + 6 = (x + 2)(x + 3)
b) x² − x − 6 = (x − 3 )(x + 2)
c) x² + x − 6 = (x + 3 )(x − 2)
d) x² − 5x + 6 = (x − 3)(x − 2 )
e) x² + 7x + 6 = (x + 1)(x + 6 )
f) x² − 7x + 6 = (x − 1)(x − 6 )
g) x² + 5x − 6 = (x − 1)(x + 6 )
h) x² − 5x − 6 = (x + 1)(x − 6 )
Problem 5. Factor.
a) x² − 10x + 9 = (x − 1 )(x − 9)
d) x² − 5x − 14 = (x − 7)(x + 2)
e) x² − x − 2 = (x + 1)(x − 2)
Solution. To factor completely means to first remove any common factors (Lesson 15).
2nd Level
Example 4. Factor by making the leading term positive.
ax² + bx + c.
The argument is whatever is being squared. x is being squared. x is called the argument. The
argument appears in the middle term.
3x² + 2x − 1,
3x6 + 2x3 − 1.
But that quadratic has the same constants -- 3, 2, − 1 -- as the one above. In a sense, it is the
same quadratic only with a different argument. For it is the constants that distinguish a quadratic.
Whenever a quadratic has constants 3, 2, −1, then for any argument, the factoring will be
(3 times the argument − 1)(argument + 1).
The trinomials on the left have the same constants 1, −3, −10 but different arguments. That is
the only difference between them. In the first, the argument is z. In the second, the argument is
x4.
Every quadratic with constants 1, −3, −10 will be factored that way.
Problem 8.
az² + bz + c
ax8 + bx4 + c
ax2n + bxn + c
Problem 10. Multiply out each of the following, which have the same constants, but different
argument.
b) z² − 6z + 5 = (z − 1)(z − 5)
PERFECT SQUARE
TRINOMIALS
2nd level
(a + b)³
LET US BEGIN by learning about the square numbers. They are the numbers
and so on. The following are the first ten square numbers -- and their roots.
The square root of 1 is 1. The square root of 4 is 2. The square root of 9 is 3. And so on.
The square of a binomial come up so often that the student should be able to write the trinomial
product quickly and easily. Therefore, let us see what happens when we square any binomial, a
+b:
(See Lesson 8 of Arithmetic: How to square a number mentally, particularly the square of 24,
which is the "binomial" 20 + 4.)
x² is the square of x.
12x is twice the product of x· 6. (x· 6 = 6x. Twice that is 12x.)
36 is the square of 6.
−24x is twice the product of 3x· −4. (3x· −4 = −12x. Twice that is −24x.)
Note: If the binomial has a minus sign, then the minus sign appears only in the middle term of
the trinomial. Therefore, using the double sign ± ("plus or minus"), we can state the rule as
follows:
(a ± b)² = a² ± 2ab + b²
This means: If the binomial is a + b, then the middle term will be +2ab; but if the binomial is a
− b, then the middle term will be −2ab
−10x3 is twice the product of 5x3· −1. (5x3· −1 = −5x3. Twice that is −10x3.)
x² + 14x + 49 = (x + 7)²
Note: If the coefficient of x had been any number but 14, this would not have been a perfect
square trinomial.
Answer. No, it is not. Although x² is the square of x, and 100 is the square of 10, 50x is not
twice the product of x· 10. (Twice their product is 20x.)
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Problem 2.
b) (x − 1)²
a) (x + 1)² = x² + 2x + 1 x² − 2x + 1
=
d) (x − 3)²
c) (x + 2)² = x² + 4x + 4 x² − 6x + 9
=
e) (x + 4)² = x² + 8x + 16 f) (x − 5)² = x² − 10x + 25
(x + 6)² = x² + 12x +
g) h) (x − y)² = x² − 2xy + y²
36
b) (3x − 2)²
a) (2x + 1)² = 4x² + 4x + 1 9x² − 12x + 4
=
(4x + 3)² = 16x² + 24x + d) (5x − 2)²
c) 25x² − 20x + 4
9 =
e) (x3 + 1)² = x6 + 2x3 + 1 f) (x4 − 3)² = x8 − 6x4 + 9
g) (xn + 1)² = x2n + 2xn + 1 h) (xn − 4)² = x2n − 8xn + 16
p² + 2pq + q² = (p + q)²
The left-hand side is a perfect square trinomial.
The following problems show how we can go from what we know to what we do not know.
Problem 9. Use your knowledge of (a + b)² to multiply out (a + b)3.
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Show that it will equal the sum of the squares of each term, plus twice the product of all
combinations of the terms.
Problem 13. Can you generalize the result of the previous problem? Can you immediately
write down the square of (a + b + c + d)?
(a + b + c + d)² = a² + b² + c² + d²
+ 2ab + 2ac + 2ad + 2bc + 2bd +
2cd
x² + 8x + _?_ = (x + _?_)²
When the coefficient of x² is 1, as in this case, then to complete a perfect square trinomial, we
must add a square number. What square number must we add?
We must add the square of half of coefficient of x. The trinomial will then be the square of x
plus half that coefficient.
x² + 8x + 16 = (x + 4)²
We add the square of half the coefficient of x -- which in this case is 4 -- because when we
multiply (x + 4)², the coefficient of x will be twice that number.
Problem 14.
b
a) How do we indicate half of any number
b?
2
p p
b) How do we indicate half of any fraction ? 2
q q
And since the middle term of the trinomial has a minus sign, then the binomial also must have a
minus sign.
Problem 15. Complete the square. The trinomial is the square of what binomial?
f) x² + 5x + ? x² + 5x 25 5
= (x + )²
+ 4 2
g) x² − 9x + ? x² − 9x 81 9
= (x − )²
+ 4 2
b
h) x² + bx + ? x² + bx b²
= (x + )²
+ 4
2
b b b
i) x² b²
x + ? x² + x + = (x + )²
+ 4a² 2
a a a
THE DIFFERENCE
OF TWO SQUARES
Summary of Multiplying/Factoring
2nd level:
Factoring by grouping
(a + b)(a − b)
(a + b)(a − b) = a² − b²
For, the like terms will cancel. (Lesson 16.)
Solution. Recognize the form: (a + b)(a − b). The product will be the difference of two
squares:
(x3 + 2)(x3 − 2) = x6 − 4.
When confronted with the form (a + b)(a − b), the student should not do the FOIL method. The
student should recognize immediately that the product will be a² − b².
Problem 2. Factor.
e) x6 − 36 = (x3 + 6)(x3 − 6) f) y4 − 144 = (y² + 12)(y² − 12)
g) x8 − y10 = (x4 + y5) (x4 − y5) h) x2n − 1 = (xn + 1)(xn − 1)
Problem 4. Completely factor each of the following. First remove a common factor. Then
factor the difference of two squares.
The Difference of Two Squares completes our study of products of binomials. Those products
come up so often that the student should be able to recognize and apply each form.
Summary of Multiplying/Factoring
In summary, here are the four forms of Multiplying/Factoring that characterize algebra.
Problem 5. Distinguish each form, and write only the final product.
Problem 6. Factor. (What form is it? Is there a common factor? Is it the difference of two
squares? . . . )
Back to Section 1
Factoring by grouping
(a + b)(a − b):
(x + y + 8)(x + y − 8)
x + y is the first term; 8 is the second. Therefore, it will produce the difference of two squares:
(x + y + 8)(x + y − 8) = (x + y)² − 64
= x² + 2xy + y² − 64
Problem7. Each of these will produce the difference of two squares. Multiply out.
= x² − 2xy + y² − 1
Let us factor this by grouping (Lesson 15) -- and then recognize the difference of two squares:
= (x² − 4)(x + 3)
= (x² − 9)(x − 4)
(x + 3)(x − 3)(x −
=
4)
x²(2x − 3) − 25(2x −
c) 2x3 − 3x² − 50x + 75 =
3)
= (x² − 25)(2x − 3)
= (x² − 1)(3x + 1)
Look at the form of these. A factor of a5 + b5 is (a + b), while a factor of a5 − b5 is (a − b).
To produce a5, the second factor begins a4. The exponent of a then decreases as the exponent of
b increases -- but the sum of the exponents in each term is 4. (We say that the degree of each
term is 4.)
In the second factor of a5 + b5, the signs alternate. (If they did not, then on multiplying, nothing
would cancel to produce only two terms.)
In the second factor of a5 − b5, all the signs are + . (That insures the canceling.)
By multiplying out, the student can verify that these are the factors of the sum and difference of
5th powers.
In particular, xn − 1 can always be factored for any positive integer n, because 1 = 1n, and all
powers of 1 are 1.
a) x5 − 1 = (x − 1)(x4 + x3 + x² + x + 1)
b) x5 + 1 = (x + 1)(x4 − x3 + x² − x + 1)
Problem 10. Factor.
In practice, it is these, the sum and difference of 3rd powers, that tend to come up.
Problem 11. Factor.
a) x3 + 8 = x3 + 23
= (x + 2)(x² − x· 2 + 2²)
= (x + 2)(x² − 2x + 4)
b) x3 − 1 = x3 − 13
= (x − 1)(x² + x· 1 + 1²)
= (x − 1)(x² + x + 1)
So much for the sum and difference of odd powers. As for the sum and difference of even
powers, only their difference can be factored. (If you doubt that, then try to factor a2 + b2 or a4 +
b4. Verify your attempt by multiplying out.)
But also when n is even, an − bn can be factored either with (a − b) as a factor or (a + b).
For, with n even and the factor (a + b), the right-hand factor will have an even
number of terms. And since those terms alternate in sign, the final term will be
−bn−1. Therefore, −bn will be correctly produced upon multiplication with +b. But
when n is odd, the right-hand factor will have an odd number of terms. Therefore
the final term would be +bn−1. Hence it will be impossible to produce −bn upon
multiplication with +b.]
x4 − 81 = x4 − 34
= (x + 3)(x3 − x2· 3 + x· 32 − 33)
= (x + 3)(x3 − 3x2 + 9x − 27)
ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS
2nd Level
x ax
=
y ay
a
x
x
Both x and y have been multiplied by the factor a. and are
a
y
y
called equivalent fractions. This principle is the single most important fact about fractions.
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6 18
=
n 3n
The denominator has been multiplied by 3; therefore the numerator will also be
multiplied by 3.
4 4x
=
x x²
The denominator has been multiplied by x; therefore the numerator will also be
multiplied by x.
m 8x²m
= 3
x 8x
The denominator has been multiplied by 8x²; therefore the numerator will also be
multiplied by 8x².
The student will see that the original denominator on the left will be a factor of the new
denominator on the right. It must be a factor, because to produce that new denominator it was
multiplied
("The denominator has been multiplied by _____. Therefore the numerator will also be
multiplied by ____.")
a 5a 3 6 5 5y
a) = b) = c) =
b 5b x 2x y y²
8 8y a 2x²a b bx²y
d) = e) = 3 f) =
x xy x 2x y x²y²
p prs 2 2ac 4 4(x + 1)
g) = h) = i) =
q qrs b abc x x(x + 1)
?
Example 1. a =
b
a
Solution. To explain the solution, we will write a as .
1
a ab
=
1 b
The numerator ab however is simply the product of a times b. It is a kind of cross-multiplying,
and the student should not have to write the denominator 1.
ab
a =
b
3x 2ab x³
a) x = b) 2 = c) x =
3 ab x²
x 2x + 2 x² − 1
d) 1 = e) 2 = f) x + 1 =
x x + 1 x − 1
The numerator and denominator of a fraction are called its terms. Since we may multiply both
terms, then, symmetrically, we may divide both terms.
ax x
=
ay y
"We may divide both the numerator and denominator
by a common factor."
When we do that, we say that we have reduced the fraction to its lowest terms.
5
x
Example 2. Reduce .
5
y
5
x
x
Answer. = .
5
y
y
5 is a common factor of the numerator and denominator. Therefore we may divide each of them
by 5. We say that we have "canceled" the 5's.
5+
x
Example 3. Reduce .
5+
y
Answer. This can not be reduced. 5 is not a factor of either the numerator or the denominator.
It is a term. You cannot cancel terms. You can divide both the numerator and denominator only
when they have a common factor.
The word term does double duty in algebra. We speak of the terms of a sum and also the terms of
a fraction, which are the numerator and denominator. A fraction is in its lowest terms when the
numerator and denominator have no common factors.
x
Example 5. Reduce .
4
x
x
1
Answer. 4 = .
4
x
x·
1
1 = .
4
4x
x − 3
Example 6. Reduce .
6(x − 3)
x − 3 1
Answer. = .
6(x − 3) 6
x − 3 = (x − 3)· 1
Problem 7. Reduce.
2a a 1 2x 1
a) = 2 b) = c) =
a ab b 8xy 4y
5(x − 2) x+1 1 3(x + 2)x 1
d) = 5 e) = f) =
x−2 2(x + 1) 2 6(x + 2)xy 2y
3a + 6b +
Example 7. Reduce 9c .
12d
Answer. When the numerator or denominator is made up of terms, then if every term has a
common factor, we may divide every term by it.
In this example, every term in both the numerator and denominator has a factor 3. Therefore,
upon dividing every term by 3, we can write immediately:
3a + 6b + 9c a + 2b + 3c
=
12d 4d
There is no more canceling. The numerator and denominator no longer have a common factor.
3a + 6b +
Example 8. Reduce 8c .
12d
Answer. Not possible The numerator and denominator have no common factor. That fraction
is in its lowest terms.
8x
Example 9. Reduce 8x + .
10
Answer. 2 is a factor of every term in both the numerator and denominator. Therefore,
8x 4x
= .
8x + 10 4x + 5
There is no more canceling. We cannot cancel the 4x's, because 4x is not a common factor of the
denominator. 4x appears only as the first term.
Answer. Not possible The numerator and denominator have no common factor.
x² − x − 6
Example 11. Reduce x² − 4x + .
3
Answer. In its present form, there is no canceling -- because there are no common factors. But
we can make factors:
(x −3) is shown to be a common factor. We can cancel it. And when we do, the numerator and
denominator no longer have a common factor. The end.
4x³ − 9x²
Example 12. Reduce: .
4x³ + 6x²
Answer. The only common factor is x². And we could display it by factoring both the
numerator and denominator:
Problem 8. Reduce.
3x − 12 3(x − 4) x−4
b) = =
3x 3x x
x² − x x(x − 1)
e) = = x − 1
x x
x+3 x + 3 1
g) = =
4x + 12 4(x + 3) 4
2x − 8 2(x − 4)
h) = = 2
x − 4 x−4
2x − 2y 2(x − y) 2
i) = =
3x − 3y 3(x − y) 3
x² − 2x − 3 (x + 1)(x − 3) x − 3
a) = =
x² − x − 2 (x + 1)(x − 2) x − 2
x² + x − 2 (x + 2)(x − 1) x − 1
b) = =
x² − x − 6 (x + 2)(x − 3) x − 3
x² − 2x + 1 (x − 1)² x − 1
c) = =
x² − 1 (x + 1)(x − 1) x + 1
3+x
a) Not possible. The numerator and denominator have no common factors.
3x
8a + b
b) Not possible. Again, no common factors.
2ab
6a + b Not possible. The numerator and denominator have no common factors. 3 is not a
d)
3a + b factor of either the numerator or denominator. It is a factor only of the first term.
6(a + b)
e) = 2
3(a + b)
2x + 4y + 6z x + 2y + 3z
f) = Divide every term by 2.
10 5
2x + 4y + 5z
g) Not possible. The numerator and denominator have no common factor.
10
(x + 1) + (x + 2)
h) Not possible. The numerator is not made up of factors.
(x + 1)(x + 3)
(x + 1)(x + 2) x + 2
i) =
(x + 1)(x + 3) x + 3
ab + c
j) Not possible. The numerator and denominator have no common factors.
abc
ab + ac a(b + c) b + c
k) = =
abc abc bc
x² − x − 12 (x + 3)(x − 4) x − 4
l) = =
x² + x − 6 (x + 3)(x − 2) x − 2
2nd Level
NEGATIVE EXPONENTS
Power of a fraction
Subtracting exponents
Negative exponents
Section 2
Exponent 0
Scientific notation
Power of a fraction
Example 1.
For, according to the meaning of the exponent, and the rule for multiplying fractions:
Solution. We must take the 4th power of everything. But to take a power of a power --
multiply the exponents:
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x² 8x³
a) = b) = c) =
y² 27
d) =
x ² − 2x + 1
e) = Perfect Square Trinomial
x² + 2x + 1
Subtracting exponents
ax x
=
ay y
"If the numerator and denominator have a common factor,
it may be canceled."
2· 2· 2· 2· 2
= 2· 2· 2
2· 2
___2· 2___ __1__
=
2· 2· 2· 2· 2 2· 2· 2
= 23
22
2² 1
= 3
25 2
In each case, we subtract the exponents. But when the exponent in the denominator is larger, we
write 1-over their difference.
Example 3. = x5
x3
1
=
x8 x5
x² 1 x 1
a) = x3 b) = c) =
x5 x3 x5 x4
x² 1
d) = x e) = −x4 f) =
x x²
2² 1 1 2 1 1
a) = 23 = 8 b) = = c) 5 = 4 =
25 23 8 2 2 16
2² 1 1
d) = 2 e) = −24 = −16 f) = =
2 2² 4
Problem 4. Simplify by reducing to lowest terms. (Do not write negative exponents.
y³ 8a³
a) = b) = −
5x³ 5b³
3z_ c³
c) =− d) =
5x4y3 16
(x + 1)³ (x − 1) (x + 1)²
e) =
(x − 1)³ (x + 1) (x − 1)²
Negative exponents
We are now going to extend the meaning of an exponent to more than just a positive whole
number. We will do that in such a way that the usual rules of exponents will hold. That is, we
will want the following rules to hold for any exponents: positive, negative, 0 -- even fractions
We begin by defining a number with a negative exponent to be the reciprocal of that power with
a positive exponent.
a− 1
n =
an
1 1
Example 5. 2−3 = =
23 8
The base, 2, does not change. The negative exponent becomes positive -- in the denominator.
1 1
Answers. 3−2 = =
32 9
Next,
1
−3−2 = −
9
1 1
(−3)−2 = =
(−3)2 9
Finally,
1 1
(−3)−3 = 3 = −
(−3) 27
A negative exponent, then, does not produce a negative number. Only a negative base can do
that. And the exponent must be odd
a²
Example 7. Simplify 5 .
a
Solution. Since we have invented negative exponents, we can now subtract any exponents as
follows:
a²
= a2 − 5 = a−3
a5
That is, we now have the following rule for any exponents m, n:
1
In fact, we defined a− n as because we want that rule
n
a
to hold. We want
= a−3
But
1
=
a3
1
Therefore, we define a−3 as .
a3
1
Example 8. a−1 =
a
a−1 is now a symbol for the reciprocal, or multiplicative inverse, of any number a. It appears in
the following rule (Lesson 5):
a· a−1 = 1
Problem 5.
a) (log 2)(log 2)−1 = 1 b) (x² − 7x + 5)· (x² − 7x + 5)−1 = 1
c) 2 −1 3
) =
( 3 2
=
_64_
=
100,000,000
1
d) 2−2· 2 = 2−2+1 = 2−1 =
2
1 1
e) = x−1 f) = x−3
x x3
(x + 1) (x + 2)2
g) = (x + 1)x−1 h) = (x + 2)−4
x (x + 2)6
Therefore,
Exponent 2 goes into the numerator as −2; exponent −4 goes there as +4.
2² 10²
a) = 22 + 3 = 25 = 32 b) = 102 + 2 = 104 = 10,000
2−3 10−2
1
c) = 102 − 5 − 4 + 6 = 10−1 =
10
1
= a−n .
an
1
a
a− = n .
n
That implies:
Answer.
The exponent 3 goes into the numerator as −3; the exponent −4 goes there as +4.
x
a) = xy² b) = c) =
y−2
d) = e) =
Problem 11. Apply the rules of exponents, then rewrite with positve exponents.
a) = = b) = =