Journal of Constructional Steel Research 75 (2012) 55–63

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Journal of Constructional Steel Research

Behaviour of concrete-filled steel columns subjected to lateral cyclic loading

P. Gajalakshmi ⁎, H. Jane Helena
Department of Civil Engineering, Anna University, Chennai-25, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper reports the findings of an experimental study that was undertaken to investigate the cumulative
Received 12 October 2011 damage of in-filled steel columns subjected to quasi-static loading. The parameters studied are, the diameter-
Accepted 12 March 2012 to-thickness ratio of the steel tube and two types of in-fills namely Plain cement concrete and Steel fiber rein-
Available online 13 April 2012
forced concrete. This paper summarizes the results of phase I testing that consisted of benchmark tests to es-
tablish the hysteresis behaviour under variable amplitude cyclic loading and phase II testing that consisted of
Keywords:
Composite columns
constant amplitude cyclic loading that focused on the effects of amplitude and number of cycles on damage
Cyclic lateral load accumulation of in-filled columns. Findings of these studies highlight the significant increase in ductility and
Steel fiber reinforced concrete energy absorption capacity and decrease in the damage index of Steel fiber reinforced concrete-filled steel
Cumulative damage model columns compared to plain cement concrete-filled columns. A simplified equation for cumulative damage
has been proposed to predict the damage index of in-filled columns. This index can be used as a measure
for predicting the safety of new and existing in-filled columns against earthquake.
© 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Post earthquake reconnaissance and follow up research have indicat-
ed that most of the damage in structural members like columns is a result
of insufficient column ductility and energy absorption capacity to sustain
the large lateral displacement. In-filled steel columns are effective struc-
tural forms for such purposes because of their high compressive strength,
energy absorption capability and ductility. Under the action of seismic
forces, the damage induced in critical regions of in-filled steel tube col-
umns is due to the cumulative damage of the steel tube caused by repeat-
ed cyclic loading in the post yield strain region. [1]
To investigate the seismic behaviour of concrete in-filled steel tube
(CFT) columns, many quasi-static cyclic loading tests have been carried
out in the past, such as Sakino and Tomii [2], Nakanishi et al. [3], Nakahara
et al. [4], Elremaily and Aziznamini [5], Xiao et al. [6], Marson and
Bruneau [7], Amir fam et al. [8], Kingsley et al. [9], Yaochun Zhang et al.
[10]. All the aforementioned studies focused on standard loading proto-
cols with ramping drift amplitude to obtain the cyclic behaviour. Studies
on the effects of amplitude and number of cycles on damage accumula-
tion are found lacking. Therefore issues related to correlation of observed
hysteretic behaviour to damage of columns are found to be necessary to
model and calibrate cumulative seismic damage of in-filled columns.
The effort described in this paper is an initial step in this direction.
In this paper, a detailed experimental study on circular CFT columns
has been undertaken under constant and variable amplitude loading
combined with constant axial load. This study has been extended to
⁎ Corresponding author at: Structural Engineering Division, Department of Civil
Engineering, Anna University, Chennai-25, India. Tel.: + 91 9444311403.
E-mail address: sgajapandulu@rediffmail.com (P. Gajalakshmi).
steel fiber reinforced concrete in-filled steel tube (SCFT) columns and
the results have been compared with CFT columns. The system vari-
ables and measured response were tailored to model and calibrate the
cumulative seismic damage.
2. Experimental investigation
2.1. Details of experimental program
The experimental program consisted of tests on CFT and SCFT col-
umns of diameter-to-thickness ratio (D/t) 38 and 57. The tests were
conducted in two phases. Phase I testing consisted of benchmark
tests on CFT and SCFT columns under variable amplitude loading
combined with constant axial load. Phase II testing consisted of tests
on CFT and SCFT columns under constant amplitude loading histories.
The hollow steel tubes used were 1 m long and were seam welded
along the length. The range of steel tube diameter-to-thickness ratio cho-
sen satisfies the limitations specified by various codes, namely, AISC LRFD
[D/t≤(8E/fy)1/2] [11], CAN/CSA-S16.1-4(1994) [D/t ≤(28000/fy)] [12],
and AIJ (Qie 1994) [D/t≤(23520/fy)] [13], where fy is the yield strength
of steel and E is the modulus of elasticity of steel. All specimens were
welded and strengthened with four numbers of 6 mm thick gusset plates
at the bottom to ensure a strong connection with the footing. The col-
umns were fixed at the bottom. The details of specimens and loading pat-
tern are elaborated in Table 1.
2.2. Material properties
Tensile tests were carried out as per ASTM-A370 [14], on coupon sam-
ples that were cut from the steel tubes used to fabricate the columns. The

0143-974X/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jcsr.2012.03.006
56 P. Gajalakshmi, H.J. Helena / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 75 (2012) 55–63

Table 1 50
Details of specimens.

Specimen D(mm) t(mm) fck(MPa) fy(MPa) Po(kN) Loading pattern

CFT57-V 114 2 32.44 293 105.9 Variable drift 40

amplitude
CFT57-C2 114 2 32.44 293 105.9 Constant drift
amplitude at 2%

Stress (N/mm2)
CFT57-C4 114 2 32.44 292 105.9 Constant drift 30
amplitude at 4%
CFT57-C6 114 2 32.44 292 105.9 Constant drift
amplitude at 6%
SCFT57-V 114 2 57.78 293 155 Variable drift
amplitude 20
SCFT57-C2 114 2 57.78 293 155 Constant drift
amplitude at 2% PCC
SCFT57-C4 114 2 57.78 294 155 Constant drift
amplitude at 4% 10 0.75% SFRC
SCFT57-C6 114 2 57.78 294 155 Constant drift 1. 0 % SFRC
amplitude at 6%
CFT38-V 114 3 32.44 293 182 Variable drift 1. 25% SFRC
amplitude
0
CFT38-C2 114 3 32.44 293 182 Constant drift 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008
amplitude at 2%
Micro strain (mm/mm)
CFT38-C4 114 3 32.44 293 182 Constant drift
amplitude at 4%
Fig. 1. Stress–strain behaviour of concrete.
CFT38-C6 114 3 32.44 293 182 Constant drift
amplitude at 6%
SCFT38-V 114 3 57.78 295 205 Variable drift
amplitude uniform mix if the aspect ratio of the fiber is greater than 100 [16],
SCFT38-C2 114 3 57.78 295 205 Constant drift
an aspect ratio of 70 was chosen in this study so that proper mixing,
amplitude at 2%
SCFT38-C4 114 3 57.78 295 205 Constant drift
placing and finishing is possible. The material properties of PCC and
amplitude at 4% SFRC are listed in Table 2 and the stress–strain curves are shown in
SCFT38-C6 114 3 57.78 293 205 Constant drift Fig. 1. It was found that there is reduction in compressive strength
amplitude at 6% when the volume fraction of fibers added is above 1.00%. After sev-
Note: Specimen name example: CFT57-V refers to CFT column with steel tube having eral trials, the optimum volume fraction of fibers to be added was
diameter-to-thickness ratio (D/t) of 57 tested under variable drift amplitude; CFT57- found to be 1.00% and this has been used in the present study to
C2, CFT57-C4 and CFT57-C6 designates the CFT model column with steel tube having
carry out the cyclic load tests.
diameter-to-thickness ratio of 57 tested under constant drift amplitude of 2%, 4% and
6% respectively; fck = cube compressive strength; fy = yield strength of steel.

2.3. Test set-up and instrumentation

yield stress and ultimate stress were found to be 270 N/mm2 and 410 N/
mm2 respectively and the percentage elongation was found to be 13%
and modulus of elasticity was found to be 2.05×105 N/mm2.
The concrete mix was designed for a cube compressive strength
of 20 MPa at 28 days. The design mix of 1:2.09:2.25 with a w/c
ratio of 0.49, using 12.5 mm size (max.) coarse aggregate and
2.36 mm (max.) size fine aggregate was based on ACI committee
211.1.1991 recommendations [15]. From the concrete mix, concrete
cubes and cylinders were prepared and tested to obtain the actual
material properties. To prepare SCFT columns, initially three differ-
ent volume fractions of steel fibers were chosen, namely, 0.75%,
1.00% and 1.25% to find the optimum volume fraction of fibers that
has to be added to PCC. Crimped steel fibers having an aspect ratio
of 70 (length of the fiber (lf) = 30.80 mm and diameter of the fiber
((df) = 0.44 mm) were used. As it is very difficult to achieve a
The loading apparatus adopted for the tests as shown in Fig. 2 en-
ables the application of cyclic lateral load and a constant axial com-
pressive load. A 500 kN capacity hydraulic jack with spherical ball
seat arrangement was used to apply a constant axial compressive
load to the column. Lateral force was applied horizontally at a height
of 850 mm from the base through a horizontal 100 kN capacity
pseudo-controlled hydraulic actuator. All the specimens were sub-
jected to a constant axial load of 0.3 P0 (where P0 is the pure compres-
sive load obtained from column tests). A pump and a pressure relief
valve were used in conjunction with the above set-up to minimize
the variation of the axial load due to the shifting of the column axis
during testing. The imposed lateral displacement was measured
using the displacement transducer of the actuator. The built-in load
cell of the actuator recorded the corresponding lateral force. Electrical
resistance strain gauges were used to measure the strain at mid-

Table 2
Material properties of PCC and SFRC.

Sl. no. Type of in-fill Cube strength Flexural strength Split tensile strength Young's modulus (Ec)
N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 (by test)
(×104)
N/mm2

1 Plain cement concrete 32.44 4.24 4.10 2.968

2 0.75% steel fiber reinforced concrete 41.78 4.94 5.15 3.230
3 1.00% steel fiber reinforced concrete 57.78 5.86 6.55 3.800
4 1.25% steel fiber reinforced concrete 38.60 4.40 5.10 3.109
 P. Gajalakshmi, H.J. Helena / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 75 (2012) 55–63 57

Reaction frame

500kN Hydraulic
Actuator

100kN Hydraulic
Actuator with +/- 150mm stroke
LVDT

Head cap

850 mm Specimen

Strain gauges on opposite faces

D Column End Block

Reaction floor

Fig. 2. Test set-up and instrumentation.

Table 3
Failure pattern of tested specimens.

Specimen Yielding of the steel specimen Plastic hinge region Failure modes
(from base) (mm)
Commencement of yielding Height at which yielding occurs
(from base) (mm)

CFT57-V During third loading cycle at 1% drift ratio 120 127 Elephant foot buckling
CFT57-C2 During third loading cycle at 1% drift ratio 115 120 Outward buckling of steel tube followed
by gradual stiffness degradation
CFT57-C4 During second loading cycle at 1% drift ratio 125 125 Outward buckling progressed on opposite faces.
CFT57-C6 During first loading cycle at 1% drift ratio 125 120 Outward buckling of steel tube followed
by rupture of steel tube
SCFT57-V During third loading cycle at 1.5% drift ratio 130 137 Elephant foot buckling
SCFT57-C2 During third loading cycle at 1.0% drift ratio 130 135 Outward buckling of steel tube followed
by gradual stiffness degradation
SCFT57-C4 During second loading cycle at 1.0% drift ratio 130 130 Outward buckling progressed on opposite faces
SCFT57-C6 During first loading cycle at 1.0% drift ratio 125 132 Outward buckling of the steel tube occurs
followed by rupture of steel tube
CFT38-V During third loading cycle at 1. 5% drift ratio 135 142 Outward buckling of the steel tube occurs
CFT38-C2 During third loading cycle at 1.5% drift ratio 130 140 Outward buckling of steel tube near the bottom
end followed by gradual stiffness reduction
CFT38-C4 During second loading cycle at 1.5% drift ratio 135 140 Outward buckling progressed on opposite faces.
CFT38-C6 During first loading cycle at 1.5% drift ratio 130 140 Outward buckling of the steel tube occurs followed
by rupture of steel tube
SCFT38-V During third loading cycle at 1.5% drift ratio 145 152 Outward buckling of steel tube
SCFT38-C2 During third loading cycle at 1.5% drift ratio 140 150 Outward buckling of steel tube near the bottom
end followed by gradual stiffness degradation
SCFT38-C4 During second loading cycle at 1.5% drift ratio 145 155 Outward buckling progressed on opposite faces.
SCFT38-C6 During first loading cycle at 1.5% drift ratio 140 150 Outward buckling of the steel tube occurs followed
by rupture of steel tube
58 P. Gajalakshmi, H.J. Helena / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 75 (2012) 55–63
a)
b)
Fig. 3. a) Elephant foot shape buckling of in-filled columns with D/t ratio 57. b) Rupture
of in-filled columns with D/t ratio 57 during loading cycles at 6% drift ratio.
height and at points of expected hinge formation (i.e. at the height
equal to the diameter of the tube from the base) on all four faces.
2.4. Test procedure
In the first phase, variable drift amplitude tests were carried out
by applying three single lateral loading cycles corresponding to an in-
crement of 0.25% peak drift ratio. (Drift ratio is defined as the lateral
displacement normalized by the height measured from the top of
the bottom plate to the point of lateral load application.) This loading
procedure was continued until failure of the specimen. The rupture of
steel tube at the plastic hinge location leading to a visible crack in the
tube and a drop in the peak lateral force by over 20% of the previous
peak force was defined as failure of the columns. In the second phase,
Fig. 4. Local buckling of in-filled columns with D/t ratio 38.
lateral cyclic load at constant drift ratios of 2%, 4%, and 6%, respective-
ly were applied to the specimens.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Failure modes of the columns
The failure modes of the columns, commencement of yielding of
columns, height at which the yielding commences in the columns
and the location of plastic hinge are elaborated in Table 3. During re-
peated cyclic loading excursion, the stiffness of all specimens re-
duce gradually from the initial elastic value, due to both geometric
and material non-linearity, as evidenced in each cycle of loading.
The maximum strength achieved within each hysteretic cycle de-
grades as cycling proceeds, primarily due to local buckling of the
steel tube and due to damage to the concrete. The D/t ratio of the
steel tube is found to govern the failure modes irrespective of the
type of in-fill and loading pattern. For specimens with D/t ratio 57
outward buckling of the steel tube occurs near the column base.
This was followed by elephant foot shaped buckling in columns sub-
jected to variable cyclic loading whereas in columns subjected to
constant amplitude loading at 6% drift, this was followed by imme-
diate rupture of the steel tubes as shown in Fig. 3(a) and (b). The
rupture crack apparently penetrated through the tube thickness
and pulverized concrete spilled out through the rupture in the
buckled region as the rupture crack width increased. For specimens
with D/t ratio 38, buckling was observed at nearly the same heights
above the base as shown in Fig. 4. With additional cycles, buckling
progressed on opposite faces of the test specimens followed by
gradual strength and stiffness degradation and no rupture failure
was observed.
3.2. Hysteresis behaviour
3.2.1. Variable amplitude tests
Figs. 5(a) to (d) show the observed hysteretic Lateral Load–Deflec-
tion–Drift ratio plots of CFT and SCFT columns subjected to variable
lateral cyclic loading combined with constant axial load. The strain
gauges located at distance ‘D’ from the base indicated initiation of
yielding at 1.5% drift ratio in columns with D/t ratio 38 and at 1%
drift ratio in columns with D/t ratio 57 irrespective of type of in-fill.
At this stage, the force–deflection relationship begins to deviate
from the near-straight elastic line. Slight pinching in the hysteresis
curve observed in the specimens may be due to the opening and sub-
sequent closing of horizontal concrete cracks transverse to the col-
umn axis.
From the hysteresis behaviour, it is seen that SCFT columns produce
large hysteresis loop without significant drop in the lateral force upto a
drift ratio of 8% whereas CFT columns exhibit reduced hysteresis loop
and are capable of withstanding lateral load only upto 6% drift ratio.
3.2.2. Constant amplitude tests
Figs. 6 to 8 show the Lateral Load–Deflection–Drift ratio plots of
CFT and SCFT columns subjected to constant amplitude cycles corre-
sponding to 2%, 4% and 6% lateral drift ratios. From the plots it can
be seen that SCFT columns show enhanced stiffness and energy ab-
sorption characteristics compared to CFT columns irrespective of the
drift ratio and D/t ratio of the steel tubes. These plots reiterate the
fact that SCFT columns are better suited for seismic regions. Irrespec-
tive of type of in-fill and D/t ratio, all specimens exhibit predominant
stiffness degradation with additional loading cycles.
4. Ductility and energy absorption capacity
Ductility and energy absorption capacity are important consider-
ations in seismic design. The energy dissipation through hysteretic
 P. Gajalakshmi, H.J. Helena / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 75 (2012) 55–63 59

a) CFT38-V b) CFT57-V

c) SCFT38-V
d) SCFT57- V
Drift ratio(%) Drift ratio(%)
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
120 120 120 120
100 100 100 100

80 80 80 80

60 60 60 60

40 40 40 40
Load (kN)

20 20 20 20
Load (kN)

0 0 0 0
-80 -60 -40 -20 20 40 60 80 -80 -60 -40 -20 20 40 60 80
-20 -20 -20 -20

-40 -40 -40 -40

-60 -60 -60 -60

-80 -80
-80 -80
-100 -100
-100 -100
-120 -120
-120 -120
Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)

Fig. 5. a) to d) Load–Deflection–Drift ratio plots for specimens subjected to variable amplitude loading.

damping reduces the amplitude of seismic response thereby reducing to failure thereby enhancing the ductility and energy absorption
the ductility demand of the structure. The ductility factor of a speci- capacity.
men is the ratio of the ultimate drift displacement (δm) to the yield
displacement (δy). The ultimate drift displacement is taken as the dis- 5. Cumulative damage model
placement corresponding to maximum load.
The structural degradation caused by earthquakes can be quanti-
Ductilityfactor; μ m ¼ δm =δy ð1Þ fied by means of damage index and this measure can also be used
to evaluate the safety of new and existing structures. An expression
suggested by Krawinker et al. [18] for the deformation of structural
The energy absorption capacity as given by Hanbin [17] has been components (Eq. (2)) has been used in this study to develop a cumu-
used for calculating the energy absorption capacity of the specimens lative damage model for in-filled columns.
tested. The lateral load-deformation envelope established from vari-
able amplitude tests shown in Fig. 9, was used to determine the duc- N2f ¼ C
−1
ðδÞ
−c
ð2Þ
tility coefficient of in-filled columns.
Yielding of the outer steel tubes was recorded in the specimens
where
after reaching or exceeding approximately 1% drift, which was con-
firmed by strain gauge readings near the column base. The energy
N2f number of complete cycles to failure
absorption capacity and ductility coefficient of the specimens sub-
δ plastic deformation of structural component
jected to variable amplitude loading are given in Table 4. SCFT
C and c material constants.
columns with D/t ratio 38, exhibited an increase in ductility coeffi-
cient and energy absorption capacity of the order of 1.77 times
and 2 times the corresponding CFT columns. SCFT columns with Using the same concept, by taking deformation as the parameter,
D/t ratio 57, exhibited an increase in ductility coefficient and energy the proposed equation for cumulative damage model of in-filled col-
absorption capacity of the order of 1.73 times and 1.55 times the umns can be given as
corresponding CFT columns. This is because addition of 1.00% SFRC
χ
in-fill delayed the local buckling and increased the number of cycles Δ ¼ α ðN2f Þ ð3Þ
60 P. Gajalakshmi, H.J. Helena / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 75 (2012) 55–63
Fig. 6. Load–Deflection–Drift ratio plots for specimens subjected to 2% constant amplitude loading.
where, Δ is the lateral drift ratio; and α and χ are factors determined
from experimental data. From the current experimental program,
based on statistical analyses of the test results, α and χ are found to be
2:75
α ¼ 0:57½lnðD=tÞ
 −5
2:0 1
χ ¼ −0:03½lnðD=tÞ –0:1 f c =f c
where, fc1 and fc are compressive strength of confined and unconfined
concrete.
fc1/fc can be taken as 1.04 for CFT columns and 1.2 for SCFT columns
when D/t ranges between 38 and 57.
According to Miner's rule [19], cumulative damage is estimated as
CDi = Σ (1 / Ni ), where, CDi is the damage index corresponding to the
drift ratio at cycle i, and Ni is the number of cycles to failure at the
drift level.
To illustrate how the procedure is applied in estimating cumula-
tive damage on CFT columns, model column CFT57-C2 is taken as an
example. From the test result shown in Table 5, the model column
was subjected to 56 complete cycles and 2% drift. As per the model,
this column could sustain 58 complete cycles at 2% drift ratio. There-
fore, the damage index that the cyclic loading imposed on model Col-
umn CFT57-C2 was estimated based on Miner's rule as 56/58 = 0.98.
To verify the applicability of the damage model, a comparative
study was carried out using the experimental data available for CFT
columns tested by Elremaily and Azizinamini [5] and Xiao et al. [6].
The properties, specimen details and damage index of these columns
obtained using the proposed equation is shown in Table 6. The dam-
age indices of the CFT columns were found to be estimated within a
margin of 9%. It can be concluded that the proposed equation is capa-
ble of predicting the damage index reasonably well and can be used
ð4Þ
as a reliable means of predicting the cumulative damage of new and
existing columns.
ð5Þ
6. Conclusions
This research effort was directed towards gaining a better under-
standing of the cumulative damage process and an attempt to devel-
op a damage model through a systematic test program for seismic
design of in-filled columns. From the detailed experimental investiga-
tions carried out on CFT and SCFT columns, the following conclusions
are drawn.
1. The simplified cumulative damage model for CFT and SCFT col-
umns proposed in this study in conjunction with the application
of Miner's linear damage accumulation rule provides a reasonable
estimation of the damage index.
2. SCFT columns exhibit about 1.5 to 2 times more energy absorption
capacity, enhanced ductility and reduced damage index compared
to CFT columns. Hence they can be preferred in seismic regions.
3. The failure pattern of the specimens are found to be governed by
D/t ratio of the columns and are independent of the type of in-fill
and type of loading pattern.
 P. Gajalakshmi, H.J. Helena / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 75 (2012) 55–63 61

Fig. 7. Load–Deflection–Drift ratio plots for specimens subjected to 4% constant amplitude loading.

Fig. 8. Load–Deflection–Drift ratio plots for specimens subjected to 6% constant amplitude loading.
62 P. Gajalakshmi, H.J. Helena / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 75 (2012) 55–63

Drift ratio %
12 0 120
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
10 0 100
SCFT 38V
80 80
CFT 38V
60 60
CFT 57V
40 40
PCC
20 20
Load (kN)

0 0
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
-20 -20

-40 -40

-60 -60

-80 -80

-100 -100

-120 -120
Displacement (mm)

Fig. 9. Lateral Load–Displacement plot for in-filled columns.

Table 4 6. SCFT columns which were cycled 100 times at 2.0% drift, showed
Energy absorption, ductility coefficient and damage index of specimens subjected to virtually no signs of damage or deterioration. Specimens which
variable amplitude loading. were cycled at a lateral drift of 6.0%, failed in less than 16 cycles.
Specimen Energy absorption Ductility coefficient Damage index It may therefore be stated that earthquakes that impose low am-
plitude cycles less than 2.0, SCFT columns can survive a series of
CFT57-V 210 4.16 0.98
SCFT57-V 325 7.22 0.81
similar events without undergoing any significant structural dam-
CFT38-V 420 4.96 0.78 age. When the high amplitude cycles are those in excess of 4.0, the
SCFT38-V 840 8.78 0.75 likelihood of moderate to severe damage is high and depends on
the number of such inelastic cycles experienced by the structures.
7. The test also revealed that the energy capacity of a member at fail-
Table 5 ure is dependent on the drift amplitude. The energy capacity de-
Damage index of specimens subjected to constant amplitude loading. cays with the drift amplitude.
Specimen No of cycles to failure Energy absorption Damage index 8. Damage index of the in-filled columns decays with the type of in-
CFT57-C2 56 410 0.98
fill and D/t ratio.
CFT57-C4 20 240 0.98
CFT57-C6 10 201 1.02
SCFT57-C2 109 480 0.94 References
SCFT57-C4 24 340 0.95
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Table 6
Damage index of tested in-filled columns available in literature.

Tests by researchers Specimen D t fc fy Damage index Damage index using % Variation

(mm) (mm) (MPa) (Mpa) from tests proposed equation

Elremailyand Azizinamini [5], CFT1 324 6.4 100 374 0.73 0.80 9%
CFT5 324 6.4 40 374 0.96 0.98 2%
CFT6 324 6.4 70 374 0.93 1.01 9%
Xiao et al. [6] CFST64 323.9 5.5 36.92 442 0.90 0.95 5%
CFST35 323.9 7.5 40.51 415 0.88 0.95 8%
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