The Effects of Existing Fractures in Rocks on the
Extension of Hydraulic Fractures
NORMAN LAMONT'
F. W. JESSEN
MEMBERS AIME
ABSTRACT
The effect of an existing fracture or joint plane, which
may exist in a rock, on the extension of a hydraulically
induced fracture through the rock has been investigated
in the laboratory. By use of a series of models made from
various outcrop rocks, the width and orientation of existing
fractures do not alter the extension or direction of the
hydraulic fracture. The results, which conform quite well
with the Griffith theory of failure, are illustrated by a
series of photographs of the various models.
INTRODUCTION
The process of hydraulic fracturing has been widely
used in the oil industry since its introduction in 1948 and
has made possible the production of many reservoirs which
would have been uneconomical prior to this process.
Numerous studies of the mechanics of the process2 - 6 and
of the effects of oriented fractures on recovery7-9 have
appeared in the literature. The increased recoveries led
to attempts to predict the orientation of hydraulic fractures
at the wellbore and to the development of methods to
control this orientation. Field tests have been devised"· 12
which indicate the validity of theoretical predictions of
fracture orientation at the borehole.
The direction of extension of hydraulic fractures from
the borehole has not received much attention since most
studies have predicted, at least implicitly, that a fracture
will continue in the same plane unless a change of state
of stress in the rock occurs. Since such predictions are
based on the assumption of rock homogeneity, the effects
of rock heterogeneities are left unknown. Most sedimentary
rocks are composed of layers which reflect the changing
depositional conditions of geological time. In addition, the
more competent rocks frequently are fractured and jointed
as the result of structural deformations or tectonic move-
ments. Evidence of such joint systems exists in many
surface outcrops, and it can be assumed that similar
systems occur in many subsurface rocks, although the
individual joints may be rather tightly closed due to
overburden forces.
Th.is paper investigates the effect that an existing frac-
ture III a rock would have on the direction or orientation
of an extending or advancing hydraulic fracture when it
intersects the existing fracture. The study was conducted
Original manuscript received in Society of Petroleum Engineers office
July 9, 1962. Revised manuscript received Nov. 30, 1962. Paper pre-
sented at 37th Annual Fall Meeting of SPE Oct 7-10 1962 in Los
Angeles, Calif. ' . , ,
2References given at end of paper.
"Presently associated with Atlantic Refining Co., Dallas, Tex.
FEBRUARY, 1963 SPE 419
THE ATLANTIC REFINING CO.
DALLAS, TEX.
on small rock models under triaxial stress conditions. The
results indicate that an existing fracture will have little
effect on the hydraulic fracture.
THE MODEL STUDY
The rock model represents an elemental portion of the
earth containing an existing fracture which is located at
some distance from a borehole from which hydraulic
fracture is being extended. A generalized view of a model
is presented in Fig. 1.
The models were constructed from cement blocks and
natural rocks. The various materials tested and some of
the physical properties are listed in Table 1. The rocks
were cut into rectangular blocks with dimensions of
1V2 X 3 V2 X 4 to 8 in. An initial slot was cut into the end
face of each block along the longitudinal axis normal to
the top face. The slot was filled with plastic aluminum
along its outer edge to a depth of 1/16 in. A hole of
¥s -in. diameter was drilled into the sealed slot at the
center of the end face to serve as an entry port for the
fracturing fluid.
Existing fractures of various types were simulated in
the models. A "hairline" fracture with essentially zero
w~dth w~s created by cutting the model into two parts
WIth a dIamond saw and replacing the two parts together
along the cut. A finite-width fracture was created by plac-
ing a layer of sand grains between the two faces of the
cut just described (see Fig. 12). A large open fracture
(similar, perhaps, to a vug) was created by cutting the
model in two parts and removing a portion of the down-
stream block to a depth of V2 in. See Fig. 13. For a fourth
-9-: Angle of Inclination
.p: Angle of Beor;n9
~//i''-x
Z
FIG. I-SKETCH OF MODEL WITH EXISTING FRACTURE SHOWING
DIRECTIONS OF LOADING.
203
TABLE I-PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS USED IN THE INVESTIGATION TABLE 3-SUMMARY OF SUCCESSFUL TESTS ON MODELS CONTAINING FINITE-
WIDTH FRACTURES
Ultimate
Porosity Permeability Compressive
Material (per cent) (md) Strength (psi) Angle of Fracture Fra<ture
Width
Cement 0 0 1,500 Material Inclination Bearing
~ Remarks
Austin Stone 35 0.1 3,700 Austin 0 90 0.009 35-40 mesh sand
leuders Lime 40 0.1 4,500 0 70 0.018 20-35 mesh sand
Berea Sandstone 18 100.0 0 70 0.020 20-35 mesh sand
Boise Sandstone 22 1,000.0 leuders 0 70 0.022 20-35 mesh sand
0 70 0.025 20-35 mesh sand
Millsap Sandstone 16 10.0 0 90 0.500 'h-in. notch
Austin 0 90 0.500 1h-in. notch
0 90 0.500 'h-in. notch
type, the model was not cut into two parts. Instead, a 0 ~O 0.375 Drilled slot
0 90 0.375 Drilled slot
%-in. slot was cut across the model normal to the longi- leuders 0 90 0.375 Drilled slot
tudinal axis and the top face. The length was approxi-
mately Ph -in. long.
The models were encased in gaskets made from various
materials to restrict the fracturing fluid to the fracture TABLE 2-SUMMARY OF TEST OF MODELS WITH HAIRLINE EXISTING FRACTURES

system. The gaskets served the auxiliary purpose of trans- Number and'
Type of Tests"
mitting the applied loads more uniformly to the model. Angle of Existing
Fracture Plane Successful Unsuccessful
Two thermoplastic resins were tried without success. Coat- Inclination Bearing Total
ings of room-temperature vulcanizing silicone rubber proved ~ B C
- - - - - D E F A ~ £ E. ~ ~
MECHANICAL SYSTEM
to be impractical. Uncured rubber was found to be the 0' 90' 0 9 4 0 0 I 0 1 3 3 3 0 24
most suitable material, and this was used in the majority 75'
60'
5
I
'5 3
3 I
0
I
0
0
I
0
14
6
of the tests. 55' 0 0 I 0 0 0 I
45' 0 12 0 0 I 0 3
Triaxial loading stresses were applied by means of two 30' 0 (3 0 0 I 0 4
30' 90' 0 Q 0 0 0 0 2
devices, one of which utilized mechanical loading and the 45' 90' 0 t3 0 0 0 0 3
other a combination of hydraulic and mechanical loadings. 20' 65' 0 3 0 0 0 0 3
See Figs. 2 and 3. HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
0° 90° 4 5 9
Water was used as the fracturing fluid in all tests. 75' 1 2 3
70' I 3 4
Injection was by means of a manually operated hydraulic 65' 0 4 4
pump. 60'
45'
'4 2 6
1 0 I

RESULTS OF THE MODEL STUDY
Tests were conducted on 106 models, of which 70 were
considered to be successful; that is, the hydraulic fracture
was extended across the existing fracture. The various
types of models are summarized in Tables 2 and 3. Typical
results are presented in Figs. 4 through 15.
Hydraulic fractures were propagated from the initial
slots in all models of cement, Austin stone and Leuders
limestone; in the unsuccessful tests, however, the hydraulic
fractures could not be extended across the existing frac-
87
*A=Leuders lime, B=Austin stone, C=Cement, D=Boise sandstone,
E=Berea sandstone, and F=Milisap sandstone.
tures because of bleed-off of the fracture fluid at the top
and bottom faces or at the ends of the existing fracture.
This was more pronounced in the models tested in the
hydraulic apparatus because of pressure equalization across
the gasket between the confining cell water and the
fracture water.
The initial slots could not be extended in the models
of Boise and Berea sandstones because of the excessive

~ HYDRAULIC
bleed-off through the walls of the initial fracture.
JACK

I HYDRAULIC JACK
I I I I
TOP PLATE

TOP ANVIL

STEEL BALL

CELL

MODEL

~~OTT~~'
C~ONFINING ~,,"RAC
FLUID
FLUID
INLET
INLET BASE PLATE
RAM
FIG. 2-ExPLODED VIEW OF MODEL IN MECHANICAL FIG. 3-CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW OF MODEL IN HYDRAULIC
TESTING ApPARATUS. TESTING ApPARATUS.

204 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

ANGLE OF INCLINATION
The angle of inclination of the eXlstlllg fracture was
varied in the models from 0 ° to 45 ° (see Tables 2 and 3) .
The hydraulic fracture was extended across all angles of
inclination. Examples of this are illustrated in Figs. 4, 5,
6, 9 and 10.
ANGLE OF BEARING
The angle of bearing was varied from 30° to 90° in
the various m0dels. The angle of bearing did not hinder
the extension of the hydraulic fracture, but did have an
effect on the p ath followed by it. In general, the lower
the angle in degrees, the further the path deviated from
the center line of the model. This deviation always was
toward that part of the existing fracture which was nearer
the injection end of the model. See Figs. 5 through 9.
FRACTURE WIDTH
Eleven models were tested which had existing fractures
of finite widths. The hydraulic fractures were extended

AF TIN STOJl"E MODEL WTTH I-lAlIlLlNE FRA CTURf:- NCLE

OF T,' CU'IATIO-; 0°, NCLE OF B £AR lc;C 90°.

Flc. EMENT IvloDEL WITll ATURAL

HAlRLl:-i£ FIlACTUR E.

Fa:. 7- LEUDIm- LTME MODEL WlTlI T-lATRLl NE FRA CTURE-A ' GLE
OF I NCl.lNATIO ' 0· , NCLE OF B EAR ING 75 °.

FTC. 5--LEUDER LUrE MODEL WITH H AlRLlC;E

FRACTURE-ANCLE OF INCLI ATION 0°, FrG. 8- A STlN TONE MODEL WITH I-lAlRl.INE FRACTURE-ANGLE
ANCLE OF BEARING 90·. OF INCLINATIO. 0°, ANGLE OF B EAntNG 75·.

fEBRUARY. 19(;3 205

across all tne tractures regardless of width. However, it
was noted that the path deviated from the center line of
the injection part of the model on all open-fracture
models, but followed the center line on the downstream
portion to the end of the block. See Figs. 12 through 15.
EXTENSION FROM THE INITIAL SLOT
The pressure required to propagate a hydraulic fracture
is a function of the state of stress in the rock at the end
of the initial slot. To propagate a fracture, pressures from
50 to 150 psi greater than the horizontal stresses were
necessary. The extension occurred in all models at the
end, or curved portion, of the initial slot. But the direction
of extension was not always along the longitudinal axis
Flc. 1 AUSTl N TONE l\'IODEL WITH H AIIlLl;\' F.
0
'F RACTU Il E- A:-IGJ.E OF I l'C LI NATlO'I :30 •
A~CL F. OF B EA RING 90° .
206
of the model, although in the majority of cases this was
true. In no model, however, did the direction vary more
than 45° from the longitudinal axis (see Figs. 7, 9 and 10).
STRESS CONDITIONS
The variation in the stress conditions had no effect on
the extension of the hydraulic fracture. The stresses applied
to the models tested in the hydraulic apparatus ranged
from 800 to 1,100 psi in the longitudinal axis and from
o to 650 psi in the other two axes. The majority of tests
was conducted at stresses of 600 psi in these latter
directions.
In the mechanical apparatus the longitudinal stresses
ranged from 700 to 1,142 psi, the vertical stresses varied
F lc . ll - Au T I
FH ACTUIlE- • GLE uF I NC Ll~ATI O
A;XGLE OF Th;ARl i\C 90° .
F , .. 12 L E{;D£Il S LI M I; ."lODEL WITn FRA TURE OF 0.025·[;,; . WIDTH
- ANCLF. OF 1 ' LI ~ATIO;X 0°, ANGL E OF BEARI :,\,C 70 °.
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
from 250 to 500 psi and the horizontal stresses ranged
from 0 to 200 psi.
ORIENTATION OF THE HYDRAULIC FRACTURE
The path the hydraulic fracture followed upon leaving
the initial slot varied so that no general result held for
all models; however, certain trends were observed . The
surface of all fractures remained essentially normal to the
top face. The maximum angle was 10°, but in the majority
the angle was less than 5 0 . See Figs. 6 through 10.
The paths of the fractures varied widely. The most
common was along the center line of the model. See Figs.
4, 5 and 7. Other paths are illustrated in Figs. 6, 8, 9
and 10.
The hydraulic fractures tended to turn and to intersect
the existing fractures at right angles. On the downstream
side the hydraulic fractures departed at right angles to the
existing fractures and gradually, with distance, returned to
a path which was parallel to the original path.
LOCATION OF POINT OF EXIT ON EXISTING FRACTURE
The point of exit of the hydraulic fracture from the
existing fracture appeared to be located in a random
manner. Generally, this point was slightly offset from the
point of entry into the fracture . On one model with the
1/2 -in.-wide fracture, a slight groove was left in the face
of the downstream block. The hydraulic fracture broke
out of the existing fracture in this groove, indicating that
the point of exit is determined by a flaw or fracture in the
wall of the existing fracture.
Nine models were constructed with hairline-width frac-
tures in which the length of the existing fracture was fixed.
This was, in effect, a restricted fracture. The purpose was
to determine if the point of exit was determined by a
stress concentration at the end of the restricted fracture.
The results of these nine tests indicated that the point of
exit was not controlled by the end of the fracture , but by
some particular weakness in the rock matrix or by stress
concentrations.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
THE STATE OF STRESS IN THE MODELS
The models were tested under conditions of triaxial
compressive stresses of unequal magnitude to assure one
principal stress having a minimum value. The magnitudes
of the stresses were such (0 to 1,142 psi) that the mate-
FIG. l3- ,LElJDERS LIME MODEL WITH FRA CTURF: OF ¥:J.IN. WIDTH
--ANGLE OF INCLINATION 0°, ANGLE OF BEARING 90°.
FEBRUARY. 1963
rials were stressed well below the elasticity limit and the
models, therefore, acted as brittle materials.
EXTENSION OF HYDRAULIC FRACTURE
The initial slots which were cut in the ends of the
models had shapes which closely resembled the shape of
an ellipse of great eccentricity. As such, the slots resemble,
on a macroscopic scale, cracks of the type described by
the Griffith theory."'·" According to the Griffith theory,
this would mean that stresses of considerable magnitude
were created at the corners of the crack when the injection
pressure was increased. Ode," in applying the Griffith
theory to fractures in which a hydrostatic pressure is
applied, states that this tension stress at the end of the
crack is very large, provided the ellipse has a very short
minor axis compared to the length of the crack. The net
result is that a pressure only slightly greater than the
component of the stress field normal to the plane of the
slot is necessary to hold open and extend a fracture when
filled with a nonpenetrating fluid. The range of observed
pressures required to extend the fractures in the models
was 500-psi above the stress normal to the fracture plane.
The average pressure differentials were 50 to 150 psi . This
appears to be in close agreement with the theory since
the rocks essentially were impermeable. Therefore, the
fracture could be considered to be extended by a nonpene-
trating fluid.
Griffith theory" also predicts that extension of the
elliptical fracture would be from the end of the fracture
and that the direction of extension should not exceed 30°
from the major axis of the ellipse, depending on the orien-
tation of the fracture with respect to the deforming stresses.
In the study, all hydraulic fractures were initiated at points
on the curved-end portions of the initial slots. The direc-
tion of extension of the fracture , in the majority of the
models, was along the axis of the model. In several models,
however, the hydraulic fractures extended at an angle of
approximately 45 ° to the longitudinal axis of the model.
This suggests that the direction of least stress was not
normal to the plane of the initial slot. The change in
direction could be the result of anyone, or several, of
the following.
The side faces of the model may not be exactly parallel
so that the applied horizontal loadings would result in a
slightly rotated stress field at the initial slot. The walls of
the initial slot may have been squeezed together slightly
on the input end by the application of the horizontal load-
FIG. 14--AlJSTIN STOl"E MODEL WITH FRACTURE' OF ¥:J·IN. WIDTH
-Al"GLE OF INCJ.'(NATION 0", ANGLE OF BEARING 90°.
207
ings. This could result in a stress field which was not
oriented normal to the slot plane. One function of the
aluminum sealant in the slot was to prevent movement
of the walls of the fracture during loading, but it may
not have done this. The frame of the loading base tem-
plate may have been deformed during loading so that the
applied horizontal loading was no longer normal to the
plane of the initial slot. The cutting action of the diamond
saw blade may have caused minute cracks in the surface
of the fracture which resulted in the slightly greater
orientation.
ATTITUDE OF HYDRAULIC FRACTURE
All the theories of hydraulic fracturing imply that the
plane of fracture will be normal to the direction of the
least principal stress. The induced fractures in the models
conformed to this extremely closely, since the maximum
inclination was 10° from a normal to the top face. Most
of the fractures were less than 5° off, or essentially
normal to the top face.
The fractures did not parallel the side face in all the
models (which should be the direction of the least prin-
cipal stress), although the general trend of most of the
FIG. lS--(Top) MODEL WITH EXISTING FRACTURE OF %.IN. WIDTH
ANGLE OF I N CLINATION 0°, A NGLE OF BEARING 90 •
0
-
(BOTTOM) AUSTIN STONE MODEL WITH 2·IN.
EXISTING FRACTURE.
2011
fractures was essentially in this direction. The obliqueness
of certain fractures is believed to have resulted from
eccentric loading which resulted, probably, because the
cutting of the models did not provide true parallel faces.
CROSSING THE EXISTING FRACTURE
It was noted on most of the models that the hydraulic
fractures tended to alter direction so that the plane of the
hydraulic fracture intersected the plane of the existing
fracture at right angles. This is in agreement with the
theory that the plane of the extending hydraulic fracture
should be normal to the least stress. Such a hydraulic
fracture is depicted approaching an existing fracture plane
ab (Fig. 16). Since this is a free surface, the shear stress
on it is zero.
At a point very near the surface ab, the two stresses p .
and P y can be resolved into two components. One com-
ponent of each will be parallel to the surface ab, and one
component will be normal to it. The vector sums of the
two sets of components result in a stress normal to the
surface ab and one parallel to it. If the resultant stress
parallel to the surface is the minor stress, then the advanc-
ing hydraulic fracture should alter its path so as to remain
normal to the direction of least stress. The magnitude of
the stresses p . and P y used in the model tests were such
that this condition should have held for all cases. For
those models where the plane of the hydraulic fracture
intersected at an oblique angle, it is speculated that eccen-
tric loading of the model caused a stress field different
from that postulated before.
The fracturing fluid, having entered the existing frac-
ture, ruptured the opposite surface of the existing fracture
at random locations. This, again, is in agreement with the
Griffith theory'''· 14 of a large number of existing minute
cracks in the surface of a brittle material. The selected
crack which ruptures first should be oriented normal to
the direction of least stress. Upon entering the cracks, the
fluid exerts a pressure against the walls of each crack, and
this should create a maximum critical stress at the end of
the crack, oriented as stated, causing it to rupture first.
Py Py
FIG. 16-STRESS DISTRIBUTIO N AT THE SURFA CE OF AN
EXISTING FRACTURE.
JOURNAJ. OF PETROI.EUM TECHNOLOGY
RELIABILITY OF THE MODEL
The results of the study have indicated that a hydraulic
fracture can be extended across fractures of varying width
and orientation, with a nonpenetrating fluid. Consideration
should be given to the application of these results to rocks
in the earth. That is to say, are the model conditions rep-
resentative of conditions in the earth? The parameters
which should be considered are the material of the model,
the fracturing fluid, the stresses imposed and the boundary
conditions of the model.
The majority of the models were constructed from
natural rock materials. Therefore, the model could be
expected to fail similarly to rocks in the earth-at least
for those rocks which have similar properties. Hydraulic
fracturing is a localized phenomenon which is dependent
upon rock properties in the immediate vicinity of the
fracture.
Water was used as the fracturing fluid in the tests, as
it is in many field operations. The rates of fracture exten-
sion in the models were considerably greater than in field
tests due to the limitations of the equipment. Slower rates,
however, should only affect extension by increasing the
possibility of bleed-off of the fracture fluid into the walls
of the fracture.
The stresses imposed on the models are admittedly
much lower than those existing in the earth at any con-
siderable depth. It does not seem plausible that increases
in the value of the least-confining stress would alter the
results since a fivefold increase had little effect over the
ranges studied. The fracture pressure, of necessity, would
have to be increased to rupture the rock.
An element of rock in the earth at depth can be con-
sidered to be surrounded by an infinite number of similar
elements not necessarily composed of the same material.
When a hydraulic fracture is extended into the rock ele-
ment, the resulting void volume could be created in one
of two ways. The elements and all adjacent ones could be
compressed to accommodate the new void volume, or the
deformation of element adjacent to the expanding walls
of the fracture could be translated into deformations
parallel to the walls of the fracture.
The rock elements beyond the edge of the model were
simulated by the loading system. In both systems, the
least stress was applied by a hydraulic system, so that
small lateral movements of the model resulted in large
increases in pressure in the hydraulic system. Thus, it
seems that the loading system was at least a fair approxi-
mation of the infinite rock, particularly in the hydraulic
cell where the compressibility of water is of the same
order of magnitude as that of the rocks used.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be made as a result of
this investigation.
1. A fracture which is limited in extent-a restricted
fracture-and which lies in a plane normal to the least-
FEBRUARY, 1963
compressive stress III a rock can be propagated in that
plane.
2. The direction of extension and the orientation of
such an extension of a hydraulic fracture will be deter-
mined primarily by the direction and orientation of the
least-compressive stress in the stress field of the rock
around the extending hydraulic fracture.
3. A fracture which lies in a plane that is not normal
to the direction of the least-compressive stress will change
its direction upon being extended by hydraulic pressure so
that its plane will be normal to the latter.
4. A hydraulic fracture can be extended across a plane
of weakness, such as a joint or a fracture, in a rock. The
location of the plane does not alter the direction of the
hydraulic fracture appreciably.
5. The width of an existing fracture will not prevent a
hydraulic fracture from being extended across the existing
fracture, provided the fracturing fluid can be contained
within the existing fracture.
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3. Harrison, Eugene, Kieschnick, W. F., Jr. and McGuire, W. J.:
"The Mechanics of Fracture Induction and Extension", Trans.,
AIME (1954) 201, 252.
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Fracturing", Trans., AIME (1957) 210, 153.
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209