Laboratory Determination of ~ e ' l a t i v epermeabilityt
E. R. ~ROWNSCO~.IBE*,R. L. SLOBOD*, AND B. H. CAUDLE*
ABSTRACT
E a r l ~ e rworks have rndicated that relative perme-
abilities are markedly dependent on the saturat~on,
and more recent studies show that the spatral dis-
tribution of the p h a s e s a t a given saturatron which
will depend upon themechanism used in introducing
the second phase Into the system is also a de-
finite variable. Three important mechanisms, viz,
capillary-pressure displacement, dynamic displace-
ment, and solution-gas displacement, are recog-
nized.
In the capillary-pressure displacement method
the core IS held In a pressurrzed rubber sheath.
Porous diaphragms in capillary contact with both
ends of the core conduct the flow of the wetting
phase; whrle Bow of the non-wetting phase is through
openlngs in the diaphragms. T h e sample is desatur-
ated stepwise by successively increased g a s pres-
ures. T h e flow rates are measured a t each saturad
tlon after the system h a s reached equilrbrium, and
after the relatave permeability values have been
calculated.
INTRODUCTION
Relative remeabllities are fundamental for the
analysis of reservoir problems which concern the
effect of various production procedures on recover
ies. They are needed for any analysls of natural
depletion, natural water drives, water flood, gas
injection, or gravitational drainage. There are
many difficulties, such a s the effects of changes
in fluid properties a t reservoir conditions and of
inhomogeneities in the reservoir medlum, which
must be worked out before laboratory measured
permeabilities can be used a t face value for field
calculations. T h i s paper will be confined to:
1. The probable effect of the desaturating mecha-
nism on the observed relatlve permeability.
2. The reference value used to define the rela-
tive pernieabillty ratio.
3. A description of a capillary-pressure type of
*The A t l m t ~ cRefinlng Co., D a l l a s .
+presented by E. R. Brownscornbe.
Theorehcal considerations Indicate that a porous
sample with an even dlstnbution of capillary s i z e s
would give relahve permeabil~tycurves qurte slmi-
lar to those reported for unconsol~dated sands.
However, naturally occuring sandstones usually
have uneven size drstribution, as can be seen from
typical capillary-pressure curves. T h i s unevenness
results In deviations from a smooth relative perme-
ability curve. Curves for porous media are shown
for 011-gas, for 011-gas and connate water, and for
water-gas systems.
I t is concluded that relative permeab~litiesare
unique for each c a p ~ l l a r ysystem and desaturat~on
method, and that results obtained by one method
can be a p p l ~ e donly with reservations to c a l c u l e
tions of field performance for reservorrs In whrch
the type of depletion does not correspond with the
method used in the laboratory. T h s paper presents
an apparatus and procedure for the capillary-pres-
sure method of measuring relatrve permeab~lity.
relative permeability apparatus, and a discussion
of some of the data obtained.
EFFECT OF DISPLACEMENT
MECHANISM ON RELATIVE PERMEABILITY
From the earlier work in t h i ~ ' f i e l d " ~ the
*~~mar-
ked dependence of relative permeability on satura-
tion i s readily apparent. The results of more re-
cent studies suggest that the location, or, more
particularly, the spatlal distribution of the phases
within the porous system, determines to a great
extent the ability of a particular phase to flow.
Moreover, i t i s conceivable and highly probable
that the spatial distribution of a second phase
whlch enters the capillary system will depend up-
on the mechanism used for ~ t sintroduction. On
this basis, it i s highly suggestive that the method ,
used to introduce a second phase into a core speci-
men niay have an appreciable effect on the observed
relative permeability of the resulting system a t a
' ~ e f e r e n c e sere at the end of the paper.
 LABORATORY DETERMINATICIN O F RELATIVE PERMEABILITY
given saturation. T h r e e iniportant mechanisms which
involve t h e displacement of one fluid by another
a r e readlly apparent. It i s s u g g e s t e d that t h e s e be
referred t o a s : 1, capillary-pressure displacement;
2, dynamic displacement; and 3, solution-gas dis-
placement. Some d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s c o n c e p t h a s
already appeared in the l i t e r a t ~ r e .In~ t h i s earlier
d i s c u s s i o n the term 'static displacement' w a s
u s e d for n h a t i s here c a l l e d 'capillary-Pressure
displacement."
Capillary-pressure Displacement
T h i s method of displacement, described by many
in the literature ( s e e Welge5), is characterized by
a n expllclt pressure difference between t h e p h a s e s ,
made p o s s i b l e by tlie u s e of porous diaphragms
which, under t h e conditions of the experiment, a r e
permeable t o only one of the flulds p r e s e n t in tlie
s y s t e m , a s shown In FIG.1A. In t h e u s u a l a p p l i c a -
tioh t h e core specimen, 1 0 0 percent s a t u r a t e d with
a s i n g l e p h a s e , i s p l a c e d in capillary c o n t a c t with
the porous diaphragms s a t u r a t e d with the s a m e
liquid a s the core. U s e of t h i s desaturation method
for relative permeaLility measurement h a s been de-
s c r i b e d by ~ a s s l e r . ~
In the authors' application .. of t h e method, the
core, in position between the diaphragms a n d s e a l -
e d along the s i d e s , i s placed in contact with a
s e c o n d fluid, i.e., tlie displacing p h a s e , through
openings in t h e porous diaphragms. When pressure
above that a c t i n g on the wetting p h a s e i s applied
to the displacing p h a s e , a controlled pressure dif-
ference between the p h a s e s i s generated, and d i s -
placement occurs. T h e d i s p l a c e d liquid flows from
t h e core through t h e porous diaphragms, whereas
the dlsplaclng fluid i s retained in the s y s t e m as
long a s t h e applied pressure difference between the
p h a s e s d o e s not e x c e e d t h e displacement pressure
of the diaphragm. T h e rate of change in the satura-
tion of the d ~ s p l a c e dliquid d e c r e a s e s t o z e r o a s
equilibriuni i s approached. A s shown in F i g . l A ,
the pressures a c t i n g upon tlie p h a s e s a t both e n d s
of the core a r e adjusted s o t h a t a uniform pressure
difference between the p h a s e s e x i s t s through the
length of the core, with a uniform pressure drop
a c r o s s the core in e a c h p h a s e t o produce a fluid
flow. T h e main variables (omitting core properties)
operating in t h i s s y s t e m a r e pressure difference
between p h a s e s and intkrfacial tension.
Dynamlc Displacement
T h i s mechanism h a s been u s e d by earlier workers
303
in the field102n30a n d i s shown schematically in
Fig.-1B. T h i s method of displacement is charac-
terized by the maintenance of a flow of one or more
fluids through the core s a m p l e in order t o e s t a b l i s h
a steady-state equilibrium, flow being maintained
after equilibrium i s established. T o accomplish
s u c h a displacement, the core is confined in a rub-
ber s l e e v e , a p l a s t i c jacket, or some similar de-
v i c e ; and the d i s p l a c i n g fluid i s forced through the
core under e i t h e r a c o n s t a n t pressure head or a t
c o n s t a n t rate. T h e saturation within t h e core ad-
j u s t s itself in r e s p o n s e to the pressure differences
between t h e p h a s e s generated as a r e s u l t of the
1 CAPILLARY PRESSURE METHOD DYNAMIC METHOD
Wumhon b Ccntmlled By The R e w r e Sohml8on Is Cmhdled By The Rotlo 01
D8ffwenc.e B e t w e n The Phases The R d e 01 Flaw O f Two
Flu~ds
SOLUTION GAS METHOD
0 0 0
Gore Sat~roled Pre~sureOn Sjstem Flow 0 1 Dead 011 Thrwph
w t n L~V. 081 Reduced To Brmg Go3 Out core To obtaon Ralatlva
Pcrmloblllfy Dot0
o f Sdution In Cora
Fig. 1 -
Schematic Representation of Capillary
Pressure, Dyr-amic, and Solution-gas Saturation
Control Used in Three Relative-Permeability Methods
imposed flow conditiohs. At equilibrium, t h e s a t u r a -
tion distribution within the core beconies fixed,
but flow must be continued to maintain t h i s s t e a d y -
s t a t e equilibrium. In dynamic displacement, an
interface between t h e displacing and the displaced
phase e x i s t s which nornially travels through tile
core in a niore o r l e s s piston-like manner, which
moves the major portion of the material to be dis-
placed a h e a d of the interface. After the interface
p a s s e s a point In the s y s t e m , displacement from
t h i s point continues a t a slower rate until the satu-
ration i s c o n s i s t e n t with t h e pressure difference
between the p h a s e s generated l y the flowing p h a s e s
and secondary effects possibly related to the rate
of flow. Some of the variables in t h i s s y s t e m (omit-
ting core properties) a r e ratio of p h a s e s flowing,
pressure gradient, and viscosity.
1 T h i s tenn, in common u s e In the industry, 1s
304 PRODUCTION PRACTICE AND TECHNOLOGY
used in this paper to conform with general usage.
Thus the displacement of a liquid phase by the
g a s evolved within the pore s p a c e s of the core a s
a result of dropping the pressure of the system be-
low the bubble point of the liquid containing the
dissolved g a s represents a solution-gas displace-
ment; A s shown sclien~aticallyin Fig. l C , oil pre-
viously saturated with gas, a t a predetermined
pressure, i s placed in the core. The pressure i s
then dropped to atmospheric, thus resulting in a
certain gas saturation. A very small amount of
dead oil i s then flowed through the core in order
to determine the relative permeability of the core
to oil a t this g a s saturation. Measurements are
usually made between zero g a s saturation and criti-
cal g a s saturation, the latter value being readily
determined. The main varicible here (omitting core
properties) i s the volume of evolved gas.
Application to Field Performance
An examination of the fluid distributions within
a porous system which result from the use of capil-
lary-pressure, dynamic, or solution-gas displace-
ment, provides information which is helpful in ex-
plaining the dependence of relative permeability
on the spatial configuration, a s well a s the satura-
tion of the phases within the core. Thus, in the
capillary-pressure de saturation of a core, the first
liquid disblaced comes from the largest connected
openings; and, for each value of the applied pres-
sure difference between the phases, the liquid in
a l l non-isolated openings larger than that opening
which p o s s e s s e s a capillary pressure equal to the
applied pressure i s displaced, assuming the wet-
tlng phase to be continuous. Since these larger
capillary flow channels contribute most of the flow
passages responsible for permeability of the core,
blockage of flow by the entrance of a second phase
In these larger openings results in a marked de-
crease in the r e l a t ~ v epermeability. T h e dynamic-
displacement mechanism yields somewhat similar
results because pressure difference between the
phases generated by the imposed flow cond~tions
a c t s to displacethe liquid from the larger openings
first. However, a s a result of the movement of an
interface through - the core, and because of the pres-
ence of pressure gradients across the core the final
distribution of the phases i s probably somewhat
different from that established by capillary-pressure
difference alone. Consequently, the relative perme-
a b i l ~ t ydecrease with saturation change should re-
flect these differences when compared with results
obtained by the capillary-pressure method. T h e
solution-gas displacement, on the other hand,
should give a very different result. For the reason
that g a s may come out of solution throughout the
system, the first fluid displaced by the g- a s comes
from a l l parts of the porous system, not from anly
the larger capillaries. This behavior should mean
that the relative permeability of the displaced phase
will not decrease s o rapidly with desaturation a s
in the previously ment~onedmethods. At the pre-
s e n t time only a few relative-permeability determi-
nations have been made by a l l three of these meth-
ods on the same core samples. However, Fig. 2
shows data on an individual specimen obtained
with the 3 different methods. In each case oil and
Fig. 2 - A Comparison of Relative Permeabilities
Obtdined by Three Different Methods
(CW= Connate Water Present in Each Core)
g a s were the flowing phases, with connate water
present a s a static phase. The differences obser-
ved in the oil curves obtained by the capillary-pres-
sure and dynamic methods are typical
..
of the simi-
lar comparisons which have s o far been made, in
that the curve obtained by the dydamic method
falls under the one obtained by the ~ a ~ i l l a r ~ - ~ r e s -
sure method until saturation value close to the
cross-over point of the oil and g a s curves i s reach-
ed, whereat the two curves coincide. These data
show very little difference between the oil perme-
ability curves obtained by the capillary-pressure
and solution-gas methods. Fig. 3 presents similar
data for capillary-pressure and solution-gas meth-
ods in which the resulting oil-permeability curves
 LABORATORY DETERMINATION OF RELATIVE PERMEABILITY
were widely different. In general, i t a p p e a r s that
the more permeable t h e core, the l e s s difference
there will b e between t h e s e two methods. In the
application of experimental curves, i t s e e m s rea-
s o n a b l e that t h e different niethods should b e used
t o correspond to different types of problems which
a r e being studied in the reservoir. F o r example,
the capillary-pressure displacement method might
b e u s e d for reservoir a c c u ~ n u l a t i o n problems, or
for problems involving gravitational readjustments
% OIL SATURATION
Fig. 3 -Illustrating Large Differences in Relative
'
Permeability to O i l at Low Gas Saturations Some-
times Obtained in Tight Cores
(This Core i s Devonian Lime from West Texas)
within the reservoir. T h e dynamic method would
appear t o be the one which should be u s e d when
natural water drive, water flood, or g a s injection
i s involved; while s t u d i e s by t h e solution-gas
method should be used for natural depletion prob-
lems, particularly' in the range above critical g a s
saturation. It would s e e m t o be particularly ques-
tionable t o use the ordinary capillary-pressure
c u r v e s for solution gas-drive calculations, e s p e -
c i a l l y if t h e core s p e c i m e n s a r e of low perme-
ability.
Other displacement mechanisms, or combinations
of the foregoing mechanisms, may e x i s t which w i l l
r e s u l t in s t i l l different s p a t i a l arrangements of
liquids in the pore space. A r e v e r s a l of the order
of operations with a s s o c i a t e d h y s t e r e s i s effects
must a l s o b e considered in laboratory s t u d i e s of
relative On t h e b a s i s of present know-
ledge, the most reliable laboratory approach i s to
simulate the field performance, a l w a y s working in
one direction from virgin reservoir conditions to
depletion, thereby avoiding complicating h y s t e r e s i s
effects.
In t h e average reservoir, not only one but a l l
three of t h e mechanisms for displacing oil will b e
in operation for a t l e a s t a portion of the life of the
field; and, in many c a s e s , s e v e r a l may be in opera-
tion concurrently. In principle, the determination
of the r e l a t i v e - ~ e r m e a b i l i t ~relations for the en-
tire life of the field from laboratory d a t a would re-
quire a knowledge of the effect of: 1, the method
of d e s a k r a t i o n ; 2, the previous history; and 3, the
siniultaneous a c t i o n of s e v e r a l desaturating mecha-
nisnis on relatiye ~ e r n ~ e a b i l i In t ~ .practice, how-
ever, the d a t a from various methods will probably
overlap considerably, s o t h a t the r e s u l t s of one
method, s u c h a s the capillary-pressure or the dyna-
m i c d i s p l a c e m e n t procedure, nlay apply over a wide
range- of stauration values. It is understood, of
course, t h a t certain portions of the s y s t e m , s u c h
a s t h a t represented by solution-gas d ~ s p l a c e m e n t
in t h e early part of the productive life of t h e field
may require s p e c i a l s t u d i e s t o determine the re-
lative permeability relations applicable t o the
s p e c i a l c a s e in question.
The Base for k e l a t ~ v ePermeabll~tyHatlo
Relative permeability h a s been defined a s the
ratio of the permeability to a fluid a t a given s a t u -
ration divided by the permeability to the s a m e fluld
a t 1 0 0 percent saturation of that fluid.' However,
in almost every c a s e of a naturally occurring porous
niedium, the specific pernieabilities to the varlous
p h a s e s , s u c h a s g a s , oil, and water, will not be
identical b e c a u s e of Iilinkenberg a n d liydration
effects. Ilence, if dried c o r e s a r e u s e d for determi-
nation of the permeability t o a i r or 011 a t 1 0 0 per-
c e n t saturation, t h e s e v a l u e s are not comparable
to d a t a obtained on the sanie core for a i r and oil
when brine i s present. Any single liquid should
give the s a m e permeability for a porous medium,
a s long a s the properties of the porous medium
have not been altered. However, in the instance
j u s t c i t e d , capillary structure i s altered by the
swelling of the hydratable materials in the pres-
e n c e of brine. Consequently, it is proposed t h a t
t h e relative permeability of oil or g a s be defined
306 PRODUCTION PRACTICE AND TECHNOLOGY
I
a s the ratio of the effective permeability of oil or
g a s a t a given saturation divided by t h e permea-
bility t o reservoir brine a t 1 0 0 percent saturation.
T h u s , the relative permeability t o oil becomes the
t o oil- a t a given saturation, divided
by the permeability t o brine; and the relative per-
s'?
meability t o g a s becomes t h e to gas
a t a given saturation, divided by the permeability
LIQUID
t o brine. In the c a s e of relative permeability t o RESERVOIR
g a s , a correction should further b e made for t h e
Klinkenberg effect.
EXPERIMENTAL
Apparatus and Method Requirements
In the development of the apparatus a n d method
for the determination of relative pernieabilities by
the capillary-pressure desaturation method, the
general aim w a s t o develop a s y s t e m similar t o
t h a t described by H a s s l e r , but one in which two
p h a s e s flow simultaneously through t h e core sample
wlth the s a m e pressure differential between the
p h a s e s being maintained a t a l l points in the core,
in order to a s s u r e uniform saturation a n d t o a v o i d
e n d effects. T h e permeability to e a c h p h a s e i s
measured a t various saturation values. In order to
Fig. 4 -
Flow Diagram of the Apparatus for Rela-
tive-permeability Measurements by the Capillary-
carry out the desaturation of t h e core by t h i s meth-
pressure Method
od, the non-wetting p h a s e must b e in contact with
the sample a n d under a higher mean pressure than trol the fluid flows a n d pressure differentials, a r e
t h a t acting on the wetting p h a s e within the core. obtained either by t h e u s e of a s e r i e s of water and
Under t h e s e conditions the displaced wetting p h a s e mercury manostats or by the u s e of precision-type
p a s s e s through the semi-permeable membrane which pressure regulators. T h e s e g a s p r e s s u r e s a r e trans-
i s mounted in capillary contact with e a c h end of ferred t o the flowing-liquid p h a s e s a t the gas-liquid
t h e core. In addition, a t the e n d s of the core, means i n t e r f a c e s in the liquid-flow pipettes. T h e wetting
a r e provided for the flow of t h e non-wetting phase p h a s e flows through t h e core from pipette 1 and into
into and out of t h e sample. T h e two p h a s e s a r e pipette 2.111 t h i s p r o c e s s pipette 1 i s emptying from
kept In completely s e p a r a t e s y s t e m s , joining only t h e zero point and plpette 2 i s f i l l ~ n gfrom the zero
in t h e core sample, in order t o measure t h e flow point as shown In Fig. 4. When pipette 1 i s empty
r a t e s of e a c h p h a s e , to determine the saturation and pipette 2 i s full, t h e flow i s momentarily inter-
value by a material-balance method, t o control t h e r u p t e d s o that pipette 1 c a n be refilled a n d pipette 2
pressure gradlent, and t o maintain a uniform pres- emptied, u s i n g the liquid reservoir for both the sup-
s u r e differential between the p h a s e s . A l s o n e c e s - ply and storage of liquid. In t h i s way t h e total vol-
s a r y i s a method for the a c c u r a t e measurement of ume of the liquid in the s y s t e m i s k e p t constant
the p r e s s u r e s exerted by e a c h phase a t the two throughout the study. T h e flow rate of the wetting
e n d s of the core, u s i n g g a g e s with volume d i s - p h a s e , when the core is a t equilibrium conditions,
placements s m a l l enough not t o introduce an ap- i s obtainedfrcm p i p e t t e s 1 a n d 2 , which c a n be read
preciable error i n the measurement of the satura- t o approximately 0.001 ml. T h e desaturation of the
tion value of t h e sample. core IS determined from t h e i n c r e a s e d volunle In
Descnption of Apparatus t h e reservoir pipette after the flow p i p e t t e s have
Fig. 4 is a flow diagram showing t h e p a t h s of the been s e t a t zero. T h e g a s p h a s e i s fed directly
fluid p h a s e s through the core and measuring d e - through the manifold from the m a n o s t a t s to the core
v i c e s . T h e g a s p r e s s u r e s (1,2,3, and 4) which con- sample, with t h e output g a s being ~ a s s e dthrough
 LABORATORY DETERMINATION O F RELATIVE PERMEABILITY 307

a vertical gas-flow pipette. The walls of this pip- sample a s long a s the pressure on the non-wetting
ette are wet with an aerosol solution, and a sniall phase i s higher than that on the wetting phase a t
amount of the solution i s retained in the bottom of each end of the core. The four pressures are s e t
the pipette to form bubbles which travel up the to glve the pressure difference between phases
pipette a s gas flows through. By timing the travel and the pressure differential across the core which
of these bubbles up the tube, the rate of gas flow i s necessary to produce the desired saturation and
i s readily measured. The pressures exerted by the flow rate in the core sample. When a system i s
phase a t each end of the core are measured by a used in which water or brine is a flowing phase,
pressure gage connected to taps a t the faces of the faces of the contact butts are made of the natu-
the core. From these four pressures, the pressure rally water-wet ceramic materials; but, if the phases
drop across the core and the pressure difference are oil a n d g- a s (with or without connate water pres-
between the phases may be calculated. The pres- ent a s a static phase), the porous material i s made
sure gage used 1s of the metal diaphragm type, preferentially oil-wet by treatment with a suitable
incorporating an electronic circuit with a variable agent.@
d-c output voltage which may be read on a potentio- G.
meter (recording or manual type).* The gage h a s
a volume change of about 1 cu nlnl per 1 psi of ap-
plied pressure.
The core sample, approxiniately 2 cnl in diameter
and 2 to 3 cm In length, is held in a Hassler type
of holder which consists of a rubber sleeve in-
serted into a metal tube and conipressed around
the s i d e s of the core by air or water pressure (Fig.
5). Butt pleces made of lucite faced with a p o r o u s
material are placed a t e a c h end of the core in order
to conduct the flow and separate the phases. An un-
glazed porcelain (such a s Coors No. 750 or S e l a s
No. 102) i s the porous material generally used
In the construction of these pieces. The wetting
Fig. 5 - Schematic Diagram of Arrangement of Core
and Contact Butts in Holder
or external phase flow i s conducted to and from the
Capillary-pressure Method
core f a c e s through the porous material. An isolated
A. "Kleenex" tissue capillary contact mater ~ a l .
button of the same porous material allows the pres-
6. Pressure tap for wetting phase, porous ceramlc
sure of the wetting phase to be ~ r ~ e a s u r eadt each
mater~al.
end of the core. 'The nori-wetting phase flow path
C. Semi-permeable membrane, porous cercirnic ma-
i s connected directly to the faces of the core by terial.
holes drilled through the porous diaphragm, and
D. "Lucite" butt pieces.
thls phase is somewhat unifornily distributed over
E. Rubber sheath of Hassler-type core holder.
t h e cross-sectional area of the core by. grooves
- F. Metal c y l ~ n d e r of Hassler-type core holder.
cut in the face of the ceramic. The pressure taps
for thls phase are a l s o drilled through to the core
G. Pressure applied t o sheath t o hold core and
butts.
faces. A layer of "Kleenex" tissue 1s used to in-
H. Metal f a c e plate of Hassler-type core holder.
sure capillary contact between, the faces of the
core and the porous diap11ra~ms.tThus, two-phase
I. F l o w channel of non-wettlng phase, through
flow may be conducted through the core saniples "L uc ite" and ceramic.
with the phases being separated outside of the
2. Pressure tap for wetting phase.

*Tr~mount Serles 'N" Dlfferent~alPressure Gage or Electro

3. F l o w channel for wetting phase, t o under s ~ d e
Pressuregraph Model 3700A w ~ t hrnomfied output c~rcult. of ceramlc.
tA paste o f a finely d ~ v l d e d substance, such as lnfusorlal 4. Pressure tap for non-wetting phase, through
It
earth, mlght also be used for thls purpose, but experimental
work h a s shown that the Auld flow w ~ l ld e p o s ~ tparhcles o f
L uc ite" and ceramlc.
thlsmaterlal Into the cap~llarysy stemof the core, thus changlng
the pore structure and the r e l a t ~ v epermeeb~lltyvalues of the
sanple. 'G.E. Dnfilrn No. 9977 or D C No. 1107 Slllcone
308 PRODUCTION PRACTICE AND TECHNOLOGY
Operational Procedure
If, for example, a n oil-gas s y s t e m is u s e d with
a core saniple containing no connate water, naphtha
and a i r are the flowing p h a s e s ; and c o n t a c t butts
w l i ~ c h contain e i t h e r preferentially water-wet or
preferentially oil-wet porous diaphragms may be
used t o conduct t h e wetting-phase flow. T h e core
a n d contact b u t t s a r e s a t u r a t e d with naphtha under
vacuunl, a n d the weight of t h e s a t u r a t e d core i s
-
cornparedwith t h e dry weight, in order to determine
t h e porosity. T h e core a n d butts a r e then mounted
in the I I a s s l e r type of holder, a s shown in Fig. 5;
and the flow lines and pressure t a p s a r e connected
to the core a s s e m b l y by m e a n s of small-bore plas-
tic tubing. T h e pressure of t h e naphtha p h a s e on
e a c h end of t h e core is s e t to produce a flow through
t h e core. T h e a i r pressure on each end of t h e core
i s s e t t o reproduce t h e s a m e pressure drop a c r o s s
the core sample a s that in the naphtha p h a s e , w h ~ c h
a t t h e s a m e time maintains a uniform pressure dif-
ference between the p h a s e s a t a l l points in the
core. T h e a i r pressure i s a l w a y s kept a t l e a s t s e v -
e r a l hundredths of a pound over that of the naphtha
in order to k e e p the p h a s e s in their respective
flow c h a n n e l s in t h e butt p i e c e s . Since t h i s s m a l l
pressure difference between t h e p h a s e s I S not us-
ually enough t o d e s a t u i a t e t h e core, no a i r will
flow. Consequently, a measurement of the naphtha
flow r a t e and pressure will give the effective pernie-
ability of the core a t 1 0 0 percent liquid saturatlon
by the application of Darcy's L a w ? In c o r e s par-
tially desaturated by s u c h small p r e s s u r e s , the
specific pern,eability ( s a m e a s the eflective perme-
ability a t 1 0 0 - p e r c e n t saturatlon) of t h e core t o
naphtha may be obtained with a l ~ q u i dpermeanleter
and the value u s e d a s a check on, o r In place of,
that obtained in t h e relative-pernieabillty apparatus.
T h e g a s p r e s s u r e s a r e then changed to r a i s e the
pressure difference between the p h a s e s , and t h u s
reduce the saturation in t h e core by emptying t h e
pores a capillary pressure lower than the applied
pressure difference between the p h a s e s . T h e s e
g a s p r e s s u r e s a r e a g a i n adjusted to Lmpose the
same pressure gradlent a c r o s s the core a s that
--
L
* ~ a r c y ' slaw K = QP -
PA
where I n
Q = flow rate, cublc cent~metersper second.
p = vlscoslty, centlpolses.
L = length, cent~meters.
P = pressure across core, atmospheres.
A = c r o s s - s e c t ~ o narea of core, square centlmeters.
K = permeab~llty,darcys.
~ r o d u c e d in the naphtha phase. T h e core is al-
lowed t o come t o equilibrium under t h e s e conditions
before flow-rate n i e a s u r e n ~ e n t sa r e made. T h e ap-
proach to an equilibrated saturation condition i s
followed by observing the flow r a t e s of the naphtha
p h a s e into and out of t h e sample. Until a saturation
equilibrium i s reached, the flow out of t h e core will
b e the f a s t e r of the two; but a t an equilibrium con-
dition, equal flow r a t e s will be observed. When t h e
p i p e t t e s conducting t h e s e flows (pipettes 1 and 2
in Fig. 4) a r e r e s e t a t zero, the volume of naphtha
d i s p l a c e d from the core s i n c e the l a s t s e t t i n g may
b e read in t h e liquid reservoir pipette; and from
t h e s e d a t a the saturation value of the core a t t h i s
point niay b e calculated. T h e naphtha flow r a t e is
again measured, and the effective permeability for
the partial saturation value 1s calculated. From
t h i s the relative permeability i s calculated. If g a s
i s flowing in a measurable quantity, the rate i s de-
ternlined on the vertical gas-Row pipette with aero-
s o l bubbles. S i n i ~ l a rc a l c u l a t i o n s give the relative
permeability t o g a s v a l u e s for t h i s s a m e saturation,
using the specific pern~eabilityto water a s a b a s i s
for the calculation. ,
T h e g a s p r e s s u r e s a r e a g a i n r a i s e d in order to
desaturate the core further, a n d relative-pernieability
v a l u e s for t h i s new saturation value are again
determined. T h i s s t e p w i s e procedure. i s carried on
until the amount of n a p h t l ~ ain the core can no long-
e r be appreciably reduced by lncreaslng the pres-
s u r e difference between the p h a s e s ; a t t h i s polnt,
t h e relative permeability to naphtha will be ap-
proaching zero. T h e core sample IS re~rioved and
weighed t o determine accurately t h e final s a t u r a -
tion value. From this final value, the experirnen-
tally observed saturations, a s obtalned from t h e
reservoir p i p e t t e s throughout the determination,
may be corrected, if n e c e s s a r y . T h e remainder of
t h e gas-relative-permeability curve (from residual
naphtha to 100-percent g a s saturation) c a n be ob-
tained, if desired, by the u s e of a g a s permeanieter.
B e c a u s e the liquid saturation cannot b e reduced
by flow, h e a t and vacuum a r e generally u s e d to re-
duce t h e saturation of the liquid phase. T h e rela-
tive permeability d a t a obtained a r e plotted ' a s a
function of the liquid s a t u r a t i o n , and curves for
both t h e liquid and gas-relatlve-penneability val-
u e s a r e drawn a s in F i g . 6.
When an oil-gas s y s t e m i s used with a core con-
taining connate water a s a s t a t i c p h a s e , contact
b u t t s having perferentially oil-wet porous dia-
 LABORATORY DETERMINATION O F RELATIVE PERMEABILITY
I
% WATER SATURATION
Fig. 6 - Reproducibility of the Capillary-pressure-
Relative-permeability Values
Three Determinations on the Same Sample
phragms must be used in order to prevent any flow
of water out of the core and into tlie oil-flow sys-
tem. The procedure used with this three-phase
system is identical with that discussed for the
oil-gas system, except that the sample i s origin-
ally saturated with oil and connate water. The re-
sulting relative-pernieability curves are plotted a s
a function of total liquid saturation, and the speci-
fic pernleability to water i s again used for the cal-
culation of the oil-relative-permeability values.
Reproducibility of the R e s u l t s
The data plotted In Fig. 6 are the results of 3
determinations on a single core, using a fresti-
water-air system, and show the reproducibility
obtained in this method, wtth the run numbers be-
s i d e each data point.
The largest source of error in relative-permea-
bility measurements of this type I S in the mea-
surenient of the pressures which a c t upon tlie core
to produce the fluid flow. Inasniuch a s the accuracy
of the pressure-measuring device used was 0.01
psi, and a s the pressure gradient necessary to in-
duce a measurable flow decreases with Increasing
effective permeability, it is apparent that the ex-
perimental error in the relatlve pernleabil~tyvalues
will be greater for cores of high permeability and
in the region of high relative-permeability values.
Thus, errors up to 1 0 percent of the value have
been experienced on the more pern~eablecores at
309
high relative permeability; while in the range be-
low 0.1 relative pernleability, the largest errors
observed have been l e s s than 3 percent of the
number. The deternllnation of the saturation value
for any relative permeability poin't i s within ap-
proximately 1 percent of the pore space.
There i s a l s o some question a s to the validity
of the wetting-phase relative-permeability values
in the region above critical gas saturation, based
bn the theoretical consideration that the non-wetting
fluid niust flow in order for desaturation to take
place; whereas literal interpretation of the curve
precludes this. However, i t i s possible that the
non-wetting phase 1s flowing a t these h~gllerliquid
saturations, but a t a rate too small to measure in
the apparatus.
Experimental L ~ m i t sof the Apparatus
The apparatus now in use is capable of producing
pressures up to 15 psi on the non-wettlng phase,
and pressure gradients up to several pounds for
producing flow through the core. Except for very
in~pernleable cores, this will produce a pressure
diflerence between the phases large enough to re-
duce the sample to a wetting-phase relative-pernle-
ablllty value of approximately zero. The limits,
in terms of permeability of samples which can be
used with this method are not exactly known; but
limestone cores with permeabilities a s low a s 1
millidarcy, and sandstone cores with permeabilities
a s high a s 600 millidarcys, have been successfully
used.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Since the relationship between fluid flow rate
and saturation in a porous medium is essentially
a capillary phenomenon, i t IS evident that any tlieo-
retical considerations leading to, or interpretations
of, relative-permeabil~tydata niust be looked upon
from this angle. The simplest c a s e of flow In such
a system would be in a single capillary tube. Mar-
tinelli, Putnam, and Lockhart7 present curves
which glve relative-permeability data for the two-
phase flow through such a tube (Fig. 7). In t h i ~
plot, the change of the wetting-phase permeability
with saturation follows essentially a straight 11ne
to the 10-percent saturation value, where it curves
sharply toward a zero value. The companion curve,
for the non-wetting phase, increases slowly with
decreasing wetting-phase saturation a t first; and
then increases rapidly, approaching a relative per-
meability value of unity.
3 10 PRODUCTION PRACTICE AND TECHNOLOGY
I
% LIQUID SATURATION
Fig.7- Relative Permeability of a Single Capillary
Tube
(From Martinelli, Putnam, and Lockhart)
Flg. 8 shows a similar s e t of relative pernleabili-
ty curves, obtained wit11 the method described in
this paper, for a synthetic core made of fused alun-
dum, in which the alunduni grains were alniost uni-
form in s i z e , thus tending to produce capillaries
in the sample a l s o of uniform size. The relative
permea6ility of the wettingphase for this core a l s o
decreases almost linearly with saturation, but it
approaches a zero value a t a higher saturation be-
cause the complex alundum capillary system bas
a higher residual-liquid content than does a simple
capillary-tube system.
Ilowever, a different type of curve i s to be ex-
pected for systems which consist of capillary open-
ings of widely varying s i z e s , a s are found in natu-
ral porous media. When this type of system i s de-
saturated by the capillary-pressure method, the
larger caplllarles are the first to be emptied of the
wetting phase, leaving the smaller capillaries to
carry the flow of this phase. From a consideration
of Poiseulle's Law* and the formula for the volume
of a cylinder, it may be seen that the flow rate
would vary a s the fourth power of the radius of the
capillary, while the volume would vary only by the
square of this quantity. If a system under study
consisted of a s e r i e s of capillaries, varying evenly
in diameter from the largest to the smallest, a wet-
ting-phase relative permeability .would decrease
a s the square of the saturation, and would result
in a parabolic curve of the type kr=S2. In Fig. 9

"0 02 04 06 08 10
LlQLllD SATURATION

Fig. 9 -
Comparison of Some Experimental and
Theoretical Relative-permeability Curves
this curve IS plotted with aLscissa (S) representing
the fraction of the pore volume occupied by the flow-
% OIL SATURATION
*polseulie's law v = d t

Fig. 8 - Relative Permeability of a Synthetic Core w h e r e rn

V = volume of f l u ~ d .
811 1
7) = vlscoslty.
of a Relatively Uniform Pore Size P = pressure. I = length.
Capillary-pressure Method r = rad~us. t = tlme.
 LABORATORY DETERMINATION O F RELATIVE PERMEABILITY 3 11

ingphase, and the ordinate ( h ) representing relative

p e r n ~ e a b i l i t ~Also
. shown in Fig.9 are relative per-
meability curves for: 1, a single capillary tube (re-
drawn fromFig.7); 2 , a core of unconsolidated sand
from a previous publication:and,3, a synthetic core
of fused alundunr in wliicli a range of particle s i z e s
was used to give a system of varied capillary sizes.
Although this theoretical relative permeability
curve differs markedly from the essentially straight
line which was obtained with the single capillary
tube, it i s quite similar in shape to the curves for
both, the unconsolidated sand and the synthetic
core. hloreover, inasmuch a s the curve kr=S2 pre-
supposes that the total volume of the fluid contri-
butes to the fluid flow, correction of this curve for
the 25 percent of the pore volume occupied by the
connate water will give a close agreement between
the theoretical curve and the curve for the uncon-
solidated sand. The fact that the relative-permea-
bility curve for the synthetic core decreases more
rapidly with saturation than does that for the un-
consolidated sand with a similar connate water
content i s probably due to the presence of a greater
proportion of large openings in the synthetic ma-
terial.
T h i s same concept, i.e., that, a s capillaries in-
crease in s i z e they contribute proportionally more
to flow than to porosity, i s borne out by the curves % PORE SPACE
in Fig. 10. These curves represent a s e r i e s of wet- 'Fig. 11 - Capillary-pressure Curves of Some
Reservoir Sandstones

ting-phase relative-permeability determinations on

a consolidated sandstone core. During the first
three determinations, the capillary system of the
core was progressively plugged by particles of in-
fusorial earth (which was used a s a contact ma-
terial) being carried into the sample by the fluid
'flow. T h i s plugging action acted to decrease the
s i z e of the capillaries in which the particles were
lodged, and affected the larger capillary openings to
the greatest degree. T h i s action caused the curves to
become progressively more Rat and to approach the
curve for the system of essentially one s i z e capil-
laries, a s shown in Fig. 8. The fourth determination
was made using 'Kleenex" as a capillary contact
material; and, a s no changes in the capillary were
introduced, the results fall within experimental
"/o LIQUID SATURATION
Fig. 10 - E h c t of Plugging on the Relative
Permeability of a Sample
error of those obtained in the third run. Confirmation
of the existence of plugging in the first three runs
i s shown by the decrease in the air permeability
Capillary-pressure Method to one-third i t s original value.
312 PRQDUCTION PRACTICE AND TECHNOLOGY

% LlQUlD SATURATION % TOTAL LlQUlD SATURATION

Fig. 12 Fig. 13

% TOTAL LlQUlD SATURATION

% TOTAL LlQUlD SATURATION
Fig. 14 Fig. 15
Capillory-pressure Relative Permeability of a Reservoir Sandstone
(CW = Connclte Water Present)

Although the c u r v e s shown in Fig. 9 a r e of the most naturally occurring s a n d s t o n e s , ~ a l t h o u g hthey

type which could be expected with a capillary s y s -
tem of a uniform distribution of capillary s i z e s ,
most of the c u r v e s obtained on s a m p l e s of natural
s a n d s t o n e formations deviate from t h e s e smooth
curves, a s c a n be s e e n in F i g . 1 2 through 15. T h e s e
d e v i a t i o n s a r e thought t o be c a u s e d by t h e f a c t t h a t
have a wide range of c a p i l l a r y s i z e s , d o not have
an e v e n distribution of t h e s e s i z e s . T h i s effect i s
demonstrated in some c o r e s t o a marked degree by
t h e presence of a large number of openings with
the s a m e diameter, and by t h e a b s e n c e of other
s i z e openings generally expected t o be present.
 LABORATORY DETERMINATION O F RELATIVE PERMEABILITY
I
T h i s property i s shown by the capillary-pressure
c u r v e s in F i g . 11,which a r e for 3 different reservoir
samples. T h e significance of t h e different s h a p e s
of t h e s e c u r v e s i s interpreted below. Curve 1 re-
p r e s e n t s a capillary s y s t e m consisting mainly of
8 relatively large openings, with capillary p r e s s u r e s
l e s s than 1 psi; w h e r e a s curve 2 s h o w s the pre-
s e n c e of two groups of c a p i l l a r i e s characterized by
capillary p r e s s u r e s of 0.5 p s i a n d 7 p s i , with a s k i p
in s i z e s between the two. Curve 3 i s for a s y s -
ten1 having e s s e n t i a l l y no ,openings, with a capil-
lary pressure of l e s s thani'2 p s i , a n d with a fairly
even gradation in sizesdfronl t h e s e down to the
s m a l l e s t s i z e present. :i
il
Relative-permeability Curves for Oil and G a s in
the P r e s e n c e o f Co~ate;water-Capillary-pressure
Desaturation
F i g . 1 2 through 15 show t h e r e s u l t s a n d determi-
nations of relative permeabilities t o oil and g a s
with connate water present, in which a capillary-
pressure method i s u s e d on 4 natural s a n d s t o n e
samples. T h e s e core s p e c i m e n s had permeabilities
to a i r ranging from 3 2 md toG8 0 0 md, and specific
permeabilities to water (brine) ranging from 19 md
t o 4 5 9 md. I t c a n be s e e n that, with the exception
of the specimen represented in Fig. 1 4 , t h e s e sand-
s t o n e s were bentonitic in nature a s shown by the
large differences in the a i r a n d water specific perme-
abilities. T h e core sample represented in F i g . 1 4
g a v e v e r y little difference between the a i r and water
specific permeabilities, and n o difference (within
experimental error) between the water and oil s p e c i -
fic permeabilities. In t h i s latter c a s e no differences
should be observed in the relative permeabilities
t o oil and t o water for t h i s sample. However, no
determinations have been made on t h i s core with-
out the presence of connate water.
CONCLUSIONS . distribution in the various pore s i z e s of a core, i t
From the theoretical considerations a n d experi-
mental d a t a presented, i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e type of
desaturation technique u s e d in obtaining saturation
affects the type of relative-permeabili;y c u r v e s ob-
tained. A unit h a s been d e s c r i b e d for\*easuring re-
lative permeabilities by the capillary-pressure-de-
saturation method, and some d a t a obtained by t h i s
method have been d i s c u s s e d . I t i s s u g g e s t e d that,
inasmuch a s materials of c o r e s a r e affected by
brine, a l l relative permeabilities be taken a s a
ratio of the effective permeability t o a p h a s e , di-
313
vided by t h e specific permeability to reservoir
brine.
REFERENCES
' Morse, Terwilliger, and Yuster: Producers Monthly
11 [lo] 19 (1947).
2 ~ e v e r e t t M.C;
, L e w i s , W. B: S t e a d y F l o w of G a s -
oil-water Mixtures through Unconsolidated Sands,
Trans. Am. Inst. Mzning Met. Engrs. (Petroleum
Development and Technology) 142, 1 0 7 (1941).
3 ~ y c o f fand B o t s e t : P h y s i c s 7, 3 2 5 (1936).
4Brownscombe, E. R; Slobod, R. L., s e e below.
Welge, H. J: Displacement of Oil from P o r o u s
Media by Water o r , Gas, Trans. Am. l n s t . Minzng
Met. Enars. (Petroleum Development and Technol-
o g y ) 179: 1 3 3 (1949)..
Hassler, G. L: U. S. Patent No. 2,345,935, April
4, (1944).
'Rlartinelli, Putnam, and Lockhart: Trans. Am.
Inst. Chem. Engrs. 42, 681 (1946).
' A P I c o d e ' 27: Standard P r o c e d u r e s for Deter-
mining Permeability of P o r o u s Media, 2nd edn.,
April (1942).
DISCUSSION
R. II. Z i n s z e r (Union Oil Conlpany of California,
Wilmington, Calif.): T h e authors a r e to b e com-
mended on their developnlent of a broader perme-
'
ability c o n c e p t which recognizes three methods
for establishing s t a t e s of fluid saturation in a core.
T h i s work i n d i c a t e s that the relative permeability
for a particular phase is not implicitly a function
of the saturation, but i s a l s o dependent on the na-
ture of fluid distribution in the p6res. In light of
t h i s broader permeability concept, LQt becomes im-
portant to know the nature of the fluid distribution
throughout t h e core, and a l s o which method of s a t u -
ration most c l o s e l y represents reservoir data.
A s a means of s p e c u l a t i n g on the type of fluid
i s of i n t e r e s t to analyze the relative permeability
curves for a core and a capillary, F i g . 6 and 7. I
would like t o c a l l your attention to Fig. 6 a t a wet-
ting-phase saturation of 35 percent. T h e relative
permeability of the wetting phase a t t h i s saturation
h a s approached
-- a zero value, where the capillary
pressure for t h i s saturation would correspond t o
s m a l l pore s i z e s . Apparently t h i s pore s i z e , and
smaller, defined by the capillary pressure d o not
effectively contribute to the wetting-phase perme-
ability. On the other hand, the relqtive permeability

PRODUCTION PRACTICE AND TECHNOLOGY
to the non-wetting phase has decreased to 75 per-
cent a t 35-percent brine saturation. The inability
of 35-percent brine saturation to contribute to the
relative permeability of the water phase, yet cause
a decrease to 75 percent for the non-wetting phase,
appears a s an inconsistency.
T h l s can possibly be explained by referring to
the single-capillary relative permeability curve
(Fig. 7) by Putnam: Lockhart, and Martinelli. For
a comparative!y large capillary the saturition of
the wettlng phase i s 9 percent when the relative
permeability i s 75 percent. T h i s result for the single
capillary would then suggest that, a t 35-percent
brine saturation in the core, 9 percent of the brine
i s associated with the larger pore sizes.Conversely,
then, a volume of oil equal to 9 percent i s associ-
ated with Pores of s i z e s than those de-
fined by the Pressure at 35-perce"t
t~on.
Dr. Brownscombe: I think Mr. Zinszer's points
are very well taken. It i s interesting to note that,
a t very low relative permeability values to oil, the
volume of ren~ainingoil contributes very little to
the oil permeability, but markedly restricts the
flow of gas. NO doubt there are many relationships
which can, and should be worked out in order t~
explain why these curves do what they do and in
order to enable us to generalize s o that we can ex-
tend our data and not have to deternine the curves
for each specific case.
Concerning the s i z e of the core specimens, we
have standardized on cores which are approximately
threepuarters of an inch in diameter and an inch
long. I think the y e s t i o n a s to whether relative
permeabilities will be by core size can,
perhaps, best be approached by long-core studies.
In 0 t h words, if we take a long core In the labora-
tory and treat it just like a small reservoir in a de-
pletion problem, we should be able to use our re-
h i v e permeabilities obtained on that same type
of porous material with small plugs, and s e e if
those relative pemeabllities permit u s to compute
what actually happens ~n the larger core.
W. Tem~elaar-Lietz (Shell Oil Company, LOS
Angeles): The paper by Brownscombe, Slobod, and
Caudle is a valuable contribution to our knowledge
of relative permeabilities. The apparatus used for
this work should eliminate the end effects which
Lave thrown some doubts on previous determinations
/
of relative permeabilities. An apparatus closely
resembling the one used by the authors has been
in operation in the Shell Production Laboratory in
L o s Angeles for several years, s o that a compari-
son of results will be possible.
In the first place, in studying the graphs of the
report one finds rather unexplainable discontinuities
in the curves drawn through the values derived
from the experiments. I t has been our experience
that, in c a s e s where we did get odd points, by du-
p l i c a t i n g ~even triplicating our runs we would find
our points coming back to a sn~oothcurve.
Further, the exper~mentswhich have been carried
out have all been done with the cores in one posi-
tion, viz., horizontal. There might be an effect on
the relative permeability if cores were tested in
different positions. Gravity would then enter into
the values to a much greater extent than in the
h'orizontal positions.
At the 100-percent point it is not quite clear
,whether the 100-percent used a s a
basis, is a determined in this appara-
tus, or the determined in a convention-
a l permeameter. We find that there i s a difference
between the obtained with the conven-
tional pemeanleter and one obtained in this ap-
paratus, very probably caused by the disturbance
of the flow a s a result of the shape of the button.
Differences of 50 percent have been observed. We
a l s o have a channel for the gas and a button which
is placed on the core. We have been using diatom-
aceous earth a s a binder between the button and
the core, but have not had the experience which
Was described in the report; viz., that, .on conse-
. cutive runs, the permeabilities got lower and lower.
Dr. Brownscornbe: Mr. Tempelaar-Lietz brings
out several interesting points and some apparent
irreconcilable differences. The discontinuities to
which he refers are not true discontinuities, but
merely represent a marked change in curvature. We
have checked some of the curves showing these
changes in curvature, and find that they are repro-
ducible as shown in Fig. 6. Here three independent
runs showed the same changes in curvature in the
relative permeability curve for water plotted against
saturation.
Concerning the question of whether the core i s
vertical or horizontal, with these small plugs there
i s a very small gravitational pressure difference
between the top end the bottom; in general, much
 LABORATORY DETERMINATION O F RELATIVE PEXMEABILITY 3 15

smaller than the pressure difference imposed be-
tween the phases. Therefore, we would not antici-
pate getting appreciable differences because of
thatfact. Perhaps we should run them in some other
direction, and, if we do get a difference, we had
better find out why.
Concerning permeability a t the 100-percent satu-
ration value in permeameters compared to 100-per-
cent saturation value in the relative permeability
apparatus, we have noticed only small differences,.
practically within the experimental error. Sometimes
there i s a little trouble in keeping the core 100
percent saturated when it i s being put into the ap-
paratus. We definitely have not noticed any differ-
ences a s great a s 50 percent.