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TOPICAL REVIEW
Received 9 May 1995, in final form 22 September 1995, accepted for publication
18 October 1995
Abstract. Plasma processes cause current to flow through the thin oxide and the
resultant plasma-induced damage can be simulated and modelled as damage
produced by constant-current (or voltage) electrical stress. Plasma processing
causes MOSFET parameter degradation, from which one can deduce the plasma
charging current. Since the scattering of post-damage device parameters is due to
a reproducible variation of stress current across the wafer, one can easily analyse
the effect of device geometry on damage by comparing test structures in the same
die rather than the averages over a wafer.
We have developed a quantitative model for thin oxide plasma charging
damage by examining the oxide thickness dependence of the charging current.
The model successfully predicts the oxide thickness dependence of plasma
charging. It is shown that plasma acting on a very thin oxide during processing
may be modelled essentially as a current source. Thus the damage will not be
greatly exacerbated as the oxide thickness is further reduced in the future.
Although annealing in forming gas can passivate the traps generated during
plasma etching, subsequent Fowler–Nordheim stressing causes more traps to be
generated in these devices than in devices that have not been through plasma
etching.
The protection diode should be forward biased during processing to safely
protect the gate oxide. In CMOS circuits, the drains of the driver circuit can
generally act as adequate protection diodes for the oxide regardless of N or P
substrate and the polarity of the plasma charging current.
The plasma stress current can be reduced by reducing the ion density, which is
unfortunately linked to the etch rate or directionality, or by reducing the electron
temperature. Maintaining a very uniform plasma over the surface of the wafer,
reducing the plasma charging current during the over-etch time and judicious use
of protection diode and antenna design rules will reduce plasma damage to an
acceptable level for ULSI production even for very thin gate oxides.
0268-1242/96/040463+11$19.50
c 1996 IOP Publishing Ltd 463
H C Shin and C Hu
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Thin gate oxide damage due to plasma processing
Any device parameter that is sensitive to interface traps where Cit = qDit and Cd are the capacitance due
and oxide charge trapping may be used to monitor to interface traps and the depletion layer respectively.
the plasma charging current. This section presents a Figure 5, which compares the interface state distribution
quantitative method for characterizing plasma damage. The for different areas of aluminium antenna also indicates that
methodology can be applied to any specific equipment and devices with a larger aluminium pad size have a higher
process. Dit . We can only obtain a small energy range of the Dit
Plasma processing degrades the MOSFET characteris- distribution for figure 5. When the Fermi level is near the
tics simply through Fowler–Nordheim electrical stress of midgap, the subthreshold current level is comparable to the
465
H C Shin and C Hu
kT Id2 1
SId (f ) = (1 + αµN )2 Nt∗ (x, E). (7)
γf W L N 2
Nt∗ is the relevant near-interface oxide trap density, N is
the area density of channel electrons, α ≈ 10−15 V s [30].
All the other parameters have their usual meanings. The
oxide trap density Nt∗ can be extracted from the measured
drain noise spectra. The extracted Nt∗ are 7.0 × 1016 ,
1.4 × 1017 , 5.0 × 1017 , and 9.25 × 1017 cm−3 eV−1 for
plasma-damaged devices with antenna areas of (80 µm)2 ,
(160 µm)2 , (320 µm)2 and (640 µm)2 respectively. These Figure 7. (a ) Circuit diagram of a differential pair. The size
Nt∗ are 1.2–15 times higher than the 6.04×1016 cm−3 eV−1 of gate antenna A1 is (80 µm)2 , that of A2 is varied. The
of the control devices. size of the input transistor is W /Leff = 50/1.4. (b ) The input
Process-induced oxide charging can also be detected offset voltage before and after ashing as a function of size
of antenna A2 .
sensitively using a differential pair circuit shown in
figure 7(a). This structure has the advantage over a single-
transistor test structure of minimizing the variations of M2 is larger than that of the M1 transistor, resulting in
MOSFET parameters due to factors other than antenna size threshold and transconductance mismatches. Therefore, the
such as layout and location. The size of gate antenna A1 input offset voltage of the circuit increases with larger size
is fixed at (80 µm)2 whereas that of A2 is varied from of antenna A2 whereas that of the wet-processed control
(80 µm)2 to (640 µm)2 . The degradation of input transistor circuit is almost independent of the size of A2 (figure 7(b)).
466
Thin gate oxide damage due to plasma processing
Figure 8. Shift in subthreshold swing (1S ), threshold Figure 9. Id –Vg plots of control MOSFETs after different FN
voltage (1Vt ) and oxide trap density near the interface current stressing under positive and negative gate stress
(1Nt∗ ) versus interface traps (1Dit ) for different antenna for 20 min. Plasma-ash-induced damage can be closely
sizes. 1Nt∗ was calculated from noise. The relationships reproduced with a constant-current stress.
between all the parameters are linear.
Figure 8 shows the subthreshold swing (S), threshold with a high resolution. Using an antenna ratio of 100,
voltage (Vt ) and oxide trap density near interface (Nt∗ ) as one can detect the plasma charge flux with a sensitivity of
a function of interface trap generation (determined from 1 mC cm−2 (of antenna area), sufficient for characterizing
charge pump current) for devices with different antenna a typical plasma process charging of 10–1000 mC cm−2 .
area. Since all the MOSFET parameters are correlated Even higher resolution may be obtained by using a larger
with each other through interface traps, any parameter can antenna ratio.
be used in quantifying the plasma charging stress. In our
experience Vt shift as well as the differential pair mismatch 3.3. Spatial distribution of oxide charging current
are found to be more convenient to use than the other across the wafer
parameters as monitors of charging damage.
Using the technique described in the previous section, the
oxide charging current distribution across the wafer can
3.2. How to quantify the plasma antenna current
be characterized for a given set-up. Magnetized plasma
Since the plasma-induced damage is primarily due to etchers such as magnetically enhanced reactive ion etch
electrical charging, the damage to the gate oxide should (MERIE) reactors have been introduced as alternatives to
be identical to that produced by applying a constant current conventional reactive ion etchers (RIE). To investigate the
to the gate electrode of a control unstressed device for a charging distribution in a MERIE etcher, Al was etched
duration equal to the process time. The current necessary to with a static magnetic field. Due to the static magnetic
reproduce the plasma-charging damage would correspond field perpendicular to the electric field inside the sheath
to that collected by the antenna during plasma processing. region, secondary electrons emitted from the wafer surface
Control MOSFETs may be obtained by using minimum drift with a cycloid motion toward one side of the wafer,
conductor (polysilicon or metal or via, etc) size and enhancing the ionization process and increasing the plasma
by perhaps using a protection diode where appropriate. density there. Figure 10(a) shows the current path model
Control devices may also be obtained by using a known for a static magnetic field MERIE. Current flows from the
benign process or equipment. Control MOSFETs were dense plasma region into the antennas, down through the
probe-stressed by passing different levels of current through oxide into the silicon substrate, and up into the weak plasma
the gate oxide for the same length as time as the plasma regions.
ashing (or over-ashing) time. Before stressing, MOSFETs For RIE etching, the wafer centre received more
on control wafers had identical I –V (curve A in figure 4) charging than the wafer edge (figure 10(b)). The
independent of the antenna geometry and a location across distribution of the stress current during etching results from
the wafer as expected. A series of control devices were the radial distribution of the plasma density and etch rate
stressed with varying levels of current to generate a series in this etcher. Since oxide stressing effectively occurs after
of reference curves, as shown in figure 9. Also shown in the the Al has been etched into individual patterns (until then,
figure is the I –V curve of a MOSFET having a (160 µm)2 the Al is likely to be shorted to the substrate through one
aluminium pad with photoresist ashed in plasma. This defect), the devices near the wafer edge not only experience
curve lies between the reference curves of 500 pA and 1 nA a lower charging current because of the lower plasma
stressing, indicating that the (160 µm)2 Al pad (curve C in density but also spend little time in the plasma after the
figure 4) collected about 700 pA of oxide charging current Al patterns are separated due to the slower etch rate.
during the ashing process. By using the same method, the Figure 11(a) compares the statistical distributions of
plasma charging current for each MOSFET can be extracted the threshold voltage before and after photoresist ashing.
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H C Shin and C Hu
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Thin gate oxide damage due to plasma processing
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H C Shin and C Hu
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Thin gate oxide damage due to plasma processing
Figure 18. Oxide charging current distribution Figure 20. Dit generation versus total etching time. Most of
perpendicular to the magnetic field during static-field the damage is done during over-etching. It took 41 s to
MERIE etching. The charging current increases with B -field completely etch through the Al film. Before that, Dit
due to increasing plasma non-uniformity. generation was negligible.
471
H C Shin and C Hu
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