Solar Energy Vol. 26, pp. 313-323, 1981 003g-092X/81/0a0313-11502.

0010
Printed in Great Britain. Pergamon Press Ltd.

A THEORETICAL STUDY OF HEAT TRANSFER IN A

FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTOR

G. MOHAN NAIDUt and J. P. AGARWAL

Department of Mathematics,Indian Institute of Technology,Kharagpur--721302,India
(Received 31 August 1979; revision accepted 23 October 1980)
AkRraet--The thermal boundary layer problems associated with flat-plate solar collectors has been analysed using
fourth degree polynomialsfor temperature profiles that obviates the shortcomingsof results hitherto availableusing
lower degree polynomials.The equations givingthe heat flux distribution and hence temperature distribution in the
collector have been solved by assuming the heat losses to be proportional to any non-dimensional power of the
temperature difference.Three particular cases of practical interest have been studied. In the case of no heat loss, it is
found that the Nusselt numberfor the heat transfer in the fullydevelopedregionagreescompletelywiththe exact value.
Confirmationof fullydevelopedexact solutions,by the fourthdegreepolynomial,lends confidenceto the resuits derived
in this paper.

1. INTRODUCTION second degree polynomial is inadequate to satisfy the

Widely used device to intercept solar insolation for differential equation of energy at the walls of the
low temperature applications is the flat-plate solar col- channel[6--8]. Furthermore, Grossman et al. presented
lector whose primary function is to absorb as much solar the results of heat transfer when the heat losses from the
radiation as possible and to transfer the retained heat toabsorber plate to the surroundings are proportional to the
the working fluid flowing through it. Several studies on first and second power of the temperature difference
flat-plate solar collectors of various geometries are between the plate and ambient. But, in practical ap-
reported in the literature. Of all the geometries the one plications, the heat losses may vary with any power, n,
consisting of the absorber plate with two thin parallel of the temperature difference [3, 9-11], where n depends
straight metal sheets forming a uniform channel for the on various design characteristics of the collector, such as
working fluid, though seems to be unrealistic, as sup- number of glazings used above the absorber plate, the
porting members between the two sheets always exist gap between the absorber plate and the glazings, the
and the bridge effect gives little temperature differenceselective coating used for the absorber plate, etc.
between them, has, however, been considered for In order to obviate the shortcomings, as explained
experimental investigations by Chinnery (see [2]) and for above, of the work of Grossman et aL[2], it is necessary
theoretical investigations by a number of researchers, forto choose for the temperature profile a polynomial of
instance, Bliss[l], Grossman et al.[2], and is found to degree greater than two. The choice of the degree of the
yield best collection efficiency. polynomial may be determined by satisfying "as many
Assuming a one-dimensional temperature variation and conditions at the plate surface as at the outer limit of the
temperature to be uniform in the direction parallel to the
boundary layer--alternating between one and the
plate, Bliss[l] has studied the efficiency and derived other"[12]. Accordingly, in the present work, a fourth
"plate efficiency factors" for the rectangular channel. degree polynomial is chosen to represent temperature
Grossman et al.[2] have considered a two-dimensional profile. As far as flow is concerned, we have taken the
model and studied the thermal boundary layer develop- velocity profiles to be uniform and parabolic in con-
ment in the entrance region and the temperature dis- formity with the assumptions of Grossman et aL[2].
tribution across the width of the channel using the With the above-mentioned choice of the temperature
governing equations of flow and heat transfer in the fluid
and velocity profiles, general equations to determine the
in integral form. Though their method of analysis is fluid temperature in thermally developing and fully-
interesting, they have used only a second degree poly- developed regions have been obtained and solved when
nomial for temperature profile omitting an essential the heat losses from the absorber plate to the surround-
boundary condition that follows from the energy equa- ings are proportional to any non-dimensional power, n,
tion in differential form and studied various charac- of the temperature difference. Three particular cases,
teristics of heat transfer in the collector plate. Their namely, no heat loss, heat losses varying linearly with
analysis yielded the value, 5.714, of Nusselt number for the temperature difference and heat losses proportional
the heat transfer in the fully developed region in the case
to the square of the temperature difference have been
of no heat loss. This value, obviously, differs much from studied.
the exact value 5.385 quoted in the literature, e.g. Refs. A comparison of the present results with some of
[3-5]. The deviation is attributable to the fact that a those in [2] has been made and is worth observing. It is
found very strikingly, in the case of no heat loss, that the
tOn study leave from: Dept. of Mathematics, Coimbatore Nusselt number for heat transfer in the fully-developed
Institute of Technology,Coimbatore--641014,India. region with parabolic velocity profile, agrees completely

313
314 G.M. NAIDUand J. P. AGARWAL

with the exact value 5.385. Though the analytical solu-
tions for the case of no heat loss obtained herein in the
fully-developed region for uniform velocity profile are
identical with those for parabolic velocity profile dis-
cussed in [2], the same is not true in the developing
region. The distance, y*, required for the thermal boun-
dary layer to become fully-developed obtained in the
present investigations is significantly less than that
obtained in [2]. For instance, when heat losses are pro-
portional to the temperature difference with dimension-
less heat loss coefficient equal to 0.1, the velocity profile
being uniform, the present analysis gives rise to the value
of y* as 107.817 cm when the Peclet number is 1400 and
the width of the channel is I cm, while from [2] the
corresponding value of y* is 119.797 cm. This quantitative
change in y* may be of importance in design con-
the order of a hundred, the flow can be taken to be
laminar with a parabolic velocity profile, or with a uni-
form velocity profile for a flow with a greater degree of
mixing. Assuming the aforementioned types of velocity
profiles, we examine the problem of heat transfer in the
absorber plate where the thermal boundary layer
development in the entrance region and the temperature
distributions across the width of the channel are con-
sidered.
Accordingly, following Grossman et al.[2] we use the
governing equations for the flow and heat transfer in the
fluid in the integral form as:
fo ' pu dx = th = const., (1)

siderations of the collectors. and

Finally, the analysis presented in this paper is quite
general and is applicable to solar air or water heaters
f--~ (fotpUcTdx)= Q(Y, T), (2)
even though the configuration considered is widely used
in the case of air heaters.
with two forms of fluid velocity profiles, namely,
2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
With a view to directly compare with the results of
Grossman et al.[2] we have chosen the physical model rhthe uniform velocity profile
u =~ (3a)
similar to theirs for clarity. This model consists
of an absorber plate (see Fig. I) formed by two and
parallel straight thin metal sheets spaced t
distance apart. The upper plate is exposed to rn
the sun and the lower one is thermally insulated.
u = -p~t x(t - x), the parabolic velocity profile (3b)
The fluid enters the channel through a header at
the bottom and exits through another one at the top. where th is the mass flow rate of fluid through the
Considering the length of the channel to be much larger collector per unit breadth, T is the fluid temperature in
than its width and flow to be caused by an external the collector, c is the specific heat of the fluid and
agency or by thermosyphonic cycle, the flow can be Q(y, T) is the net heat flux per unit area and time
assumed to be two-dimensional and fully-developed. In reaching the fluid through the upper plate.
addition, it has been pointed out by Grossman et aL that We shall be interested to determine the temperature T
the Reynolds numbers for the flow in the collector are of subject to the conditions:

--FUL.Y OEYELO'EO TSM.ERATURE PRO~,LE

,NPUT1

,o, ""'" ,,<o<,,,

DEVELOPMENTOFTHERMAL
CONTROLVOLUME BOUNDARYLAYER

THERMALLYINSULATED. I / ~ ~

BOTTOM
HEADER

Fig. 1. Cross section of the parallel plate absorber of the collector.

 Heat transfer in a fiat-plate solar collector 315

For the thermally developing region: ditions, namely, (5c) and (6c) for the developing region,
and (7c) and (Sb) for the developed region, as considered
at by Grossman et al., to have the correct solution within
the framework of approximations. Such an approach, in
y=0: T = To, (4) fact, has led to the recovery (as shown in the next
section) of the exact value (given in [31-[5] for the case
at of no heat loss) of Nusselt number.
It is convenient to change the governing equations
x = t: T = Tp, k -~-=
gT Q(y, T), ~92T = 0 and the boundary conditions in non-dimensional form.
Thus, introducing the following non-dimensional vari-
(5a-c) ables
Y* =~,
at
_ put, T - To Q(y, T)
a---r- 0=-- q07,0)=-- (9)
x=t-t,: T= To, 07"=0 02T ^ m AL' Q,
9x , ~ = U. (6a--c)
with
For the thermally fully-developed region: _ tQ~
ATe - -=- (10)
m¢
at
and Q, the net solar radiation reaching the plate per unit
9T 92T ^
area per unit time, eqns (1)-(3) take the form
x=t: T= Tp, k - ~ = Q ( y , T ) , -~-ff=U,
(7a-c)
oI ~dsr = 1, (11)
at
d '
OT 92T d-~ (fo ~O d~) = q(~l, O) (12)
x=0: 7x=0, -~-x2=0; (8a, b)
= 1 for uniform velocity profile, (13a)
where Tp is the upper plate temperature varying along ti = 6st(l-st) for parabolic velocity profile, (13b)
the length of the plate, To is the inlet fluid temperature
and tm is the thermal boundary layer thickness. subject to the boundary conditions (4)-(8) taking the
As far as the physical significance of the above boun- form: for ~/< ~*,
dary conditions is concerned, we may note that the
boundary condition (4) follows from that the fluid enters at
the channel at the bottom at a uniform temperature To.
The fluid flowing near the upper plate picks up heat so 7=0; 0=0, (14)
that a thermal boundary layer begins to develop until it
fills the entire channel at, say y = y * . From thereon the at
temperature profile is fully developed. Therefore,
whereas conditions (5a) and (7a) follow from that the 90 R 920 ^
~=!: O=Op, -~= q, - ~ = U ; (15a--c)
upper plate is at a temperature Tp, the condition (8a)
follows from that the lower plate is insulated. Again,
since at the edge of the thermal boundary layer the at
temperature will be To and there will be no heat transfer
across the boundary layer, the conditions (6a,b) are O0 920 0
~=1-8: 0=0, -~=0, -~= ; (16a--c)
assumed. The conditions (5c), (7c) and (8b) result
because the differential form of the energy equation
without viscous dissipation holds at the boundaries as and for ,7 > 71", at
well. The conditions (5b) and (7b) are obtained from the
consideration that the upper plate is subjected to a heat 00 R q , - ~920
~:=1: 0= 0p, -~= = 0, (17a-c)
flux and the condition (6c) is the consequence of the
asymptotic convergence of the temperature profile at
x = t - t~. at
These conditions are the essential conditions[6] and
must be satisfied by the temperature profile. Therefore, if a O0 020 ^
~:= 0: ~-~ = 0, - ~ = u, (18a,b)
polynomial solution is assumed to exist, we should con-
struct a fourth degree polynomial satisfying all the con-
ditions in the preceding paragraph rather than a second where R =(ritc/k) is the Peclet number which is the
degree polynomial not satisfying some of these con- product of Prandtl and Reynolds numbers.
316 G. M. NAIDUand J. P. AGARWAL
3. ANALYSIS Non-dimensionalizing eqn (24) we get,
Assuming a fourth degree polynomial, for the reasons
mentioned in Sections 1 and 2, for the temperature q = I -[h.(O. - o,,)]", (25)
profile in the form
where
4
0 = J--~oA , [ ~ - (I - a)]'
(H~ '/" AT..
h.=\-~j (26)
for developing region, and
Therefore, solving eqns (22) and (23) with q given by the
4
eqn (25) and using (14) leads to the following equations
0 = ~ o B ~i '
giving q and hence 0p in the two cases:
In the case of uniform velocity profile: for ~ ~<~/*
for developed region and using the conditions (15)-(18),
with simple algebraic manipulations, we get
f(q)- f(qo) = ~5 eh. 271, (27)
0 = ~4 [28(~.: - 1 + 8) 3 - (~ - 1 + 8) 4] (19)

for ~/> ,/*

with
Io(q)- Io(q*) + ~o'nRh. In (q/q*) = - nh.(~ - ~*),
8(n)= 2-~° (20)
Rq (28)
where
for the profile in the developing region r/< ~*, and
f(q)= [(1- q)'; + h.O=] 2
0 = 0. --~ (~- 2~c3+ 1) (21)
+ 2-~ ~o a,(h.Oo)2-'(1- q)~"(rq - n)
for the profile in the fully developed region ~ I> 7/*. 1 1
Substituting the profiles (20) and (21) in eqn (12) and - n-"z.~=o(n - r- 1)(h.Oo)':'I.(q), (29)
noting that 0 = 0 for 0 <~~:~<1 - 8, we obtain the follow-
ing equations to determine 0.:
r(l -)< . . . . ./.
For the uniform velocity profile: l,(q) = J - ~ -~ dq, (30)

~(30pS)=q n~<~ *, (22a) and a,'s are the coefficients of ,~" in (1 + ,~)2, and, in the
case of parabolic velocity profile: for 7/~< 7'
~-~(O,-7Rq)=q ,/~> ~*; (22b)
1 1 R2h. 3
[~(q) - ~(qo)] - ~-~-fi-~ [q,(q) - 4,(qo)] = ---g- ,7,
For the parabolic velocity profile:
(31)

d 221
"~[0o8 (-~-~8)]=q ~1<~1* (23a) for ~/I> 7 '

13 , 13
~---~[Op-~-~Rql=q n>~l *. (23b) Io(q)- lo(q ) + 3 nRh. In (q/q*) = - nh. (7 - 7*)
In order to determine 0p in terms of ~ for the two (32)
cases, it is necessary to know the form of q. From
where
physical considerations it is known that Q(y, T), the heat
gain by the collector is equal to the difference of net
solar radiation and heat losses and may, in general, be c~(q)= [(l-q):'" + h.O=]3
expressed in the form
q
3
3

+ 6n2q
l._l3 ~ob'(h"O°Y-'(1-
= q)'/"
Q(y,T)=Q.-H(Tp-To)", n>l, (24)
× [ - 2n 2 + rnq + r(2n - r)q 2]
1 2
where H is the constant heat loss coefficient, n is a -~ ~=o a,(h. On)2-"
non-zero dimensionless power[3,9-11] and T. is the
ambient temperature. × (2n - r - 1)(n - r - l)L(q). (33)
 Heat transfer in a fiat-platesolar collector
4 1 4 where T is the local average temperature of the fluid and
q ~
x (1 - q),t~[ _6n3 + 2m2q + m(3n - r)q 2
+ r(3n - r)(2n - r)q 3] -
3
I r~=Obr(hnOa)3_ r
× (3n - r - 1)(2n - r - l)(n - r - 1)I,(Q),
at's, br's and cr's are respectively the coefficients of
a r in the expressions of (I + A)2, (1 + A)3 and (1 + A)4, and
I,(q) defined by eqn (30) can be evaluated easily for any
n~0.
Having known 0p and q, the quantity r/*, the dimen-
sionless distance required for thermal boundary layer to
become fully developed can be determined by using the
fact that 8 = 1 when r/= r/* along with eqns (20), (25)
and (27) or (31), as the case may be.
The results obtained above are very general. However,
practical considerations demand the analysis of parti-
cular situations, namely, the negligible heat losses, the
heat losses varying linearly or quadratically with the
temperature difference and accordingly, in all that fol-
lows, we examine them in detail.
Case (i). Negligible heat losses
With perfect design considerations of the collector, it
may be possible to reduce the heat losses to considerably
small quantities and hence neglect them. Therefore, in
this ideal case, eqn (24) gives Q = Qs = constant, i.e.
q=l.
Equations (27)--(34) on taking the limit as h, ~ 0 yield:
For the case of uniform velocity profile
/5 \1/2
= R r/ ) r/<r/*,
Op=r/+7R r/> r/*,
r/, = 3 R.
For the case of parabolic velocity profile:
1 wind velocity if there are no covers, hut is less depen-
13
Op=r/+T~R n>r/*,
-,7*= 9 R .
Additionally, if we define the Nusselt number as
(heat flux) x (hydraulic diameter)
Null = (temperature difference between wall and fluid)
x (thermal conductivity)
we can write it in our notations as
Nun = Qs • 2t
k(Tp - T)'
317
is defined by
¢(y) = To + ~ c
'Io Q(y', T) dy'. (38)
(34) In non-dimensional form, (37) yields
2R
Nun = - - (39)
op-~'
where O= fo" q dr/reduces to r/in the present case.
Using eqns (35b), (36b) and (39) and the fact that
= r/, it follows that the Nusselt number for the fully
developed region has the value 5.714 for the uniform
velocity profile case and 5.385 for the parabolic velocity
profile case. Thus whereas the analysis of Grossman et
al. gave the value of Nusselt number as 6 and 5.714 for
the two cases which agreed approximately with the exact
value 5.38513-5], our analysis with parabolic velocity
profile and fourth degree temperature profile provides
the exact value. This recovery of the exact value is
important in that the accurate determination of the
various physical quantities will have bearing on the
design of the collector. We may also point out that the
use of high degree velocity profiles, say fourth degree,
does not seem to give results in agreement with the exact
value.
Case (ii)
The basic equation commonly known as Hottel-
Whillier-Bliss equation [13, 14] expressing the useful heat
collected Q per unit area is
Q = F ' { ( r a ) l - U(T,,, - Ta)},
where F' is the heat removal factor of the collector, (ca)
is the transmittance-absorptance product, I is the in-
cident solar radiation normal to the collector, Tm is the
(35a-c)
mean temperature of the heat removal fluid in the col-
lector and TQ is the surrounding air temperature. As far
as the overall heat loss coefficient, U, is concerned, it is a
function of (To - T a ) and rises rapidly with increasing
dent when the collector has at least one cover. Thus, U
may be taken to be nearly a constant and then the above
form of Q may be regarded as a partial representation of
the general situation described by eqn (24). Hence on
putting n = 1 in eqns (27)-(34), we get:
(36a-c) For the uniform velocity profile
(qo/q) 2 - In (qo/q) 2 - 1 = lORh,2r//3 r/< r/*,
In (q/q*) = - ht (1 + 7Rhl~-'
20 ) (r/- r/*) r/> r/*'
(37) (40a-d)
318 G.M. NAIDUand J. P. AGARWAL

For the case of parabolic velocity profile and

/
[4(qo/q) 3 - 9(qo/q) 2 + 6 In (qo/q) + 5]/30- [9(qo/q) 4
,,(q) = ~ [4(9 - 16q + 6q 2) + 3(1 - qo)'t2(l - q),t2
- 32(qo/q) 3 + 36(qo/q) 2- 12 In ( q o / q ) - 13]184Rh, I

R2hl 3 x (48 - 40q- 2q 2 - 3q 3) + 24(1 - qo)(9 - 8q)

8 T/ ~/<rt*, + (1 - qo)3/2(1 - q)1/2 × (144 + 8q + 10q2 + 15q3)

+ 36(1 - qo)2]- 1 (1 - qo) '/2

( 1+
q*=qo ~/= r/*,
, [ - 1 + ( 1 - q ) '/2]
× (5qo- 2)in [1 - (1 - q),/2J, (45)
In (q/q*) = - h~ ( 1 + (71 - 7*) ~ > 7*,
7 ' can be obtained from eqns (42a) and (43a) on replac-
, 1
ing q by q* where

q * = 1 - [ h 2 ( O * - 0o)]2

with
_ (l
O* = [OoRh22 - 1 + (! + R2 h22 - 2 0~Rh22) m]/ Rh22.
- 12 In (1 +-~-!) - 13]. (41a-d)
4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Case (iii). n = 2 The temperature distribution (0,), the heat flux (q)
In this case heat losses are proportional to the square reaching the fluid and the dimensionless length (7*)
of the temperature difference between the plate and the required for thermal boundary layer to become fully-
surroundings and accordingly the use of (27)-(34) with developed, obtained in the preceding section, may be
n = 2 yields: seen to depend upon three non-dimensional parameters,
In the case of uniform velocity profile: namely, R the Peclet number, h. the heat loss coefficient
and n the power of temperature difference. The effect of
(~-~_qg) { 1 _ 1 " ~ + (1-qo) 'l~ [(1- q);:(2 + q) the variation of these parameters on various physical
\q2 qo2] 2 quantities has been displayed through selected graphs
(Figs. 2-11) and Table 1 and discussed in the following
(1 - qo)~/2(2+ qo)] 4 (1 - qo) ~/2
- qo2 j 4 paragraphs.
[{1 + (1 - q)t'2}{l - (1 - qo)"2}] 5 2 At the outset, it may be noted that in the ideal case of
× In L{1 - (1 - q y ~ } { l +(1 - Oo)1/2],.] = 3 Rh2 ~1 ~1<~~*, no heat loss, the Nusselt number for the heat transfer in
the fully-developed region for the parabolic velocity
[l+(l_q),t2] (~),n(q~,)_--h2(~/*-7/) distribution agrees completely with the exact value given
n [1 +(l - q*)'P_l - in [3]. This attainment of the exact value of the Nusselt
'r/>I 'r/*. (42a, b) number by the use of fourth degree polynomial for
temperature profile satisfying all the essential boundary
In the case of parabolic velocity profile: conditions is important in that the analytical solutions
given here could be used to predict more correctly the
values of various physical quantities involved in the
! ~ R2h23 design of solar collector.
[4,, (q)- 4,, (qo)]- ,,,,~ [,/,, (q)- ,/,, (qo)] = -V- '~
The temperature distribution 0p vs the dimensionless
'r/~< 'r/*, length ~ in the case of no heat loss is shown in Fig. 2.
[" l + ( l - q ) t/2 ] :26Rh,+35~ The plate temperature increases rapidly as ~/ increases
lnLl+(l_q,)lpj-\ ~-6 /ln(q-q~*) and differs from the average fluid temperature sig-
nificantly for large values of R.
= - hz(~/*- 'r/) ~/~> 7/*; (43a,b) Figures 3-11 are drawn for parabolic velocity profile
with qo = I.
where The heat flux distributions q in terms of 7/are plotted
in Figs. 3 and 7 for n = I and 2 respectively. The qualita-
1
tive nature of these curves is similar for both the values
~,(q) = ~ [(1 - q)'/2 (16 - lOq - 3q 2) of n; however, q decreases with increase in 7/, the
decrease being rather slow for higher n. For fixed n and
+ 12(1 - qo)1/2(4- 3q) R, the decay in q is severe as the heat loss coefficient
+ 3(1 - qo)(1 - q)V2(16 + 2q + 3q2)+ 16(1 - qo)3t2] increases and the same pattern exists for fixed n and h,
and variable R. A direct comparison between the two
/2-3qo~, [1 + ( 1 - q),/2] solutions is inappropriate as ht and h2 are not one and
+ Ll-(l- q)'"]' (44) the same. Furthermore, it is evident that in both the
 Heat transfer in a flat-plate solar collector 319

Parabolic velocity profile

--- Uniform velocity profile
• Denotes ~/"

32 ~ R • 50

/1 f

2O
k- / / /..:

" 12 /

8
1/ : > ;..- 0

4 71/'i/ >" " ;"

0 2 4 6 8 t0 12 14
~1" y / /

Fig. 2. Temperature distribution in the collector with no heat loss.

• Denotes ~?"

1.2

h,-O,R,lO ht-O,R,30
1.0

~" 0.6

a
Ib,

0.4 ~ h,=O.I, R=30

0.2
h,-I, R - I O

l t I I I I ~ l l I
0 2 4 6 8 I0 12 14
~1 " y l t

Fig. 3. Heat flux distribution in the collector when heat losses are proportional to the temperature difference
(T, - T=).
320 G.M. NAIDUand J. P. AGARWAL

i0 ~ 8p

• Denotes ¢/*
8
h,-O.I, R , 3 0 .,..-----
.-

~o

,,,-" h-oi,R-3o
/ih,.I.O,R.30 ... ~ " ~ - -

/
2 I If" -'Li..-'-
/~ .f/.- h,-I.0,R, 10 hi. 1.0, R. 3 0
. . . . . . - _ ' _ z . . . . . . . . .
I I ~ I I
0 2 4 6 8 I0 12 14
.ylt
Fig. 4. Temperature distribution in the collector with heat losses proportional to the temperature difference
(rp- T,).

cases 7 ' decreases with the increase in h. and the variables:

decrease in R.
The temperature distributions 0p as functions of ,1 for
both the solutions are shown in Figs. 4 and 8. From these
figures we observe that the temperature rise in the col-
lector increases as , and n increase. The lesser the heat
transfer coefficient, the greater the temperature rise and
so is the temperature difference 0p - g Also for fixed h.,
0~ increases with ~ and R. This trend corroborates the
obvious physical requirement that the heat losses should
be small for achieving higher temperature of the working
fluid.
An examination of the solutions (27)-(35) for any n
shows that the parameters R and h. always appear under
the same combination and also that the variables h, Op
and q can be expressed in terms of h.~. Accordingly it is
convenient to use the following modified dimensionless
N.=Rh., ¢.=h.O, ~'p.=h.Op.,
~. = h.O and ~'. = h.~/. (46)
The solutions of Cases (ii) and (iii) can then be rewritten
in terms of these new variables. The numerical results of
the resulting equations are depicted in Figs. 5 and 9,
giving q in terms o f / ' . (n = 1,2) and in Figs. 6 and 10,
giving ~-.. (n = 1,2) in terms of st. (. = 1,2). These
figures reveal that for higher values of n and given N.,
the drop in q is rather weak with the increase in st. and
the rise in modified dimensionless temperature ¢.. is high
as n increases.
Figure 11 depicts the efficiency e in terms of ~'. and it
is found that e decreases as ~'. advances. The diminish-
ing of e is weak for higher values of n. As N. increases,

1,2
2I
,.o N,.I_~N:0~
1,0, • Denotes ¢/"
j NI'0

0.8 " . ^''1 0.8~

I/ N,,o
c~o.6x ///\,., .....,o.--
~,

0.4
~v,, io

0 .,4
I//" ..--;:;o_..--
0.2
0,~, #/ /I / ~'~ -- T.OI

0 I 2 3 4 5 0 I 2 3 4 5 6
~,.h,~ ~," h , ~
Fig. 5, Heat flux distribution vs modified dimensionless length Fig. 6. Modified dimensionless temperature distribution vs
when n = 1. modified dimensionless length when n = 1.
 Heat transfer in a tlat-plate solar collector 321

1.2 • Denotes 7"/"

h ~ O , R = 10,30
1.0

0.8

0.6
u

0.4

0.2 h2= I,R=IO

~z'I,R=30
I I I i i i
O 2 4 6 8 I0 12 14
~/=y/T
Fig. 7. Heat flux distribution in the collector when heat losses are proportional to (Tp - To)e.

efficiency decreases rapidly with ~',. In order to achieve
higher efficiencies, N, should be made as least as pos-
sible. This may lead to various possibilities. First, we can
choose the working fluid with good thermal conductivity.
But in most solar heaters, generally, either water or air is
used as the transport fluid and, therefore, the selection of
thermal conductivity in such cases is out of question.
Secondly, the thickness of the channel can be chosen to
be small (for a given fluid). But this has practical limita-
tions such as the resistance to the flow and formation of
scales in the case of water heaters. Thirdly, we can
design the collector taking into consideration various
factors such as insulation of the bottom and sides of the
collector, glazings, air gap between the absorber plate
and the glazing, etc. so that the heat losses can be
reduced considerably.
In view of the fact that the solutions obtained in [2] do
not satisfy some of the boundary conditions, a com-
parison of the present results with those given in [2] may
not be appropriate. However, it may be noted, in the
ideal case of no heat losses, that though the analytical
solutions obtained herein in the fully developed region
for uniform velocity profile are identical with those for
parabolic velocity profiles discussed in [2], the same is
not true in the developing region. Furthermore, Table 1
indicates that '7' obtained in the present investigations is

8p=
I0 ....
• Denotes ~"
h,-0,I,R-3o

~ / - / h~.o~,R.,.o.I
I 0 ~''~
II

4 f ,~ / / ~ ' ~

/ ;;;.--"
2 /I
_j-h,.,.R-,O[ ,,-,.R-30._
0 2 4 6 8 I0 12 14
" y/t
Fig. 8. Temperature distribution in the collector when heat losses are proportional to (Tp- 7"=)z.
322 G. M. NAIDU and J. P. AGARWAL

Table 1. Values of 7' when q = 1 - h,(O,,, - 0o)

Values of -q*
Values of R and h
Uniform velocity Parabolic velocity
profile profile
Values from Present Values from Present
R h Ref. [2] values Ref. [2] values

10 0.1 1.464 1.317 1.347 1.159

10 1.0 1.047 0.942 1.051 0.909
20 0.1 2.690 2.421 2.519 2.168
20 1.0 1.920 1.728 1.987 1.723
30 0.1 3.797 3.417 3.607 3.108
30 1.0 2.772 2.495 2.912 2.532

IY' 1.2

* Denotes ~" I,O -.

1.0 g ~ r N~," 0

0.8 1 \ rN~,'l 0.8 \ \~',/. N.=, .... ~=2

0.6
I N, ''° Jo.6,~t~'.
x
0.4

0.2 0.2 ~
-

I I I t I I
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 0 I 2 3 4 5 6
~2=h= C.=h.n
Fig. 9. Heat flux distribution vs modified dimensionless length Fig. 11. Efficiency of the collector as a function of modified
when n = 2. dimensionless length for different values of N. and n.

significantly less than that obtained in [2]. For example, the present analysis yields the value 107.817 for ~/* when
in the case of water heaters, with heat losses from the the Peclet number is 1400 and the velocity profile is
absorber plate proportional to the temperature difference uniform and the corresponding value from [2] is 119.797.
and non-dimensional heat loss coefficient equal to 0.1, This quantitative change in ~/* may be of importance in
design considerations of the collector. Furthermore, a
significant quantitative change in the values of the
,.2 IN. m N~=I0 N,-I N,-0 various physical quantities is also noticeable from the
graphs.
The configuration of the abosrber plate considered
herein is commonly used in solar air heaters and it is,
therefore, worthwhile to make mention of two obser-
OBlll //,/\ N.-0 vations. First, a reasonable performance from solar air
heaters may be obtained when ~/* is of the order 160-
o.~| I 1 ; .-" 200. From the analysis, when n = 1, h, = 0.1 and velocity
profile is uniform, the above range of ,/* is possible only
when R ranges from 2100 to 2650. This, obviously,
o..I//,,' ..-' ...-- implies that the Reynolds numbers of the flow are high
enough for the flow to be no more laminar. Secondly, in
___.,, the case of solar air heaters, there is the further com-
plication of radiation interchange between the front ab-
sorber plate and the rear ones, which produce a thermal
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 boundary layer growing from the rear plate as well as
(2" h2'~ one from the front plate. However, the study of this
Fig. 10. Modified dimensionless temperature distribution vs phenomenon is beyond the scope of the present paper.
modified dimensionless length when n = 2. Finally, it may be mentioned that there is very little
 Heat transfer in a flat-platesolar collector
pertinent experimental data (which is inaccessible to the
authors) to which the results of the present investigations
can be compared. Efforts to study the behaviour of the
system experimentally are in the planning stages.
Acknowledgements-Authors express their heartfelt thanks to
Prof. A. K. Mohanty of Mech. Engng Dept., I.I.T., Kharagpur for
his valuable suggestions and criticisms. Authors also wish to
extend their thanks to the reviewers for their comments and
suggestions for the betterment of the paper.
4 coefficient of A’ in the expansion of (1 t A)*,eqns
(29) and (33)
b, coefficient of A’ in the expansion of (1+ A)‘, eqns
(33) and (34)
C, coefficient of A’ in the expansion of (I t A)*,eqn
(34)
c specific heat of fluid
e efficiency = [(l/L)
L Qdy]Q, = $7 = i/l
I
heat removal factor’of the collector
f6function of (.), eqn (27)
h.(n = 1,2) dimensionless heat loss coefficients, eqn (25)
H constant heat loss coefficient, eqn (24)
I solar insolation incident in the direction of the
= J[(l
k W. M. Kays, Convective Heat and Mass Transfer, Table 8.2.
length
n difference,
eqn (24)
N.(n = dimensionless eqn (46)
Q net heat flux into the collector per unit area and
time
Q, net solar radiation reaching the plate per unit area
and time
4 dimensionless heat flux reaching the fluid, eqn (9)
cl0 dimensionless heat flux at q=O (qo= I +
(- l)“+‘h.“e.“)
R Peclet number = @z/k), ratio of fluid heat
capacity to its thermal conductivity
temperature of the fluid in the collector
average fluid temperature in the collector
inlet temperature of the fluid
ambient temperature outside the collector
plate temperature
mean temperature of the heat removal fluid
equivalent temperature difference, eqn (10)
spacing between two sheets forming the collector
plate
thickness of the thermal boundary layer in the
collector
over-all heat loss coefficient
fluid velocity in the collector, eqn (3)
dimensionless flow velocity, eqn (13)
co-ordinate perpendicular to flow
co-ordinate parallel to flow
SE Vol. 26. No. 4-D
323
Y* distance required for thermal boundary layer to
become fully developed
Greek letters
(T(1) transmittance-absorptance product
dimensionless thermal boundary layer thickness
i.(n=1,2S) modified dimensionless co-ordinates parallel to
flow, eqn (46)
dimensionless co-ordinate along the flow of the
fluid
dimensionless distance required for thermal
boundary layer to become fully developed
dimensionless temperature, eqn (9)
dimensionless average fluid temperature
dimensionless ambient temperature
dimensionless plate temperature
dimensionless co-ordinate perpendicular to flow
fluid density in the collector
modified dimensionless temperature, eqn (46)
modified dimensionless average temperature, eqn
(46)
modified dimensionless temperature, eqn (46).
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