Chapter 5

Schwarzschild Solution

Problem Set #5: 5.3, 5.4, 5.5 (Due Monday Dec. 2nd)

5.1 Birkhoff’s theorem

There are very few exact solutions of the Einstein equations, but perhaps the
most well known solution was first derived by Schwarzschild. One can check
that the Schwarzschild metric
! " ! "−1
2 2GM 2 2GM
dr 2 +r 2 dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2 , (5.1)
# $
ds = − 1 − dt + 1 −
r r
is a solution of the vacuum Einstein equation
1
Rµν − Rgµν = 0 (5.2)
2
by direct substitution.
According to Birkhoff’s theorem the Schwarzschild solution is also a
unique spherical symmetry solution of the vacuum Einstein equation. By
spherical symmetry we mean that there is a set of three Killing vectors with
following commutation relations,
% (1) (2) &
V ,V = V (3) (5.3)
% (2) (3) &
V ,V = V (1) (5.4)
% (3) (1) & (2)
V ,V = V . (5.5)

Then the Forbenius’s Theorem implies that the integral curves of these vector
fields are constraint to sub-manifolds. In the case of the vector fields V (1) ,
V (2) and V (3) the submanifolds will be two-spheres that would foliate (almost)

64
CHAPTER 5. SCHWARZSCHILD SOLUTION 65

all of the manifold into two-spheres. For example, R3 can be foliated with
concentric two-spheres centered in the origin. Then the Killing vector fields
represent rotations around x, y and z axis respectively. These rotations move
points around but the point remain at the same sphere at a fixed distance
from origin. Does this foliation cover all of the R3 ? Could you think of other
manifolds that can be foliated with two-spheres?
The foliation based on symmetries of the manifold can be used to put a
coordinate system. If a manifold is n-dimentional and it is foliated with m-
dimantional submanifolds then we can use coordinates ui (where i = 1...m)
to move around on a given submanifolds and coordinates v I (where i = 1...n)
to move between submanifolds. If the submanifolds are maximally symmetric
(e.g. two spheres) then one can show that

ds2 = gµν dxµ dxν = gIJ (v)dv I dv J + f (v)γij (u)dui duj . (5.6)
All it says is that the metric of submanifolds γij (u) is the same on different
submanifolds (since gIJ (v) and f (v) are not functions of u) and that the
cross-terms dv I dui can always be eliminated by redefining coordinates such
that ∂/∂v I is orthogonal to the submanifolds. For a spherically symmetric
four dimensional manifold we get
ds2 = gaa (a, b)da2 + gab (a, b) (dadb + dbda) + gbb (a, b)db2 + r 2 (a, b)dΩ2 (5.7)

where
dΩ2 = dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2 . (5.8)
Our remaining task is to change the coordinates so that (5.7) takes the
form of Schwarzschild metric (5.1). The first step is to change coordinates
from a, b to a, r by inverting r(a, b), i.e.
ds2 = gaa (a, r)da2 + gar (a, r) (dadr + drda) + grr (a, r)dr 2 + r 2 dΩ2 . (5.9)

The second step is to change coordinates a, r to t, r so that there are no

cross-terms dtdr + drdt, or
ds2 = m(t, r)dt2 + n(t, r)dr 2 + r 2 dΩ2 . (5.10)

Let t(a, r) be the desired coordinate, then

∂t ∂t
dt = da + dr (5.11)
∂a ∂r
and
! "2 ! "! " ! "2
2 ∂t 2 ∂t ∂t ∂t
dt = da + (dtdr + drdt) + dr 2 (5.12)
∂a ∂a ∂r ∂r
CHAPTER 5. SCHWARZSCHILD SOLUTION 66

or
'! "2 ! "! " ! "2 (
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t
ds2 = m(t, r) da2 + (dtdr + drdt) + dr 2 +n(t, r)dr 2 +r 2 dΩ2 .
∂a ∂a ∂r ∂r
(5.13)
By matching the coefficients of (5.9) and (5.13) we get three equations
! "2
∂t
m = gaa
∂a
! "2
∂t
n+m = grr
∂r
! "! "
∂t ∂t
m = gar (5.14)
∂a ∂r
that can always be solved for three unknown functions t(a, r), m(a, r) and
n(a, r). Therefore we can always put a spherically symmetric metric into the
form of (5.10). But since the signature of the metric is Lorentzian either m
or n must be negative and thus without loss of generality we can assume that
m is negative. Then (5.10) can be rewritten in terms of exponentials as
ds2 = −e2α(t,r) dt2 + e2β(t,r) dr 2 + r 2 dΩ2 . (5.15)
The final step is to determine α and β by solving the vacuum Einstein
equation. If we label (t, r, θ, φ) as (0, 1, 2, 3) then non-vanishing Christoffel
symbols,
Γ000 = ∂0 α
Γ001 = Γ010 = ∂1 α
Γ011 = e2(β−α) ∂0 β
Γ111 = ∂1 β
Γ101 = Γ110 = ∂0 β
Γ100 = e2(α−β) ∂1 α
Γ122 = −re−2β
1
Γ221 = Γ212 =
r
Γ133 = −re−2β sin2 θ
1
Γ331 = Γ313 =
r
Γ233 = − sin θ cos θ
cos θ
Γ332 = Γ323 = . (5.16)
sin θ
CHAPTER 5. SCHWARZSCHILD SOLUTION 67

and the non-vanishing component of Riemann tensor,

R0101 = e2(β−α) ∂02 β + (∂0 β)2 − ∂0 α∂0 β + ∂1 α∂1 β − ∂12 α − (∂1 α)2
# $ # $

R0202 = −re−2β ∂1 α
R0303 = −re−2β sin2 θ∂1 α
R0212 = −re−2α ∂0 β
R0313 = −re−2α sin2 θ∂0 β
R1212 = −re−2β ∂1 β
R1313 = −re−2β sin2 θ∂1 β
R2323 1 − e−2β sin2 θ∂1 β
# $
= (5.17)

and the non-vanishing component of the Ricci tensor,

! "
# 2 2 $ 2(α−β) 2 2 2
R00 = ∂0 β + (∂0 β) − ∂0 α∂0 β + e ∂1 α + (∂1 α) − ∂1 α∂1 β + ∂1 α
r
! "
2
R11 = − ∂12 α + (∂1 α)2 − ∂1 α∂1 β − ∂1 β + e2(β−α) ∂02 β + (∂0 β)2 − ∂0 α∂0 β
# $
r
2
R01 = R10 = ∂0 β
r
R22 = e−2β (r (∂1 β − ∂1 α) − 1) + 1
R33 = e−2β (r (∂1 β − ∂1 α) − 1) + 1 sin2 θ.
# $
(5.18)

The requirement that our metric solves the vacuum Einstein equation is
equivalent to
Rµν = 0 (5.19)
for all µ and ν. In particular

R01 = 0 ⇒ ∂0 β = 0 ⇒ β = β(r) (5.20)

and

R22 = 0 ⇒ ∂0 R22 = 0 ⇒ ∂0 ∂1 α = 0 ⇒ α = f (r) + g(t). (5.21)

This implies that

− e2α(t,r) = −e2f (r) e2g(t) (5.22)
and by redefining
dt → e−g(t) dt (5.23)
the metric (5.15) takes the following form

ds2 = −e2α(r) dt2 + e2β(r) dr 2 + r 2 dΩ2 . (5.24)

CHAPTER 5. SCHWARZSCHILD SOLUTION 68

Since all of the metric component are independent of time this proves that the
spherically symmetric solution of vacuum Einstein equation must possesses
a time-like Killing vector. Such metrics are called stationary. If in addition
the time-like Killing vector is orthogonal to a family of space-like hyper-
surfaces, then the metric is call static.
To find α(r) and β(r) we note that
2
R00 = 0 , R11 = 0 ⇒ e2(α−β) R00 +R11 = 0 ⇒ (∂1 α + ∂1 β) ⇒ α = −β+const.
r
(5.25)
and by once again redefining time coordinates

ds2 = −e2α(r) dt2 + e−2α(r) dr 2 + r 2 dΩ2 . (5.26)

But since
µ
R22 = 0 ⇒ e2α (2r∂1 α + 1) = 1 ⇒ ∂1 re2α = 1 ⇒ e2α = 1 +
# $
r
(5.27)
we arrive at our final expression
) µ* 2 ) µ *−1 2
ds2 = − 1 + dt + 1 + dr + r 2 dΩ2 . (5.28)
r r

5.2 Schwarzschild metric

To give a physical interpretation to integration constant µ we consider the
asymptotic limit
µ
g00 (r → ∞) = −1 − (5.29)
r
µ
grr (r → ∞) ≈ 1 − (5.30)
r
which agrees with Newtonian (or weak gravitational) limit

g00 = −1 − 2Φ (5.31)
grr = 1 − 2Φ (5.32)

with potential
GM
Φ=− (5.33)
r
if we set
µ = −2GM. (5.34)
CHAPTER 5. SCHWARZSCHILD SOLUTION 69

This is in full agreement with Schwarzschild metric (5.1),

! " ! "−1
2 2GM 2 2GM
dr 2 + r 2 dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2 ,
# $
ds = − 1 − dt + 1 −
r r
(5.35)
where M is the Newtonian mass that would be measured at large distances
r ≫ 2GM. (5.36)
Note that asymptotically r → ∞ the Schwarzschild metric reduces to the
Minkowski metric,
ds2 = −dt2 + dr 2 + r 2 dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2 .
# $
(5.37)
It worth emphasizing that the Schwarzschild metric (5.36) has a coor-
dinate singularity at r = 0 and at r = 2GM. Similar problem is present
even in Minkowski metric (5.37) in spherical coordinates which is singular at
r = 0. The coordinate singularity does not necessarily mean that the theory
breaks down, and it is often possible to change the coordinates so that the
resulting metric is finite everywhere. For example the Minkowski metric can
be rewritten in Cartesian coordinates where the r = 0 is not any different
from any other point.
However, there are situations in which the coordinate singularities lead
to coordinate independent curvature singularities. For example, if the Ricci
scalar R, or any other scalar formed from Riemann tensor (e.g. Rµν Rµν ,
Rµνρσ Rµνρσ , etc.) divergencies at some point then such singularities cannot
be removed by simply changing coordinates. This would be regarded as a
break down of the theory. In the case of the Schwarzschild metric (5.36) one
can check that at r = 0 there is a curvature singularity since
12G2 M 2
Rµνρσ Rµνρσ = (5.38)
r6
but none of the curvature scalars blow up at r = 2GM and thus the point
(actually a two-sphere) is non-singular. This suggests that we have chosen
a poor coordinate system and one should try to find better coordinates to
describe the geometry at r = 2GM, also known as Schwarzschild radius.
Although there are objects (such as black holes) for which the full metric is
required, many gravitation objects (such Sun) have radius many orders of
magnitude larger than the Schwarzschild radius
R⊙ = 106 GM⊙ ≫ 2GM (5.39)
and the coordinate singularity of the vacuum Einstein equation at r = 2GM
becomes irrelevant.
CHAPTER 5. SCHWARZSCHILD SOLUTION 70

5.3 Geodesics in Schwarzschild

The non-vanishing Christoffel symbols for the metric (5.35) are given by

GM
Γ100 = (r − 2GM)
r3
−GM
Γ111 =
r (r − 2GM)
−GM
Γ001 = Γ010 =
r (r − 2GM)
1
Γ212 = Γ221 =
r
Γ122 = − (r − 2GM)
1
Γ313 = Γ331 =
r
Γ133 = − (r − 2GM) sin2 θ
Γ233 = − sin θ cos θ
cos θ
Γ323 = Γ332 = (5.40)
sin θ
leading to the following geodesic equations

d2 t 2GM dr dt
2
+ =0 (5.41)
dλ r (r − 2GM) dλ dλ
"2 "2 '! "2 ! "2 (
d2 r GM
! !
dt GM dr dθ 2 dφ
+ (r − 2GM) − −(r − 2GM) + sin θ =0
dλ2 r 3 dλ r (r − 2GM) dλ dλ dλ
(5.42)
"2
d2 θ 2 dθ dθ
!
dφ
+ − sin θ cos θ =0 (5.43)
dλ2 r dλ dλ dλ
d2 φ 2 dθ dr cos θ dθ dφ
2
+ +2 = 0. (5.44)
dλ r dλ dλ sin θ dλ dλ
To solve these equation we use the symmetry of the problem manifested
by the four Killing vectors (three rotations and one time translation). The
existence of Killing vectors imply that
dxµ
Kµ = const. (5.45)
dt
is conserved along geodesics of the three components of angular momenta
(one for magnitude and two for direction) and one component for the energy.
CHAPTER 5. SCHWARZSCHILD SOLUTION 71

If we choose the coordinates so that the direction of angular momenta is in

θ = 0, then the conservation of the direction implies that the motion is in
the plane of
π
θ= . (5.46)
2
Then we are left with only two Killing vectors
! ! " "
2GM
Kµ = − 1 − , 0, 0, 0 (5.47)
r
and
Lµ = 0, 0, 0, r 2 sin2 θ = 0, 0, 0, r 2 .
# $ # $
(5.48)
Then the conservation equations (5.45) take the forms of corresponding to
conservations of energy
! "
2GM dt
1− =E (5.49)
r dλ
and (the magnitude of) angular momentum
dφ
r2 = L. (5.50)
dλ
There are also an additional constants of motion
dxµ dxν
ϵ = −gµν (5.51)
dλ dλ
since
dxλ dxµ dxν dxν dxλ dxµ dxν dxλ dxν
! " ! " ! "
∇λ −gµν = −gµν ∇λ −gµν ∇λ = 0.
dλ dλ dλ dλ dλ dλ dλ dλ dλ
(5.52)
For null geodesics ϵ = 0 (e.g. trajectories of massless particles), for time-like
geodesics it is convenient to use proper time parametrization so that ϵ = +1
(e.g. trajectories of massive particle), and for space-like trajectories it is
convenient to choose parametrization so that ϵ = −1.
For the Schwarzschild metric the conservation equation (5.51) is
! " ! "2 ! "−1 ! "2 ! "2
2GM dt 2GM dr 2 dφ
− 1− + 1− +r = −ϵ. (5.53)
r dλ r dλ dλ
and from (5.49) and (5.50) we get
! "2 ! 2 "! "
2 dr L 2GM
−E + + +ϵ 1− =0 (5.54)
dλ r2 r
CHAPTER 5. SCHWARZSCHILD SOLUTION 72

which can be rewritten as

! "2
1 dr 1
+ V (r) = E 2 (5.55)
2 dλ 2

where
1 ϵGM L2 L2 GM
V (r) = ϵ − + 2− . (5.56)
2 r 2r r3
The first two terms in the potential are the same as in Newtonian mechan-
ics, but the last term is a new term due to the effects of general relativity.
Note that in the limit of small masses and large distances the correction is
negligible.
To find circular orbits we can differentiate the potential and set it to zero.
In Newtonian gravity

dV (r) 1 # L2
= 4 ϵGMr 2 − L2 r = 0 ⇒ r =
$
(5.57)
dr r ϵGM
and in general relativity
√
dV (r) 1 # L2 ± L4 − 12ϵG2 M 2 L2
= 4 ϵGMr 2 − L2 r + 3GML2 = 0 ⇒ r =
$
.
dr r 2ϵGM
(5.58)
In the limit of large angular momentum the solutions are given by
+ 2
L
stable orbit
r = ϵGM (5.59)
3GM unstable orbit

and the two orbits coincide at

r = 6GM (5.60)

when √
L= 12ϵGM (5.61)
which is the lowest bound of the radii of a stable orbits in Schwarzschild
metric. Evidently, the possible range of closed stable orbits

r > 6GM (5.62)

and closed unstable orbits

3GM < r < 6GM. (5.63)

CHAPTER 5. SCHWARZSCHILD SOLUTION 73

The situation with non-circular orbits is much more subtle since one needs
to solve an equation for φ(λ) which is usually done using power series ap-
proximation. The solutions are not ellipses as in Newtonian mechanics and
would experience precession. To find the angular solutions we make use of
(5.50) or
! "−2
dφ r4
= 2. (5.64)
dλ L
to rewrite (5.55) as
! "2
dr 1 2GM 3 E2 4
+ 2 r4 − r + r 2
− 2GM r = r (5.65)
dφ L rL2 L2
where we have chosen to work with proper time by setting ϵ = 1. Then in a
new variable
L2
x= (5.66)
GMr
the equation is
! "2
dx L2 2G2 M 2 3 2E 2 L2
+ 2 − 2x + x2 − x = 2 2. (5.67)
dφ GM L2 GM
By differentiating it with respect to φ we get
d2 x 3G2 M 2 2
− 1 + x = x. (5.68)
dφ2 L2
dx
since dφ ̸= 0 for non-circular orbits. In Newtonian limit the right hand side
would be zero and the solution would be given by

x0 = 1 + e cos φ (5.69)

where ,
b2
e= 1− (5.70)
a2
is the eccentricity where a and b are the semi-major and semi-minor axes.
To study the leading correction due to effects of general relativity we expand

x ≈ x0 + x1 (5.71)

to obtain
d2 x1 3G2 M 2 3G2 M 2
!! " "
2 1 1 2
+x1 ≈ (1 + e cos φ) = 1 + e2 + 2e cos φ + e cos 2φ .
dφ2 L2 L2 2 2
(5.72)
CHAPTER 5. SCHWARZSCHILD SOLUTION 74

where we used cos2 φ = (cos 2φ + 1) /2. But since

d2
(φ sin φ) + φ sin φ = 2 cos φ (5.73)
dφ2
d2
(cos 2φ) + cos 2φ = −3 cos 2φ (5.74)
dφ2
we can combine the two solutions to match the right hand side of (5.72),
3G2 M 2
!! " "
1 2 1 2
x1 = 1 + e + eφ sin φ − e cos 2φ . (5.75)
L2 2 6
where only the second term is important for large φ, and thus,
3G2 M 2
x ≈ 1 + e cos φ + eφ sin φ
L2
3G2 M 2
-! " .
≈ 1 + e cos 1 − φ . (5.76)
L2
Therefore during each orbit perihelion advances by
6πG2 M 2
∆φ = 2πα = . (5.77)
L2
But from (5.66) and (5.69)
(1 − e2 )a
L2 = GMxr ≈ GM(1 + e cos φ) = GM(1 − e2 )a (5.78)
1 + e cos φ
and thus
6πGM
∆φ = . (5.79)
(1 − e2 )a

5.4 Black-Holes
Consider a stationary observer with respect to Schwarzschild coordinates
with four-velocity
'! "−1/2 (
2GM
U= 1− , 0, 0, 0 . (5.80)
r

Then the observer would measure frequency of a photon give by

ν
! "1/2
µ dx 2GM dt
ω = −gµν U = 1− (5.81)
dλ r dλ
CHAPTER 5. SCHWARZSCHILD SOLUTION 75

and from conservation condition (5.49) along photon’s trajectory,

"1/2 "−1/2
dxν
! !
2GM dt 2GM
ω = −gµν U µ = 1− = 1− E. (5.82)
dλ r dλ r
Thus the frequency shift as measured by two observers at rest with respect
to Schwarzschild coordinates is given by
/
1 − 2GM
0
ω2 0 r1 GM GM
= 1
2GM
≈1− + = 1 + Φ1 − Φ2 . (5.83)
ω1 1 − r2 r1 r2

Thus the photons moving away from the origin (or larger values of Newtonian
potential) are red-shifted (or loose energy), and the photons moving towards
the origin (or smaller values of Newtonian potential) are blue-shifted (or gain
energy).
Consider the behavior of light cones in Schwarzschild coordinates for con-
stant φ and θ = 0, i.e.
! " ! "−1
2 2GM 2 2GM
ds = 0 = − 1 − dt + 1 − dr 2 (5.84)
r r
Then ! "2 ! "−2
dt 2GM
= 1− (5.85)
dr r
or ! "−1
dt 2GM
=± 1− . (5.86)
dr r
In the limit r → 2GM the two solutions close up as
dt
lim = ∞. (5.87)
r→2GM dr
This means that it would take an infinite coordinate time to reach the surface
r = 2GM for an arbitrary observer, but it does not mean that the proper
time to reach the surface is infinite. The main problem is that the coordinate
time runs too fast near r = 2GM. To fix the problem we can introduce the
so called tortoise coordinates
) r *
r ∗ = r + 2GM ln −1 (5.88)
2GM
in which (5.86) has a simple solution

t = ±r ∗ + const. (5.89)
CHAPTER 5. SCHWARZSCHILD SOLUTION 76

In the tortoise coordinates the Schwarzschild solution takes the following

form ! "
2 2GM #
−dt2 + dr ∗2 + r 2 dΩ2 .
$
ds = 1 − (5.90)
r
Evidently the light-cone do not “close up”, but the surface r = 2GM was
pushed to r ∗ = −∞. Since our objective is to study the region r < 2GM the
tortoise coordinates are not sufficient.
The solution is to consistently follow the future directed curves by replac-
ing t with a null coordinate
v = t + r∗. (5.91)
Then is we also switch back to the radial coordinate r we get
! "
2GM
ds2 = − 1 − dv 2 + (dvdr + drdv) + r 2 dΩ2 . (5.92)
r
The new coordinates are known as Eddington-Fikelstein in which
dv
=0 (5.93)
dr
and ! "−1
dv 2GM
=2 1− (5.94)
dr r
describe respectively the in-falling and outgoing future directed null trajec-
tories. Note that all of the in-falling light rays are described by horizontal
lines
v = const (5.95)
and at r = 2GM the outgoing light ray is a vertical line

r = const (5.96)

which describes the so-called event horizon.

Alternatively one could have chosen to follow the past directed curves by
defining
u = t − r∗ (5.97)
so that the metric is
! "
2 2GM
ds = − 1 − du2 + (dudr + drdu) + r 2 dΩ2 . (5.98)
r
CHAPTER 5. SCHWARZSCHILD SOLUTION 77

In these coordinates
du
=0 (5.99)
dr
and ! "−1
du 2GM
= −2 1 − (5.100)
dr r
describe respectively the outgoing and in-falling null trajectories.
To describe both the future directed, past directed and space-like geodesics
all on the same chart we define
) r ! "
′
*1/2 r+t
v = −1 exp (5.101)
2GM 4GM
) r ! "
*1/2 r−t
u′ = − −1 exp . (5.102)
2GM 4GM
In the new coordinates the metric
16G3 M 3 ) r *
ds2 = − exp − (dv ′ du′ + du′ dv ′ ) + r 2 dΩ2 (5.103)
r 2GM
does not have any coordinates singularities at the horizon for any geodesic
passing through r = 2GM. We can now switch from two null coordinates v ′
and u′ back having only one time coordinate
! "
1 ′ ′
) r *1/2 ) r * t
T = (v + u ) = −1 exp sinh (5.104)
2 2GM 4GM 4GM
and one more spatial coordinate
! "
1 ) r *1/2 ) r * t
R = (v − u) = −1 exp cosh (5.105)
2 2GM 4GM 4GM

(known as Kruskal coordinates) in terms of which the metric becomes

32G3 M 3 ) r *#
ds2 = −dT 2 + dR2 + r 2 dΩ2
$
exp − (5.106)
r 2GM
where ) r * ) r *
T 2 − R2 = 1 − exp . (5.107)
2GM 2GM
There are a number of useful properties of Kruskal coordinates:
• Null rays are at ±45% angles

T = ±R + const. (5.108)
CHAPTER 5. SCHWARZSCHILD SOLUTION 78

• Horizon is a null surface

T = ±R. (5.109)
• Constant r surfaces are hyperbolas
T 2 − R2 = const. (5.110)

• Constant t surfaces are straight lines

! "
t
T = R tanh . (5.111)
4GM
• The range of coordinates
−∞ ≤ R ≤ ∞
T2 < R2 + 1. (5.112)

The Kruskal diagram provides an easy way of analyzing the Schwarzschild

solution where the coordinates have infinite range. Another diagram which
is often used to study the causal structure of space-time is known as the
conformal diagram (or Penrose diagram, or Carter-Penrose diagram) where
the range of coordinates is finite by construction. In the null version the
Kruskal coordinates are given by
16G3 M 3 ) r *
ds2 = − exp − (dv ′ du′ + du′ dv ′ ) + r 2 dΩ2 (5.113)
r 2GM
where ) r *
v ′ u′ = − − 1 er/2GM . (5.114)
2GM
The one can map the coordinates u′ and v ′ with infinite range to new coor-
dinates
v′
! "
′′
v = arctan √ (5.115)
2GM
u′
! "
u′′ = arctan √ (5.116)
2GM
with only finite range
π π
− < v ′′ < +
2 2
π π
− < u′′ < +
2 2
π ′′ ′′ π
− <v +u < + . (5.117)
2 2
In these new coordinates the diagram for the maximally extended Schwarzschild
solution is called a conformal diagram.