Index

1.1. Chemistry is important for anyone studying the sciences

Bab I Konsep-konsep Dasar dan 1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature
Satuan Pengukuran 1.3 Matter is composed of elements, compounds, and
mixtures
1.4. Properties of matter can be classified in different ways
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties
1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty
Brady & Senese 5th Ed
1.7. Units can be converted using the factor-label method
1.8. Density is a useful intensive property

1
2

Chemistry and the Sciences Scientific Method : Getting Started

• Chemistry- the study of the composition of matter Observe a Phenomenon-accurately

and its transformations describe something we see, taste, feel,
• Matter- anything that takes up space and has mass smell or hear
• Chemical reaction- change that results from the
interaction of matter.
Pose A Question
To Explain The Phenomenon

Form a Hypothesis-a
tentative explanation of the
phenomenon
1.1. Chemistry is important for anyone studying the sciences 3 1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 4

Scientific Method: Testing the Hypothesis Scientific Method Case Study:

The Process of Growth
Experiment to Prove or Disprove • A child sees that a seed, when planted in soil,
Hypothesis watered, and exposed to sunlight, grows to form a
flower. He concludes that all living things require
sunlight, water, and burial in soil to grow.
If experiment disproves
If experiment proves
hypothesis,
• Build a case for rebuttal using the scientific
hypothesis, method.
Pose new question or
form theory (theoretical model)
hypothesis

Continue experimentation.
If results form pattern,
considered a law
1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 5 1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 6

1
Your Turn! Your Turn!

Which of the following is not a hypothesis A chicken egg is buried, left in the sun, and watered.
for the observed plant growth? A second egg is left above the soil, watered and
left in the sun. Would this prove that soil is
A. soil is necessary to all growth
necessary to growth?
B. light is essential to growth of the seed
A. Yes
C. water is required to allow growth
B. No
D. plants grow to a greater height if they
receive fertilizer
E. none of the above

1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 7 1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 8

The Scientific Method- Evaluating The Data The Scientific Method is Cyclical
A theory is an explanation (based on well-tested,
internally consistent experimental results)
about why the phenomenon may occur

it should explain currently available data

It should be as simple as possible

It should clearly show underlying connections

It should accurately predict future behaviors

1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 9 1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 10

Atomic Theory Helps Us Visualize Matter Models Helps Us Visualize Matter

• Air inflates a balloon

air must be composed of matter

the matter is colliding with the walls
of the container.
• A leaf floats on water’s surface

water is composed of particles that
occupy space
• A leaf falls through air, but rests
on water’s surface

particles are closer in liquid than in
gases

1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 11 1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 12

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Changes in Matter Learning Check: Chemical Or Physical Change?

• Chemical change- a process that results in the

formation of a new substance Chemical Physical
• Evidence? Formation of a new solid, new liquid, Magnesium burns when heated
new gas, temperature change, or an unexpected in a flame
color change Magnesium metal tarnishes in
• Physical change- a process that results in no new air
substance, but that may change the state of those Magnesium metal melts at
present, or the proportions 922K
Grape Kool-aid lightens when
water is added

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 13 1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 14

Your Turn! Matter Can Be Classified By Its Properties:

• Matter is either a pure substance or a mixture
Which of the following is not a chemical change? • Mixtures may be separated using physical methods
A. a match burns in air such as chromatography, filtration, sieving
B. ice melts in air
C. an aluminum door whitens in air
D. all of these
E. none of these

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 15 1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 16

What Is An Element? Weird Science

• Elements - substances that cannot be • Eleven symbols bear no resemblance to their English
names - their names are derived from other languages
decomposed into simpler substances
• Some of these are used in naming, and these are
• shown on the periodic table as symbols: “K” for
highlighted
potassium and “Na” for sodium
Sb antimony stibium K potassium kalium
• made of identical atoms, either singly or in
Cu copper cuprum Sn tin stannum
groups
Au Gold aurum Na sodium natrium
Ag silver argentum W tungsten wolfram

Fe iron ferrum Hg mercury hydragyrum

Pb lead plumbum
1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 17 1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 18

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 What Is A Compound? Mixtures
• mixtures consist of varying
• Compounds - formed from two or more atoms of
amounts of two or more
different elements combined in a fixed elements or compounds
proportion • Homogeneous mixtures or
• Have different characteristics than the elements “solutions”- have the same
that compose them properties throughout the
• Can be broken down into elements by some sample
chemical changes
Brass, tap water
• Heterogeneous mixtures-
consist of two or more phases

Salad dressing, Coca-Cola ™

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 19 1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 20

Learning Check: Classification Your Turn!

• brass is pure • True

Sand Ice Flour Table Salt
(NaCl) • False
(H2O)
Pure • natural peanut butter made only by
Element crushing peanuts is pure • True
Compound • False
Molecule
• because blood cells can be distinguished
Heterogeneous Mix
from plasma under a microscope, blood • True
Homogeneous Mix is a heterogeneous mixture: • False

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 21 1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 22

Classification Of Matter By State Properties Of Matter

Classification by state is based on packing, motion, • Chemical properties describe the behavior of the
and shape matter that leads to the formation of a new

Solids have fixed shape and volume substance: the "reactivity" of the substance

Liquids have fixed volume, but take the container shape • Physical properties can be observed about the

Gases have to expand to fill the shape and volume of matter alone, without changing the composition
the container

1.4. Properties of matter can be classified in different ways 23 1.4. Properties of matter can be classified in different ways 24

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 Learning Check: Chemical or Physical Your Turn!
Property?
Which of the following is a chemical property?
Chemical Physical A. water is colorless
B. water reacts violently with solid Na metal
Magnesium metal is grey C. water dissolves table salt
D. all of these
Magnesium metal tarnishes in air E. none of these

Magnesium metal melts at 922K

Magnesium reacts violently with

hydrochloric acid

1.4. Properties of matter can be classified in different ways 25 1.4. Properties of matter can be classified in different ways 26

Intensive And Extensive Properties Measurements are Observations

• Intensive properties are independent of sample • Qualitative observations are non-numerical-- ask
size “what” or “how” or “why”

Examples: color, texture and temperature • Quantitative observations are numerical--ask
• Extensive properties depend on sample size “how much” and are also called measurements

Examples: volume and mass • This course is general chemistry with quantitative
• Properties used to identify substances are always analysis
intensive

Density, color, and texture are often helpful in
identification, but temperature is not

1.4. Properties of matter can be classified in different ways 27 1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 28

Your turn! Measurements:

• Always involve a comparison
Which of the following is a quantitative
observation?
• Require units
• Involve numbers that are inexact (estimated). This
A. the height of the plant uncertainty is due to the limitations of the observer
B. the mass of water added and the instruments used
C. the temperature of the day • In science, all digits in a measurement up to and
including the first estimated digit are recorded
D. all of the above
E. none of the above

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 29 1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 30

5
Measurements and units Derived units
• In the U.S., we use the Imperial (USCS) System involve a combination of base units, including:
• The scientific community (and most of the world)
uses the metric system
• Variations in the metric system exist, thus a Measurement Formula SI Units
standard system is used: International System of Area length × width m2
Units (SI) Volume length × width × height m3
• SI units we will use now: Velocity distance/time m/s

Length (m) Mass (kg) Time (s) Temperature (K) Acceleration velocity/time m/s2
Density mass/volume kg/m3

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 31 1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 32

Decimal multipliers Learning Check: Complete The Missing

Prefix (Symbol) = Numerical Equivalent
Information
• Giga ( G ) = 109
• Mega- ( M ) = 106 103 g kg
• kilo- ( k ) = 103
pg
• centi- ( c ) = 10-2 10-12 g
• milli- ( m ) = 10-3
10-9 m nm
• micro- ( µ) = 10-6
• nano- ( n ) = 10-9
106 g Mg
• pico ( p ) = 10-12
10-2 L cL

109 Hz GHz

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 33 1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 34

Your Turn! You May Encounter Non-SI Metric Units:

Identify the correct conversion:

A. Gm=109 m measurement name symbol Value
B. 109 Gm = m
length angstrom Å 10-10m
C. Gm = 10-9 m
D. none are correct mass amu u 1.66054×10-27 kg
metric ton t 103 kg
time minute min 60 s
hour h 3600 s
volume liter L 1000 cm3

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 35 1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 36

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Mass- Matter Content Length

USCS: in, ft, yd, mi

USCS: oz (avdp.), lb, T
Metric: g Metric: L, cm3
SI: kg SI: m
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 37 1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 38

Volume-bulk Your Turn!

• measured directly, using Which of the following is not a USCS unit?
equipment for A. ft.
volumetric measure
• calculated using B. m
dimensional (length) C. gal.
information and D. T.
appropriate formulas.
1 cm3= 1mL
• USCS: fl. oz., pt., qt.,
gal
• Metric: L, cm3
• SI: m3
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 39 1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 40

Your Turn! Temperature

Which of the following is not a volume unit?

A. mL
B. qt
C. in3
D. cm

• USCS: °F
• Metric: °C
• SI: K
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 41 1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 42

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Temperature Conversions Complete The Following:
 9 oF 
o • 13.5°C=? °F t =  o  × 13.5 oC + 32 oF
9 F F 5 C 
tF =  o tC + 32 F
o
= 24.3 + 32 = 56.3 oF
5 C • 27.50 °F =? °C
  oF 
9 o
oC  × toC + 32 F
F  5
t =
• -34.5 °F =?K
 9 oF 
t − 32 oF =  o  × to
o  1K  F 5 C C
TK = (tC + 273.15 C ) o   tF − 32 oF   5 oC 
1 C  
 1
 ×  o  = to
 9 F  C
Ft − 32 oF   5 oC 
  ×  o  = to  27.50 − 32 oF   5 oC  o
 1  9 F  C   ×  o  = to = −2.50 C
 1  9 F  C
 − 34.5 − 32 oF   5 oC  o
  ×  o  = to = −36.944 C
 1  9 F  C
T = to + 273.15 = 236.2 K
K C
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 43 1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 44

Your Turn! Measurement Error

Which of the following is the lowest temperature? • Because each measurement involves an estimate,
measurements always have error.
A. 300. K
B. 16 ºC
• Record all measured numbers, including the first
estimated digit
C. 55 ºF
D. they are the same
• These digits are called significant digits or
significant figures
• Exact numbers have infinite significant digits

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 45 1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 46

Significant Digits In A Measurement Are Errors Arise From A Number Of Sources

Limited By Instrument Precision Including:
• Errors-inherent error due to the equipment or
• Using the first thermometer, the procedure
temperature is 21.3 ºC (3
Changing volume due to thermal expansion or contraction
significant digits) (temperature changes)

Improperly calibrated equipment

procedural design allows variable measurements
• Using the more precise (second) • Mistakes-blunders that you know that you have made.
thermometer, the temperature is
Do not use these data
21.32 ºC (4 significant digits)
Spillage

Incomplete procedures

Reading scales incorrectly

Using the measuring device incorrectly
1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 47 1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 48

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Reducing Error: Accuracy vs. Precision

• Errors can often be detected by making repeated
measurements
• Error can be reduced by calibrating equipment
• The average or mean reduces data variations: it
helps find a central value
• An accurate measurement is close to the true or
correct value, a “hole-in-one”
• A precise measurement is close to the average of a
series of repeated measurements
• When calibrated instruments are used properly, the
greater the number of significant figures, the greater
is the degree of precision for a given measurement

1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 49 1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 50

Rules For Significant Figures (Sig Figs) Learning Check: How Many Significant
• Non-zero digits are significant Figures Are There In The Following?
• Zeros between significant digits are significant 3
2.33
• Zeros to the right of non-zero digits in a number
that contains a decimal point are significant
(Trailing with a decimal point) 500.0 4
• Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are never
counted as significant (Leading) 1000 1
• Zeros at the end of a number without a decimal
point are assumed not to be significant (Trailing
without a decimal place) .0500 3

1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 51 1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 52

Your Turn! Measurements Limit The Precision Of

Calculated Results
How many sig. figs. are there in the number 010.010?
Rules for combining measurements depend on the
A. 2
type of operation performed:
B. 3
• Multiplication and division
C. 4

The number of sig. figs in the answer should not be
D. 5 greater than the number of sig. figs in the factor with
E. none of these the fewest sig. figs

3.14 × 2.751
0.64
= 13
(3 sig. figs.) × (4 sig. figs.)
(2 sig. figs.)
= (2 sig. figs.)

1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 53 1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 54

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Your Turn! Addition and Subtraction
The answer should have the same number of decimal places as
How many sig. figs. result from the following: the quantity with the fewest number of decimal places (least
12.33 x 0.00002? precise)
A. 2
3.247 ← 3 decimal places
B. 3 41.36 ← 2 decimal places
C. 4 Only 1! +125.2 ← 1 decimal place

D. 5 169.8 ← answer rounded to 1 decimal place

E. none of these

1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 55 1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 56

Your Turn! Exact Numbers

How many sig. figs. result from the following:

10.33-0.0344? • Numbers that come from definitions are exact and have
no uncertainty
A. 2
B. 3
• They can be assumed to contain an infinite number of
significant figures
C. 4
D. 5
E. none of these

1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 57 1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 58

Your Turn! Unit Conversions

How many sig. figs. result from the following? • Suppose we wish to convert 25 miles to km.
A. 2 (10.0 x 10.88) - 12.2 Further, we know that there are .6215 miles in a
2.2 km.
B. 3
C. 4 • We can assemble a ratio and solve this problem.
D. 5 25 miles 0.6215 miles
=
? km 1km
E. none of these

easy enough because we have a direct conversion
between the units

Often, we must piece together multiple steps and this
approach is impractical

1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 59 1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 60

10
 Definitions of One Learning Check
Write two fractions from the following conversion factors
• Remember that 3 teaspoons (tsp) = 1 tablespoon
(Tbsp) • 4 qt = 1 gal 4 qt/ 1gal 1 gal/4 qt
• Using the logic that a number divided by its
equivalent = 1, then it follows that:
• Clearly 3/1 is not 1, but the units make the • 8 fl oz=1 c 8 fl oz / 1c and 1c/ 8 fl oz
statement true.
• Thus we could multiply any number by either of
these fractions (1) and the number has the same • 16 oz. = 1 lb 16 oz./1 lb and 1 lb/16 oz.
value.
3tsp 1Tbsp
= 1 and =1
1Tbsp 3tsp
1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 61 1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 62

Using Conversion Fractions Your Turn!

Given that 2.205 lb=1 kg, which of the following is an
• Since we can multiply by “1” and the value remains appropriate conversion factor?
unchanged, we can multiply by these conversion
fractions to change the units of a measurement. A. B. C. D. E.
• For example, 12 in = 1 ft so the conversion of 3.5 ft
None of
to in. can be done using one of these two conversion 1 lb 2.205lb 1 lb 2.205 lb these
fractions  12in   1ft  2.205 kg 1 kg 1 kg 2.205 kg
  = 1 and   =1
 1ft   12in 

3 .5 ft  12 in 
  = 42 in
1  1 ft 
1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 63 1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 64

USCS Unit Conversions USCS And Metric Units Are Related Using “Critical
Links”
Mass Volume Distance
USCS to Metric Metric to USCS
16 oz. (avdp.) = 1 lb. 3 tsp. = 1 Tbsp. 12 in. = 1 ft.
2000 lb. = 1 T. 16 Tbsp. = 1 c. 3 ft. = 1 yd. Length 1 in. = 2.54 cm 1 m = 39.37 in
2 c. = 1 pt. 1760 yd. = 1 mi. 1 yd = 0.9144 m 1 km = 0.6215 mi
2 pt. = 1 qt. 1 mi = 1.609 km
4 qt. = 1 gal. Mass 1 lb = 453.6 g 1 kg = 2.205 lb
8 fl. oz. = 1 c. 1 oz = 28.35 g
Volume 1 gal = 3.785 L 1 L = 1.0567 qt
1 qt = 946.4 mL
1 oz (fluid) = 29.6 mL
It is also useful to know that 1 mL = 1 cm3=1 cc
1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 65 1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 66

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 Building Conversion Factors in Unit Learning Check:
Conversions
Write all conversion factors needed to convert
1. Write the number to be converted as a fraction the following: • 12 in.=1 ft
(with units) • 33 in to yd • 3 ft =1 yd
2. Identify the target units • 2 c.=1 pt.
3. Are the starting units in the same system as the • 2 pt.=1 qt.
target? • 450 c to gal • 4 qt.=1 gal.

If not, you will need a critical link. • 60 s=1 min

USCS→USCS Conversions: Write down the
conversion factors from smallest to largest . • 56 y to s •
•
60 min=1 h
24 h=1 da

metric →metric conversions: Write down the • 365.25 da=1 y
definitions of all prefixed units.
• 25 mph to ft/s •
•
Distance: 3 ft=1 yd; 1760 yd=1 mi
Time: 60 s=1 min; 60 min=1 h
1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 67 1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 68

Learning Check:
Learning Check:
Write all conversion factors needed to convert Write Down All Conversion Factors Needed To Convert
the following: The Following:
•Crit. Link: 453.6 g=1 lb
• 33 mm to km • mm=10-3 m • 3.03 g to T •US→US: 2000 lb = 1 T
• km=103 m
• 450 cg to ng • cg=10-2 g
• 0.545 ft to km •CL: 2.54 cm=1 in
• ng =10-9 g •US→US: 12 in=1 ft
• µs=10-6 s
• 56 µs to Ms • Ms=109 s • 25 mph to km/s •m→m: cm=10-2 m; km=103 m

• mL=10-3 m •Distance: CL: 2.54 cm =1 in

• 25 mL to nL • nL=10-9 L
•US→US 12 in = 1 ft; 3 ft= 1 yd; 1760 yd = 1 mi;
Time:
60 s=1 min

•m →m: cm = 10-2 m; km= 103 m 60 min= 1 h

1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 69 1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 70

Building Conversion factors (cont). Learning Check:

4. Use the form of the conversion factor that allows Convert the following:
the units to cancel--they must be on opposite • 3.03 g to tons •3.34(10-6) T
levels of the fraction to cancel. • 0.545 ft. to km •1.66(10-4) km
5. Continue adding conversion factors until the • 5.22 y to s •1.65(108) s
units match the target units.
• 25 mph to km/s
2nd Check- are all units written on the page two •1.1(10-2) km/s
times? If so, you have enough info to start the
problem.

1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 71 1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 72

12
Your Turn! Your Turn!

Given that 2.205 lb = 1 kg, what is the mass of 23.3 Given that 2.54 cm = 1 in, how many km are there in
lb expressed in kg? 25 ft?
A. 51.4 kg A. 7.6 km
B. 0.0946 kg B. 0.10 km
C. 10.6 kg C. 762 km
D. none of these D. none of these 7.6(10-3) km!

1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 73 1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 74

Density (d) Density relates a sample mass and volume

• intensive property defined as the ratio of an • Blood has a density of 1.05 g/cm3
object’s mass (m) to volume (v), d = m/v • We can say that 1.05 g of blood is equivalent to
1.00cm3
• characteristic of pure substances at a specified
temperature • Conversion factors can be constructed from this
equivalence, which could be used in the factor-label
• Since most substances expand when heated,
method
densities decrease when heated.
• units : g/L for gases and g/mL for solids and 1.05g blood 1.00cm3 blood
or
liquids. 1.00cm3 blood 1.05g blood

1.8. Density is a useful intensive property 75 1.8. Density is a useful intensive property 76

Learning Check: Your Turn!

A crash sounds from the lab- a large vial of mercury A glass bead with a mass of 5.96 g is dropped into a
has fallen from a broken shelf. We call the beaker of water containing 10.2 mL. If the
hazardous materials team to report the spill, about resulting volume is 12.3 mL, what is the density
2.0 quarts of mercury. They ask for the mass- what of the bead?
is it? (hint: d=13.69g/mL) A. 2.1 mL
2.0qt 1L mL 13.69 g B. 5.96 g
× × −3 × = 2.6(104) g C. 2.8 g/mL
1 1.0567 qt 10 L mL
D. 0.35 g/mL

1.8. Density is a useful intensive property 77 78

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