Cadence OrCAD Solutions

Learning Electronics
with PSpice
AC Circuits

Cadence Design System Inc Page 0

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CADENCE ORCAD SOLUTIONS .................................................................................................................................... 0

1. OVERVIEW: ............................................................................................................................................................... 2
2. INTRODUCTION TO THE TOPIC
3. LEARNING GOALS: ................................................................................................................................................ 2

3.1 AC RESPONSE OF RC CIRCUIT .................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

3.2 AC RESPONSE OF RL CIRCUIT ....................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
3.3 AC RESPONSE OF RLC CIRCUIT ..................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
3.4 CONCEPT OF RESONANCE ........................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

4. CONTENT:.................................................................................................................................................................. 6
4.1 AC RESPONSE OF RC CIRCUIT
4.1.1 ACADEMIC CONTENT
4.1.2 AN EXAPMLE IN OrCAD/PSpice
4.1.3 CORRELATION OF THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL RESULTS
4.2 AC RESPONSE OF RL CIRCUIT
4.2.1 ACADEMIC CONTENT
4.2.2 AN EXAPMLE IN OrCAD/PSpice
4.2.3 CORRELATION OF THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL RESULTS
4.3 AC RESPONSE OF RLC CIRCUIT
4.3.1 ACADEMIC CONTENT
4.3.2 AN EXAPMLE IN OrCAD/PSpice
4.3.3 CORRELATION OF THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL RESULTS

5. SUMMARY: ................................................................................................................................................................ 7
6. SELF LEARNING EXERCISE: ............................................................................................................................... 20
7. POINTER FOR ADVANCED TOPIC .................................................................................................................. 20

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 1. Overview:
Cadence OrCAD Solution’s “Learning with PSpice” resource material is made available
to all, for learning concepts of Electrical and Electronics engineering. This complete
material covers several diverse topics, ranging from basic theorems to very advanced
topics in the field of Electrical & Electronics Engineering.

2. Introduction to the Topic

AC RESPONSE OF THE CIRCUITS:
This literature deals with the sinusoidal steady state analysis of networks involving R,L
and C in different circuits.

IMPEDANCE :

 Electrical impedance, or simply impedance, is the measure of the opposition that a

circuit presents to the passage of a current when a voltage is applied. In quantitative
terms, it is the complex ratio of the voltage to the current in an alternating current (AC)
circuit. Impedance extends the concept of resistance to AC circuits, and possesses both
magnitude and phase.
 Impedance is defined as the frequency domain ratio of the voltage to the current.
In other words, it is the voltage–current ratio for a single complex exponential at
a particular frequency ω. In general, impedance will be a complex number, with
the same units as resistance, for which the SI unit is the ohm (Ω). For a sinusoidal
current or voltage input, the polar form of the complex impedance relates the
amplitude and phase of the voltage and current. In particular,
 The magnitude of the complex impedance is the ratio of the voltage amplitude to
the current amplitude.
 The phase of the complex impedance is the phase shift by which the current is
ahead of the voltage.

REACTANCE:

 In electrical and electronic systems, reactance is the opposition of a circuit element to a

change of electric current or voltage, due to that element's capacitance or inductance. A
built-up electric field resists the change of voltage on the element, while a magnetic field
resists the change of current.

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  Capacitance and inductance are inherent properties of an element, just like resistance;
their reactive effects are not exhibited under constant direct current, but only when the
conditions in the circuit change. Thus, the reactance differs with the rate of change, and
is a constant only for circuits under alternating current of constant frequency. In vector
analysis of electric circuits, resistance is the real part of complex impedance, while
reactance is the imaginary part. Both share the same SI unit, the ohm.
 An ideal resistor has zero reactance, while ideal inductors and capacitors consist
entirely of reactance.

THE CONCEPT OF POWER:

 In a direct current circuit the power is equal to the voltage times the current, or P = E X I.
If a voltage of 100 volts applied to a circuit produces a current of 10 amperes, the power
is 1000 watts. This is also true in an ac circuit when the current and voltage are in phase;
that is, when the circuit is effectively resistive. But, if the ac circuit contains reactance,
the current will lead or lag the voltage by a certain amount (the phase angle). When the
current is out of phase with the voltage, the power indicated by the product of the
applied voltage and the total current gives only what is known as the APPARENT
POWER. The TRUE POWER depends upon the phase angle between the current and
voltage.
 When an alternating voltage is impressed across a capacitor, power is taken from the
source and stored in the capacitor as the voltage increases from zero to its maximum
value. Then, as the impressed voltage decreases from its maximum value to zero, the
capacitor discharges and returns the power to the source. Likewise, as the current
through an inductor increases from its zero value to its maximum value the field around
the inductor builds up to a maximum, and when the current decreases from maximum
to zero the field collapses and returns the power to the source.No power is used up in
either case, since the power alternately flows to and from the source. This power that is
returned to the source by the reactive components in the circuit is called REACTIVE
POWER.
 In a purely resistive circuit all of the power is consumed and none is returned to the
source; in a purely reactive circuit no power is consumed and all of the power is
returned to the source. It follows that in a circuit which contains both resistance and
reactance there must be some power dissipated in the resistance as well as some
returned to the source by the reactance.
 As mentioned before, the true power of a circuit is the power actually used in the circuit.
This power, measured in watts, is the power associated with the total resistance in the
circuit. To calculate true power, the voltage and current associated with the resistance
must be used. Since the voltage drop across the resistance is equal to the resistance
multiplied by the current through the resistance, true power can be calculated by the
formula:

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  To calculate reactive power is to calculate the inductive power and capacitive power and
subtract the smaller from the larger.

 Apparent power is the power that appears to the source because of the circuit
impedance. Since the impedance is the total opposition to ac, the apparent power is that
power the voltage source "sees." Apparent power is the combination of true power and
reactive power. Apparent power is not found by simply adding true power and reactive
power just as impedance is not found by adding resistance and reactance.

To calculate apparent power, you may use either of the following formulas:

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  The POWER FACTOR is a number (represented as a decimal or a percentage) that
represents the portion of the apparent power dissipated in a circuit.

If you are familiar with trigonometry, the easiest way to find the power factor is to find
the cosine of the phase angle q. The cosine of the phase angle is equal to the power
factor.

You do not need to use trigonometry to find the power factor. Since the power
dissipated in a circuit is true power, then:

If true power and apparent power are known you can use the formula shown above.

Going one step further, another formula for power factor can be developed. By
substituting the equations for true power and apparent power in the formula for power
factor, you get:

Since current in a series circuit is the same in all parts of the circuit, IR equals IZ.
Therefore, in a series circuit,

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 3. Learning goals:
In this chapter we will learn about following concepts:

 AC RESPONSE OF RC CIRCUIT
 AC RESPONSE OF RL CIRCUIT
 AC RESPONSE OF RLC CIRCUIT
 CONCEPT OF RESONANCE

4. Content:
4.1 AC Response of RC circuit
4.1.1 Academic Content

An RC series circuit excited by an alternating sinusoidal voltage is shown.

The voltage source is given by V=Vm sin(ῳt)

In the given circuit,

1
Vm sin(ῳt) = I(R + 𝑗ῳC
)
𝑗
= I(R - ῳC
)= IZ
1 𝑗
Where, ῳC
is reactance of the capacitor and Z=R - ῳC
is the complex impedance whose
𝑗
real part is defined by resistance R and imaginary part by - ῳC
, which is due to
1
capacitor solely. This Xc = ῳC
is known as Capacitive Reactance.

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 𝑗 1 𝑗
Z=R - ῳC
= √𝑅 2 + (ῳC)2
exp (- ῳRC)
𝑉 𝑉 𝑗 𝑉𝑚 1
I=𝑍= 1
exp ( ῳRC) = 1
sin(ῳt + tan−1 ῳRC )
√𝑅2 + (ῳC)2 √𝑅2 + (ῳC)2

𝑉 1 𝑗 𝛱 𝑉𝑚 1 𝛱
Vc = -jIXc = 1 ῳC
exp ( ῳRC) exp (-j 2
)= 1
sin(ῳt + tan−1 ῳRC − 2
),
√𝑅2 + (ῳC)2 ῳC √𝑅2 +
(ῳC)2

And hence it can be clearly seen that voltage drop across the capacitor lags behind the
𝛱
current by an angle 2
……………………………………………………………………….(i)

Also through resultant phasor diagram,

− 𝑿𝒄
i.e if current is reference phasor , than source voltage lags behind it by angle 𝐭𝐚𝐧 ø = .
𝑹

4.1.2 An Example in OrCAD/PSpice

Following circuit can easily be captured in OrCad.

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  Now plots of current through circuit and voltage across capacitor with time can be easily
plotted through transient analysis simulation settings. Curves obtained will look
something like:

PLOT-1

 One can turn the toggle cursor on by clicking on button located on the toolbar of
PSpice and a window will pop-up as shown below giving x and y axis value at specified
point which in this case is indicated in above figure by red horizontal and vertical lines.

 Now select AC sweep as simulation profile and set logarithmic sweep of V1 from
10hertz to 1000 hertz and plot a curve of voltage across capacitor divided by current
through it i.e of reactance of capacitor versus frequency. A curve decreasing in nature as
shown below will be obtained.

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 PLOT-2

4.1.3 Correlation of theoretical and

practical results:
 Through PLOT-1 it can be clearly seen that voltage across capacitor lags behind the
current by 90 degrees which was also proved through theoretical results as in (i).
 Also in PLOT-2 we see that reactance decreases with frequency which should be there
1
also as , reactance i.e Xc = is inversely proportional to frequency and hence must
ῳC
decrease with increase in the value of frequency.

4.2 AC Response of RL Circuit:

4.2.1 Academic Content

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 The voltage source is given by V=Vm sin(ῳt)
In the given circuit,
Vm sin(ῳt) = I(R + 𝑗ῳL) = IZ
Where, 𝑗ῳL is reactance of the inductor and Z=R + 𝑗ῳL is the complex impedance
whose real part is defined by resistance R and imaginary part by ῳL , which is due to
inductor solely. This XL = ῳL is known as Inductive Reactance.
𝑗ῳL
Z= R + 𝑗ῳL = √𝑅 2 + (ῳL)2 exp ( R
)
𝑉 𝑉 𝑗ῳL 𝑉𝑚 ῳL
I=𝑍= exp ( ) = sin(ῳt - tan−1 )
√𝑅2 +(ῳL)2 R √𝑅2 +(ῳL)2 R

𝑉 𝑗ῳL 𝛱 𝑉𝑚 ῳL ῳL 𝛱
VL = jIXL = × (ῳL) × exp ( )exp (j )= sin(ῳt - tan−1 +2)
√𝑅2 +(ῳL)2 R 2 √𝑅2 +(ῳL)2 R
Here it can be clearly seen that voltage across inductor leads the current through it by an
𝛱
angle of ……………………………………………………………………………………(ii)
2

On a phasor diagram this is:

𝑿𝑳
i.e if current is reference phasor , than source voltage leads it by angle 𝐭𝐚𝐧 ø = .
𝑹

4.2.2 An Example in OrCAD/PSpice

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 Following circuit can easily be captured in OrCad.

 Now plots of current through circuit and voltage across capacitor with time can be easily
plotted through transient analysis simulation settings. Curves obtained will look
something like:

PLOT-3

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  One can turn the toggle cursor on by clicking on button located on the toolbar of
PSpice and a window will pop-up as shown below giving x and y axis value at specified
point which in this case is indicated in above figure by red horizontal and vertical lines.

 Now select AC sweep as simulation profile and set logarithmic sweep of V1 from
10hertz to 1000 hertz and plot a curve of voltage across capacitor divided by current
through it i.e of reactance of capacitor versus frequency. A curve increasing in nature as
shown below will be obtained.

PLOT-4

4.2.3 Correlation of theoretical and

practical results:
 Through PLOT-3 it can be clearly seen that voltage across inductor leads the current by
90 degrees which was also proved through theoretical results as in (ii).
 Also in PLOT-4 we see that reactance increases with frequency which should be there
also as , reactance i.e XL = ῳL is directly proportional to frequency and hence must
increase with increase in the value of frequency.

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4.3 AC Response of RLC Circuit
4.3.1 Academic Content:

The voltage source is given by V=Vm sin(ῳt)

In the given circuit,
𝑗
Vm sin(ῳt) = I(R - + 𝑗ῳL) = IZ
ῳC
𝑗
Where, 𝑗ῳL is reactance of the inductor, - ῳC
is reactance of capacitor and
𝑗
Z = R + 𝑗ῳL - ῳC is the complex impedance whose real part is defined by resistance R and
𝑗
imaginary part by ῳL and - , which exist due to inductor and capacitor respectively.
ῳC
1
1 1 2 𝑗(ῳL − )
ῳC
Thus , Z = R + j(ῳL - )=√ 𝑅2 + (ῳL − ) exp ( )
ῳC ῳC R
1
𝑉𝑚 ῳL −
ῳC
I= 1
sin(ῳt - tan−1 ( R
))
√𝑅2 +(ῳL − ῳC )2
1
𝑉𝑚 ῳL − 𝛱
−1 ῳC
Vc = 1
sin(ῳt - tan ( R
)- 2
)………………………………………(iii)
ῳC √𝑅2 +(ῳL − ῳC )2
1
ῳ L𝑉𝑚 ῳL − 𝛱
−1 ῳC
VL = sin(ῳt - tan ( )+ )…………………………………………(iv)
1 R 2
√𝑅2 +(ῳL − ῳC )2

On a phasor diagram this is:

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 𝑿𝑳−𝑿𝒄
i.e if current is reference phasor , than source voltage leads it by angle 𝐭𝐚𝐧 ø = .
𝑹

THE CONCEPT OF RESONANCE:

 For every combination of L and C, there is only ONE frequency (in both series and
parallel circuits) that causes XL to exactly equal XC; this frequency is known as the
RESONANT FREQUENCY. When the resonant frequency is fed to a series or parallel
circuit, XL becomes equal to XC, and the circuit is said to be RESONANT to that
frequency. The circuit is now called a RESONANT CIRCUIT; resonant circuits are tuned
circuits. The circuit condition wherein XL becomes equal to XC is known as
RESONANCE.
 Each LCR circuit responds to resonant frequency differently than it does to any other
frequency. Because of this, an LCR circuit has the ability to separate frequencies.

RESONANT FREQUENCY

 As stated before, the frequency at which XL equals XC (in a given circuit) is known as the
resonant frequency of that circuit. Based on this, the following formula has been derived
to find the exact resonant frequency when the values of circuit components are known:

 There are two important points to remember about this formula. First, the resonant
frequency found when using the formula will cause the reactances (XL and XC) of the L
and C components to be equal. Second, any change in the value of either L or C will
cause a change in the resonant frequency.
 An increase in the value of either L or C, or both L and C, will lower the resonant
frequency of a given circuit. A decrease in the value of L or C, or both L and C,
will raise the resonant frequency of a given circuit.
 Q factor or quality factor of the circuit is given by,

𝑉(𝐿) 𝑉(𝑐) ῳ𝑜 𝐿 1
Q= = = =
𝑉 𝑉 𝑅 ῳ𝑜 𝐶𝑅

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 Curve showing effect of
change in resistance on
current curve.

Current curve
Curves showing current
and impedance variation
with frequency.

Impedance curve

frequency

4.3.2 An Example in OrCAD/PSpice

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  In the simulation curves shown above, lowest plot window shows variation of voltage
across capacitor and resistance while the second plot window displays voltage through
inductor and current through the circuit is displayed in the first plot window. One can
easily notice through above curves that voltage across resistance is in same phase as
current through the circuit, while voltage across inductor leads the current by 90 degrees
and voltage across capacitor lags behind the current by 90 degrees. Same results were
also proved above in RL and RC circuit.

 One can turn the toggle cursor on by clicking on button located on the toolbar of
PSpice and a window will pop-up as shown below giving x and y axis value at specified
point which in this case is indicated in above figure by red horizontal and vertical lines.

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 o Now at resonance current is maximum and that point in the above waveform is
at the point where red cursor points and its value is 1.6280khz as can be seen in
the window below.

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 o Now to analyse the effect of change in value of Q factor on current for different
frequency values , one needs to do the parametric sweep of resistance and for
that settings of simulation profile can be done as shown below. Also one needs to
add PARAM part from SPECIAL.olb library and then click on edit properties
window. In that window add new row with variable name as var and value as
1k. This property can be displayed on screen through dispay > name and value
option.

o Resultant curves obtained will look something like :

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  4.3.3 Correlation of theoretical and
practical results:
 Resonant frequency for above example is given by formula

And it comes out to be 1.592 khz, which came out to be1.6280khz as was shown above and
thus both theoretical and practical results match upto a good approximation.

 Also seen in fig. that with increasing value of R maximum current or current at resonant
frequency decreases as well as curves for current at different frequency values shift
downwards and it should also be the case as Q-factor is inversely proportional to the
resistance.

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 5.Summary:
High level summary of chapter

6.Self learning exercise:

Short problems/exercises

7.Pointer for Advanced Topic (Optional)

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