Dalton's Atomic Theory

1) All matter is made of atoms. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible.

2) All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties

3) Compounds are formed by a combination of two or more different kinds of atoms.

4) A chemical reaction is a rearrangementof atoms.

Modern atomic theory is, of course, a little more involved than Dalton's theory
but the essence of Dalton's theory remains valid. Today we know that atoms can be
destroyed via nuclear reactions but not by chemical reactions. Also, there are different
kinds of atoms (differing by their masses) within an element that are known as
"isotopes", but isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties.

Many heretofore unexplained chemical phenomena were quickly explained by

Dalton with his theory. Dalton's theory quickly became the theoretical foundation in
chemistry.

The Groups or Families can be further categorized into the Representative Elements
and the Transition Metals. The Representative Elements are those elements within
the first two families (Groups I and II on the far left) and the last six families or
groups (on the right) of the Periodic Table. The Transition Metals are the elements in
those Groups within the middle of the Table.

Cations are ions with a net positive charge.

A cation is an ionic species with a positive charge. The word "cation" comes from
the Greek word "kato," which means "down." A cation has
more protons than electrons, giving it a net positive charge.

Cations with multiple charges may be given special names. For example, a cation
with a +2 charge is a dication. One with a +3 charge is a trication.
A zwitterion has both positive and negative charges at different regions of the
molecule, yet an overall neutral charge.

The symbol for a cation is the element symbol or molecular formula, followed by
a superscript of the charge. The number of the charge is given first, followed by a
plus symbol. If the charge is one, the numeral is omitted.

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The neutron is made of two Down and one Up quark. The Up quarks have a 2/3 positive charge and the
Down has a 1/3 negative charge.
A neutron is a sub-atomic (meaning it is smaller than an atom) particle. The nucleus of an atom is made
up of neutrons and protons. Neutrons and protons are almost exactly the same size (a neutron has
about 1/10th of one percent more mass). A neutron does not have an electrical charge, unlike protons
(which have a charge of +1) and electrons (which have a charge of -1). Neutrons are much larger than
electrons; the mass of a neutron is about 1,839 times that of an electron!

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines what type of element the atom is. The
number of protons is called the element's "atomic number". For example, hydrogen has an atomic
number of one, since all hydrogen atoms have one proton in their nucleus. Carbon has 6 protons, so its
atomic number is 6; oxygenhas 8 protons, so its atomic number is 8. Uranium has 92 protons, so its
atomic number is 92! If we count the number of protons plus neutrons, we get an atom's atomic mass.
Most elements come in different versions, called "isotopes", with different numbers of neutrons. For
example, the most common form of carbon is carbon-12 (12C); that isotope of carbon has 6 protons and
6 neutrons, and thus an atomic mass of twelve. Another isotope of carbon, carbon-14 (12C), has 6
protons and 8 neutrons, hence and atomic mass of fourteen. 12C is radioactive and is used to determine
how old things are in a technique called "carbon dating".

Neutrons can exist outside of an atoms nucleus. There is a type of particle radiation called neutron
radiation.

Neutrons are made up of even smaller particles called quarks. A neutron is made up of two down quarks
and one up quark. Particles, like neutrons, made of three quarks are called baryons.

Proton- Goldstein

Since the atom as a whole is electrically neutral and the presence of negatively charged
particles in it was established ,therefore, it was thought that some positively charged
particles must also be present in the atom.

Goldsstein in 1886 performed discharge tube experiment in which he took perforated

cathode and a gas at low pressure was kept inside the tube, as before.

Electron- J.J Thomson

Electron was discovered by J. J. Thomson in 1897 when he was studying the properties of
cathode ray.J. J. Thomson constructed a glass tube which was partially evacuated i.e. much
of the air was pumped out of the tube. Then he applied a high electrical voltage between two
electrodes at either end of the tube. He detected that a stream of particle (ray) was coming
out from the negatively charged electrode (cathode) to positively charged electrode (anode).
This ray is called cathode ray and the whole construction is called cathode ray tube. The
schematic of a cathode ray tube is given.