Session 2 Packet - Thursday, 05-23-2019 - Prepacket 2.2 - Carlos Ortiz

MCAT PREPARATION – CHEMISTRY
Mr. Carlos Ortiz | VICTORIA POPP

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PP
Victoria, this PrePacket 2.2 continues with the information bulk properties of gases,
liquids, and solids. We will conclude with Fluidity & Rigidity, Diffusion, and Surface
Tension. We will then begin our study of INTERMOLECULAR FORCES, the strongest
of which will be the HYDROGEN BOND!
NOTA BENE (NB): While the HYDROGEN BOND may be the strongest of the
2.2
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES, it is still very weak when compared to
INTRAMOLECULAR COVALENT BONDS which require a decent amount of energy to
break. We’ll see that ENERGY is a guiding principle to our understanding of not only
the explicit BOND STRENGTHS that exist INSIDE and BETWEEN MOLECULES, but also
to our understanding of molecular behavior. READ ON, SCHOLAR!
# of Questions: 11
Topics: CHEMISTRY
Time: Will vary: Anywhere from 60-90 minutes
TBCB: NEXT SESSION
Notes/Instructions: CHEMISTRY: Bulk Properties of Gases,
Check these off as we Liquids, and Solids: A Molecular Interpretation
complete them. for the MCAT
PrePacket 2.2
WORD BANK a “multiplier” indicates the word is used THAT MANY TIMES throughout the page.
rigidity elasticity fluidity VISCOSITY volumes

STRONG rigid force viscous SHEAR

CHEMISTRY: Bulk Properties 5) The properties of hardness (that’s a
resistance to INDENTATION) and
MACROSCOPIC MEASUREMENT: Fluidity & elasticity (that’s the capacity to
Rigidity “rebound” or return to shape when a
As much as we’ve learned so far about deforming stress is removed) are very
condensed phases (solids and liquids) and closely related to rigidity and they all
gases, we still have not touched upon the indicate that solids have a HIGH
MOST CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTY of gases SHEAR VISCOSITY whereas liquids
and liquids: their ability to FLOW, also known and solids DO NOT.
Note: A1v1 = A2v 2
as their fluidity.
6) The study of the flow or “fluidity” of
In stark contrast is the rigidity of solids matter, typically in a liquid state, is
which prevents them from flowing at all (and called rheology. The substances usually
also makes it difficult to deform or distort have a complex microstructure and
them). Let’s review some fundamentals: include muds, suspensions, certain
1) Liquids possess definite volumes but polymers, and even bodily fluids.
keep NO DEFINITE SHAPE! They actually
take on the SHAPES of whatever 1 SICKLED CELLS
containers they are in. a Abnormal rheologic behavior of sickle cells is the
result of increased viscosity of the blood caused by
2) Liquids flow easily under a stress (an polymerization of hemoglobin S and the resultant
externally applied force). production of dense, dehydrated sickle
erythrocytes. As the viscosity of the sickle cells
3) Liquids are viscous which is to say they increases there is a negative impact on blood flow
possess an inherent RESISTANCE TO which contributes to vascular occlusion and
hypertension. It follows that blood flow is
FLOW. On a microscopic level, we call it
shear viscosity and it arises from a thin A. inversely proportional to blood pressure and
layer of molecules being “dragged directly proportional to viscosity.
across” another layer – for some liquids, ` B. directly proportional to blood pressure and
this “drag” is very “sticky” while for inversely proportional to viscosity.
others it is almost not “sticky” at all – in C. directly proportional to both blood pressure and
other words, some liquids have great viscosity.
resistance to flow and therefore HIGH D. inversely proportional to both blood pressure
VISCOSITY while others have very little and viscosity.
resistance to flow and are said to have E.
veryFASTER
Blood flows LITTLEwhenVISCOSITY.
BP his high, SLOWER when in
BP is low (so directly proportional to BP). The opposite
is true Regardless of VISCOSITY
for blood flow and the level of– soshear
inversely
viscosity,
proportional MORE True or False
liquids still FLOW MUCH
to viscosity.
EASILY than any solid. In fact, the shear F The stronger the INTERMOLECULAR ATTRACTIVE
viscosities of most liquids are about 16 FORCES between molecules of a fluid, the less
viscous it is.
times LESS than those of most solids
(you can imagine that for GASES they F It is more difficult for the human heart to pump
low viscosity blood than high viscosity blood.
are even LESS).
T Blood viscosity is affected by red blood cell shape.
4) A rigid material retains its SHAPE under F Solids and gases possess definite volumes.
an applied stress; it is considered
structurally STRONG if it can RESIST
FLOW when stressed.
tripled diffuse gases slower temperature

MACROSCOPIC MEASUREMENT: Diffusion
Victoria, the concept of diffusion should be
familiar to you. Ever walk by a perfume
counter in Macy’s (or elsewhere)? You get
“hit” almost immediately by the different
scents of all the perfumes that have been
sprayed and tested (and pushed and
promoted – those people are like DRUG
DEALERS!)
When two different substances are placed in
contact (consider a drop of food coloring in a
beaker of plain distilled water), they start to
mix – we say that molecules of one type,
THE FOOD COLORING MOLECULE, migrate or
diffuse into regions that were initially
occupied only by the other type, THE WATER
MOLECULE. 2 Diffusion across a cell membrane
CONSIDER GASES: Molecules dispersed in a According to the table above, assuming diffusion
GASES at room temperature diffuse at rates depended on nothing else other than the diffusing
species, the host species, and the temperature of
on the order of centimeters per second the diffusion environment, which of the following
(makes sense why we smell perfumes pretty would diffuse the most through 1 square meter of
quickly when walking by the counter). membrane?
Assume both sides of the membrane have BOTH the host
CONSIDER LIQUIDS & SOLIDS: Our food and diffusing species and that the membrane is FULLY
coloring example highlights the fact that permeable to that species.
diffusion rates in liquids and solids are far A. CH4 at 273 K

slower. The diffusion constant of a
Methane at 273 K has the highest ` B. Ar at 300 K
substance measures the rate of -5 diffusive
diffusion constant at 2.06 x 10
mixing. square meters per second. C. O2 at 100 K
At room temperature and pressure, D. Ar at 100 K
diffusion constants for the diffusion of
E. HCl at 200 K
liquids into liquids are about four
orders of magnitude smaller than those
for gases into gases; 3 Diffusion Constant
a Which of the following is a possible diffusion
Diffusion constants of solids into solids constant for F2 into F2 at 273 K?
are MANY, MANY orders of magnitude 2
smaller yet. Diffusion in solids is really A. about 1.6 x 10-4 m per second
According to the table, the heavier
quite slow. Values of the diffusion
DIATOMIC gas will have the ` B. about 1.8 x 10-5 m2 per second
constant for selected
smaller materials
diffusion constant at the are
C. about 1.6 x 10-5 m2 per second
shown same
in the TABLE that
temperature. follows
The only choicein the
-5
that is smaller than the
next column on this page. Notice 1.8 x 10 that the D. about 1.8 x 10-4 m2 per second
diffusion constant of oxygen at 273
diffusion constant
K is choice C. is measured in m2 E. about 2.0 x 10-5 m2 per second
per s and is apparently temperature
dependent as the rate for diffusion of Ar
into Ar increased by almost 9 times when
the temperature was tripled.
arrangement boundaries stress intermediate resists vibrate viscosity

spherical intermolecular tension water temperatur freedom rigidity

MACROSCOPIC MEASUREMENT: Diffusion MACROSCOPIC MEASUREMENT: Surface Tension
Here’s another take on diffusion. Surface tension and its NATURAL
EXISTENCE is somewhat of a surprise to the
In liquids, molecules are free to travel
student of chemistry (and biology and
through the sample, changing neighbors
physics). Consider this:
constantly in the course of their diffusive
motion. This “freedom of movement” Phases (gases, liquids, solids) often co-
suggests that a liquid has low shear exist. The boundaries between these
viscosity, so its molecules can quickly phases is of special importance in
“change neighbors” as the liquid FLOWS in chemistry and biology. Each boundary
response to an external stress. has its own UNIQUE characteristics.
In solids, the molecules do not freely Let’s focus on the surface of water (or
move as they do in liquids, but they do any liquid for that matter) IN CONTACT
constantly vibrate about their equilibrium with air (or any gas). It turns out that
positions – they remain quite close to each the SURFACE OF THE LIQUID resists
other. This rigidity of the solid suggests, in attempts to increase its area (it just
contrast to liquids, that a durable network does NOT want to increase).
or arrangement of neighbors about any
given molecule exists most of the time. Check out this picture of a water droplet
DROPPING into water:
This durable arrangement of molecules
in a solid, as opposed to the FREEDOM OF
MOLECULES to diffuse more readily in a
liquid, is the critical difference between the
solid and liquid states. In the end, as far as
STRUCTURE goes, a liquid is essentially
intermediate between a gas and a solid.
4 Dissolution
a Considering diffusion of molecules, which of the
following is the most likely reason liquids can
dissolve substances more rapidly than do solids?
Surface tension works as follows in the
A. Individual molecules of a liquid move more
freely, making quicker contact with molecules of
picture above: The spherical shape of the
an added substance; new attractions between water droplets is caused by surface tension.
unlike molecules result in greater dissolution In the picture, a drop of water LANDED,
BOUNCED UP, and PULLED UP A COLUMN OF
` B. Liquid molecules have a greater hydrogen-
bonding capacity to split molecules of an added WATER – all droplets, from the ONE THAT
substance. INITIALLY DROPPED to the ones that were
Li pulled up in the column of water are
C. qu spherical because of surface tension.
Whileidhydrogen bonding is a major factor in the
s
dissolution of molecules that can hydrogen bond with
D. Solids can never dissolve molecules of an added
We will soon understand more intimately that
the solvent water molecules, the more “universal”
substance; only liquids can. surface tension is caused by the
reason is the SPEED with which liquid molecules move;
fasterE.andSolids
MOREhave
FREQUENT intermolecular attractions among the
lowerinteractions with solute
shear viscosities than liquids
particles means
so theygreater
cannotdissolution
dissolve ability.
added substances. molecules in the liquid and that the surface
tension of water is larger than that of most
other liquids at room temperature.

THROWBACK: MACROSCOPIC MEASUREMENT: MACROSCOPIC MEASUREMENT: Surface Tension
Compressibility
The compressibility of a substance is an
interesting property. By definition:
compressibility: the fractional DECREASE
in volume per unit increase in pressure.
The capital Greek letter kappa, , is used to

denote compressibility as follows:
DV
1 �DV � - V
 = - � �= DP
V �DP �
Surface tension, as we’ve noted, gives water
The idea is that a sample with a volume V is droplets their spherical shape especially in
subjected to some change in pressure, DP , the presence of air. One way to further
and the resulting change in volume, DV , is understand this is that surface tension
measured. causes the SURFACE OF THE WATER DROPLET
to behave like a weak, elastic skin.
5 Compressibility
a What is the magnitude of the compressibility of a If we ELIMINATE GRAVITY (think
substance that experiences a drop in volume from astronauts in a space craft floating
2 volume units to 1 volume unit because of an around), we observe that liquids FLOAT
increase in pressure of 5 units?
AROUND as spherical drops.
A. 1 1- 2
DV
- -
` B. 2 = 1 = 0.1 P -1 7 Surface Tension
K =0.1V =
DP +5 10
C. 0.2 a Why are spheres the natural shape for liquid
D. 0.05 droplets that experience “internal surface tension?”
E. 0.5 A. Surface tension is not sufficient to create
DV 1 - 4 “cubes” of liquid which are actually more natural
True or False = = 0.75 than spheres.
V 4
` B. Spheres contain the smallest volume for the
T The fractional decrease in volume for smallest surface area of any geometric shape.
compressibility in which a volume drops from 4 to
1 is 0.75 C. Spheres contain the smallest volume for the
largest surface area of any geometric shape.
6 Compressibility D. Spheres contain the largest surface tension for
the smallest surface area of any geometric
a If L, G, and S represent the compressibilities of shape.
liquids, gases, and solids, respectively, which of
the following is most accurate? E. Spheres contain the largest volume for the
smallest surface area of any geometric shape.
The
A. L > G = S only choice that makes sense
is D. Gases are the MOST
` B. L > S =COMPRESSIBLE
G and while liquids True or False
C. G > S > Land solids (S) might not have
(L)
identical compressibilities, they T Surface tension explains why water drops do not
D. G > L = S close enough for D to be the
are completely “spread out” or “flatten” on a surface.
E. S > L =only
G choice that makes sense.
True or False
T Liquids and solids are basically incompressible.

MACROSCOPIC MEASUREMENT: Surface Tension THROWBACK: MACROSCOPIC
We can better appreciate surface tension with MEASUREMENT: Thermal Expansion
the following figure: Thermal expansion is defined as follows:
thermal expansion: the fractional
INCREASE in volume per unit increase in
temperature.
The lowercase Greek letter, , is used to
denote the coefficient of isothermal
expansion as follows:
1 �DV �
= � �
V �DT �
We’ve already mentioned that surface tension
results from the intermolecular attractions
9 Thermal Expansion
among the molecules in the liquid. In the figure
a The isobaric coefficient of thermal expansion of a
above, we see that IF THE LIQUID IS TO gas that initially occupies a volume of 4 units and
INCREASE ITS SURFACE AREA, it would have to then expands to occupy a volume of 5 units after a
“redistribute” some of the inner molecules TO temperature increase of 1 K is
THE SURFACE BOUNDARY. This happens, but
A. 0.5 K
the surface area DOES NOT INCREASE MUCH
` B. 0.25 K
because:
C. 0.25 K-1
VICTORIA, PLEASE READ CAREFULLY
(re-read if need be): D. 0.50 K-1
Molecules at the EDGES have NO E. 4 K-1
NEIGHBORS one one side andNote: subsequently
PV = nRT
experience attractions ONLY FROM 10 Thermal Expansion
MOLECULES in the bulky interior of the a An ideal gas initially at 0 oC that is heated to 2 oC
liquid beneath it. In a sense, these “EDGE would experience what approximate increase in its
volume? (K = C + 273.15)
MOLECULES” are pulled inward and end up
as the LINING or BORDER of a “CURVED” or A. 9%
“SPHERICAL” SHAPE! Furthermore, those ` B. 7%
“EDGE MOLECULES” have a larger C. 273%
POTENTIAL ENERGY than the interior D. 0.72%
molecules.
E. 7.2%
8 Surface Tension ----------------------------------------------
a Which of the following is most accurate about the 11 RANDOM
spherical shapes of liquid droplets when a The n = 4 shell of an atom can hold a maximum of
surrounded by a gas phase exterior (i.e. air)?
A. 64 electrons
A. Energy is released as the surface area of the
droplet is increased. ` B. 32 electrons
` B. Surface tension increases as the droplet C. 24 electrons

becomes more spherical. D. 8 electrons
E. 6 electrons
C. Energy is required to increase the surface area
of a liquid droplet.
D. The gas phase exterior heats up the droplet,
causing it to become spherical.
E. Energy is required to decrease the surface area
of a liquid droplet.

Vic, based on your understanding thus far, wrap up this PrePacket with the following Fill-
in-the-Blanks paragraph and the WORD BANK provided:
WORD BANK a “multiplier” indicates the word is used THAT MANY TIMES throughout the paragraph.
volume SEPARATIONS forces solids neighbors negligible temperature

attractive tension room GREATER freely STRONGEST gases
condensed (x2) expansion external rigidity vibrate intermediate arrangement
exist resists Thermal intermolecular larger boundaries low
Thermal expansion coefficients of liquids and solids are much smaller than those for gases.
For example, heating water from 20 oC to 21 oC increases its volume by only 0.0212%. This
SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE in thermal expansion between condensed states (solids and
liquids) and gases is justified by strong intermolecular forces in condensed states.
With gases, the MUCH GREATER INTERMOLECULAR SEPARATIONS lead to much weaker
forces (in fact, the gas molecules are so far apart that attractive forces are essentially
negligible). In contrast, INCREASING the volume in a solid or a liquid requires that attractive
forces between each molecule and its neighbors be overcome. Because the intermolecular
distances in a solid or a liquid fall in the range where the intermolecular attractive forces are
STRONGEST, relatively small thermal expansion occurs when the temperature of a solid or
liquid is increased.
CONCLUSION: The SAME temperature increase produces much GREATER EXPANSION in a

gas than in any condensed phase.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
In liquids, molecules are free to travel through the sample, changing neighbors constantly in the
course of their diffusive motion. This “freedom of movement” suggests that liquids have low
shear viscosity, so its molecules can quickly “change neighbors” as the liquid FLOWS in
response to an external stress.
In solids, the molecules do not freely move as they do in liquids but they do constantly
vibrate about their equilibrium positions – they remain quite close to each other. This rigidity of
the solid suggests, in contrast to liquids, that a durable arrangement of neighbors about any
given molecule exists most of the time in the solid phase.
This durable arrangement of molecules in a solid, as opposed to the FREEDOM OF
MOLECULES to diffuse more readily in a liquid, is the critical difference between the solid and
liquid states. In the end, as far as STRUCTURE goes, a liquid is essentially an intermediate
between a gas and a solid.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Surface tension and its NATURAL EXISTENCE is somewhat of a surprise to the student of
chemistry (and biology and physics). Consider this:
Phases (gases, liquids, solids) often co-exist. The boundaries between these phases is of
special importance in chemistry and biology. Each boundary has its own UNIQUE
characteristics.
It turns out that the SURFACE OF THE LIQUID resists attempts to increase its area (it just
does NOT want to increase).
The spherical shape of the water droplets is caused by surface tension. We will soon
understand more intimately that surface tension is caused by the intermolecular attractions
among the molecules in the liquid and that the surface tension of water is larger than that of
most other liquids at room temperature.
STOP HERE

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MCAT PREPARATION – CHEMISTRY

Mr. Carlos Ortiz | VICTORIA POPP

rigidity elasticity fluidity VISCOSITY volumes

MCAT PREPARATION – CHEMISTRY

tripled diffuse gases slower temperature

MCAT PREPARATION – CHEMISTRY

diffusion rates in liquids and solids are far A. CH4 at 273 K

arrangement boundaries stress intermediate resists vibrate viscosity

MCAT PREPARATION – CHEMISTRY

MCAT PREPARATION – CHEMISTRY

The capital Greek letter kappa, , is used to

MCAT PREPARATION – CHEMISTRY

` B. Surface tension increases as the droplet C. 24 electrons

MCAT PREPARATION – CHEMISTRY

volume SEPARATIONS forces solids neighbors negligible temperature

CONCLUSION: The SAME temperature increase produces much GREATER EXPANSION in a

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