7.

10 Application and Advances in Microprocessing of Natural Fiber

(Jute)–Based Composites
MM Alam and M Maniruzzaman, Islamic University, Kushtia, Bangladesh
MM Morshed, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

7.10.1 Introduction 243

7.10.2 Jute: Jute Plant and Jute Fiber 244
7.10.2.1 Separation of Jute Fibers from Their Plants 245
7.10.2.2 Uses and Prospects of Jute 245
7.10.2.3 Chemical Composition and Structure of Jute Fiber 245
7.10.2.3.1 Cellulose 246
7.10.2.3.2 Hemicellulose 247
7.10.2.3.3 Lignin 247
7.10.2.4 Physicochemical Properties of Jute Fibers 248
7.10.2.4.1 Physical Properties 248
7.10.2.4.2 Chemical Properties 248
7.10.3 Treatment of the Fiber 249
7.10.4 Principles of Fiber Reinforcement 249
7.10.4.1 Stress–Strain Relationship 249
7.10.4.2 Effective Fiber Length 250
7.10.4.3 Fiber Orientation 251
7.10.4.4 Interfacial Bond 251
7.10.5 Matrix Considerations 251
7.10.5.1 Thermoplastic Polymers as Matrix 251
7.10.5.2 Thermosetting Polymers as Matrix 252
7.10.5.3 Metal Matrix Materials 252
7.10.5.4 Moisture Effect and Resin Compatibility 252
7.10.6 Experimental Procedure for Composite Preparation 253
7.10.6.1 Preparation of the Specimen 254
7.10.6.1.1 Jute Fiber Cutting 254
7.10.6.1.2 Mixing 254
7.10.6.1.3 Casting 255
7.10.6.1.4 Curing and Controlling 255
7.10.6.1.5 Cooling 255
7.10.6.1.6 Demolding 255
7.10.6.1.7 Density Calculation 255
7.10.7 Composite Fabrication 256
7.10.7.1 Hand Lay-Up/Spry-Up 256
7.10.7.2 Resin Transfer Molding 256
7.10.7.3 Compression Molding 257
7.10.7.4 Pultrusion 258
7.10.7.5 Injection Molding 258
7.10.7.6 Filament Winding 259
7.10.8 Conclusions 259
References 259

7.10.1 Introduction

Composite materials are made by bringing together more than one material to create a unique combination of properties in which
one of the materials is a reinforcing phase (fibers, sheets, or particles) and the other is a matrix phase (polymer, metal, or ceramic).
In a composite, one material is made up of stiff long/short fibers and the other is a binder or matrix that holds the fibers in place.
Composites are a versatile and valuable family of materials that can promote different applications, improve productivity, reduce
cost, and facilitate the introduction of new properties in materials. Among all the synthetic fibers, glass fibers are now dominant due
to their low cost (compared to carbon and aramid) and comparatively better physicomechanical properties (1). Long glass fibers in
random array have proven to be very successful in high-volume markets, notably the automotive industry. Because of their excellent

Comprehensive Materials Processing, Volume 7 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-096532-1.00714-7 243

244 Application and Advances in Microprocessing of Natural Fiber (Jute)–Based Composites

price-performance ratio, E-glass fibers are by far the most important fibers for these types of composites. However, these fibers do
have some disadvantages. Glass fibers are nonrecyclable and cause problems with respect to ultimate disposal at the end of
a material’s lifetime since they cannot be thermally recycled by incineration and are left behind as a residue that can damage
a furnace. They are also very abrasive, which leads to increased wear of processing equipment such as extruders and molds. Next to
some ecological disadvantages, glass fibers can cause problems with respect to health and safety. For example, they cause skin
irritation during the handling of fiber products as well as the processing and cutting of fiber-reinforced parts.
Due to an increase in population, natural resources are being exploited substantially as alternatives to synthetic materials. The
utilization of natural fibers (NFs) for the reinforcement of composites has received increasing attention. NFs have many remarkable
advantages over synthetic fibers. Nowadays, various types of NFs have been investigated for use in composites including flax, hemp,
jute straw, wood, rice husk, wheat, barley, oats, rye, cane (sugar and bamboo), grass, reeds, kenaf, ramie, oil palm, sisal, coir, water
hyacinth, pennywort, kapok, paper mulberry, banana fiber, pineapple leaf fiber, and papyrus (2). NFs are largely divided into three
categories depending on their origin: mineral based, plant based, or animal based. For this reason, alternative reinforcement with
NF in composites has recently gained attention due to low cost, low density, acceptable specific properties, ease of separation,
enhanced energy recovery, CO2 neutrality, biodegradability, and recyclable nature (3,4). NFs are low in cost, are easier to handle,
have good specific mechanical properties, and require only around 20–40% of the production energy. The first NF-reinforced
composites were based on thermoset matrices, such as unsaturated polyester or phenolic resins, together with sisal and jute. More
recently, developments shifted to thermoplastic matrix composites (5–11).
At present, ecological concerns have resulted in renewed interest in natural materials, and issues such as recyclability and
environmental safety are becoming increasingly important for the introduction of new materials and products. Environmental
legislation and consumer advocacy are increasing the pressure on manufacturers of materials and end products to consider the
environmental impact of their products at all stages of their life cycle, including ultimate disposal, viz. a ‘from cradle to grave’
approach. At this moment, the ‘ecodesign’ philosophy is being applied to more and more materials and products. In view of all of
this, NFs based on lignocellulose, such as flax, hemp, sisal, and jute (12), are interesting and environmentally friendly alternatives to
the use of glass fibers as reinforcement in engineering composites. These vegetable fibers are renewable, nonabrasive, and can be
incinerated for energy recovery since they possess a good calorific value. Moreover, they cause less concern with respect to health and
safety during the handling of fiber products. In addition, they exhibit excellent mechanical properties, especially when their low
price and density (1.4 g cm
3) in comparison to E-glass fibers (2.5 g cm
3) is taken into account. These fibers are abundantly
available, especially in developing countries such as Bangladesh and India.

7.10.2 Jute: Jute Plant and Jute Fiber

Jute (local name kushta) is a long, soft, shiny vegetable fiber that can be spun into coarse, strong threads (Figure 1(a)). The fibers of
jute are collected from different places in the southern part of west Bangladesh. After the fresh jute sticks are collected, they are
submerged in water to allow microbial degradation. Within 20–25 days the leaves degrade appreciably to extract the fibers. The
fibers are isolated from the degraded jute sticks by washing three times in deionized water and subsequently dried in open air. After
complete drying, fibers used for study are stored in moisture-proof packets. The fibers are usually off white and have flat surfaces
(Figures 1(b) and 1(c)).
Jute is a fiber of rather coarse character and dark color. It is a long mostly unbranched and monocotyledonous type of plant that
belongs to the genus Corchorus, in the family Tiliaceae or lime family. The genus Corchorus contains about 40 species e.g., Ref. (13).
Corchorus capsularis
Corchorus olitorius
Corchorus fuscus
Corchorus japonicus
Corchorus monopoxensis

Figure 1 (a) Jute tree, (b) jute fibers, and (c) SEM image of jute fiber.
 Application and Advances in Microprocessing of Natural Fiber (Jute)–Based Composites 245

Among these, the most important variety is C. capsularis, which is grown throughout tropical Asia not only as a fiber plant but
also as a vegetable. Other varieties are C. olitorius, C. fuscus, and Corchorus decemangulatus; the latter two, however, yield only a small
proportion of the jute fiber found in trade. One variety found in panama, the C. monopoxensis, is used for brewing and infusion
similar to tea. Corchorus japonicus is found in Japan and is converted into fiber. Arabs and Egyptians have used C. olitorius for
generations as a port herb (14). An extensive survey of the jute-growing areas in India was made to determine the kinds of jute being
grown. Based on morphological characteristics of the plant, color markings of stem and flowers, maturity, and chemical properties
of the fiber, 33 distinct types of C. capsularis were described, 30 of which were grown for fibers and three as vegetables; five types of
C. olitorius were described (15). Later studies at the Jute Agricultural Research Institute indicated more than 70 races or types of
capsularis and at least 12 races or types of olitorius have been identified (16).

7.10.2.1 Separation of Jute Fibers from Their Plants

The jute plant grows particularly well in a warm, humid climate where the land is constantly enriched by alluvial deposit (mud)
(17,18). Most of the world’s supply of jute comes from India and Bangladesh, where it is cultivated in the alluvial soils of the Delta
Region of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra rivers (16). The harvest of jute gets ready for gathering in about 3 months, and the
correct stage is recognized by the formation of the flower buds. These are not allowed to break and bloom, for that would take too
much goodness from the fibers (17). After the plants have fully grown, they are cut down by hand with homemade knives and are
ready for retting, which is the operation to make the jute plant ready for the separation of the bast layer from the stem of the plant.
This operation requires a large supply of water, since the plants must be completely submerged in water. There are two types of
retting: (1) pit water retting and (2) flow water retting. Flow water retting is better, but in a place where flow water for retting purpose
is lacking, pit is practiced, i.e., retting in stagnant water is ponds, ditches, etc. (19). In either of the retting processes, bundles of canes
are immersed in water and weighted down by planks or stones, bacterial action then separates the outer bast layer of fibers from the
canes and from each other. This action may take place in 10–15 days, depending on the weather, the temperature of water, the
ripeness of the cane, and the area where it is grown. During immersion, the crop is under constant surveillance to prevent over-
retting, which produces weak fiber. Underretted fibers are course, gummy, and most difficult to remove from the cane. When the
fibrous layer separates freely from the cane, the retting is complete. Then the fiber is washed free from stalk and vegetable debris,
finally washed in clean water, dried in the sun, and ready for market (17,20).

7.10.2.2 Uses and Prospects of Jute

About 95% of the world’s jute is produced in Bangladesh and India (16,21). Bangladesh produces the best-quality jute in the
world. Jute fiber is extensively used for the manufacture of gunny sacks, wool packings, all jute carpets, wall coverings, lamp
shades, curtains, jutton, carpet backings, etc. It is also used largely in the manufacture of twine, window cord, and rope in
smaller sizes. During the last decade, a variety of end uses of jute has been developed, particularly in the United States and the
United Kingdom, some of which are brattice cloth, filter cloth, tarpaulins, decorative fabrics, lanitin kosmos fibers, ‘artificial
wool’ etc. These are all manufactured from jute. It is also used as shoulder bags, shopping bags, fabric for embroidery purposes,
and allied articles. Jute stick, an agricultural by-product, is used as domestic fuel and for fencing purposes. Recent investigators
have shown that jute stick contains a good amount of a-cellulose that can be used for pulp, paper, rayon, and similar products.
A superior quality hard board sold under the trade name ‘Partex’ is also being made of jute sticks. Xylose, xylic acid, activated
charcoal, furfural, and resins have been obtained from jute sticks. Jute leaf is used as a vegetable and also for medicinal purposes.
A natural dye can also be isolated from jute leaf. Jute seed may also be regarded as jute waste. Two important substances with
medicinal value, such as protein and vitamins, can be obtained from jute seed. Jute seed oil can successfully be used as an
ingredient for soap.
The prospect of using jute fabrics for decorative purposes is promising in Western Europe. As regards immediate market
prospects, jute already has a wide application as wall-covering fabric in the United Kingdom, Sweden, France, and West
Germany, and to a lesser extent in Belgium and the Netherlands due to the tie-up of jute manufacturers with the wallpaper
manufacturers and distributors in these countries. NF composites enjoy excellent potential as wood substitutes in the building
industry in light of their low cost, easy availability, energy saving potential, and pollution-free production. In order to improve
upon the laboratory–industry linkages towards application development and commercialization, the Advanced Composites
Mission launched projects on jute composites such as jute-coir composite boards, jute-glass composite components for railway
coaches, thermoplastic composite-based synthetic wood, and others. Jute-based handicrafts and novelties vary from toys, table
lamps, wall paintings, pencil boxes, and a large variety of splendid gift items. They have a huge export potential. The big
advantage is the capability of rapid manufacture of large, complex, high-performance structures, such as the F22 frames pre-
sented in Figure 2.

7.10.2.3 Chemical Composition and Structure of Jute Fiber

Jute fiber is a complex mixture of chemical compounds that are built up by a natural process (photosynthesis) during the growth
of the fiber in the plant stem. The composition of jute fiber is not uniform. The condition of the soil, climate, maturity of the
plants, retting, etc. creates considerable variation in the constituents of the fiber (22). The composition of the capsularis and
246 Application and Advances in Microprocessing of Natural Fiber (Jute)–Based Composites

Figure 2 Some uses of natural fiber composite.

olitorius fibers are more or less the same, with minor differences in constituents. The average composition of jute fiber is as
follows (23):

Constituents Amounts (percentage dry basis)

1. a-Cellulose 60.00

2. Hemicellulose 22.00

3. Lignin 12.00

4. Nitrogenous matter (as protein) 1.00

5. Fatty and waxy matter 1.00

6. Mineral matter (ash) 1.00

7. Miscellaneous 3.00
Total 100.00

As is evident from the composition of jute fiber, the main constituents are a-cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin; the rest are very
minor in proportion and give very little influence to the fiber’s structure. Hence, it is clear that the jute fiber is mainly composed of
a-cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. The following is an attempt to discuss the structure of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin
and the nature of possible combinations that exist between these constituents.

7.10.2.3.1 Cellulose
Cellulose pertains to the class of carbohydrates. It contains 44.4% carbon, 6.2% hydrogen, and 49.4% oxygen (24). Cellulose, the
principal constituent of all plant life, is a linear polymer of anhydroglucose units linked in the 1 and 4 positions by a b-glucoside
links. The empirical formula of cellulose (C6H10O5)n corresponds to a polyanhydride of glucose. The two terminal glucose residues
of a cellulose molecule contain two different end groups: one contains a reducing hemiacetal group in the position C1 and is
therefore known as the reducing end group, whereas the other contains an extra secondary hydroxyl group in the position C4 and is
known as the nonreducing end group. The structure of cellulose is written as follows:

There are two secondary and one primary alcoholic hydroxyl groups in each basic anhydro-D-glucose unit (C6H10O5)n, which are
arranged in positions 2, 3, and 6, respectively, on the basic unit. The reactivity of the hydroxyl groups varies in different reactions.
 Application and Advances in Microprocessing of Natural Fiber (Jute)–Based Composites 247

In many reactions (mainly esterification), the primary hydroxyl groups have a greater reactivity. The two secondary hydroxyls, at the
second and third carbon atoms, differ somewhat in their reactivity. The primary hydroxyls of cellulose elementary units are
responsible for the sorbability and dyeability of cellulose materials. Cellulose is highly stereospecific. The high hydroxyl content of
cellulose might suggest high water solubility. This is because of stiffness of the chains and hydrogen bonding between hydroxyl
groups of adjacent chains, as shown in the following (25): Besides hydrogen bonding, another type of linkage called ‘semiacetal
linkage’ is present between the adjacent chain molecules of cellulose (26).

From X-ray diffraction diagram, it has been concluded that cellulose has two regions: crystalline and amorphous. In the
amorphous region the polymer chains tend to be folded, and consequently, they will have rather different properties than the
crystalline region. It is in disordered regions that the most of the chemical reactions take place with cellulose. Again, polymeric fibers
are never completely crystalline. This interconnection of crystalline and amorphous regions enhances the strength of the polymer.
As early as 1920, Herzog and Janeke recognized that cellulose from such widely different sources as cotton, ramie, wood, jute, and
flax gave identical X-ray diagrams and concluded that these fibers had identical crystalline structures (27).

7.10.2.3.2 Hemicellulose
Hemicellulose is a group of cell wall polysaccharides. The isolated hemicelluloses are amorphous substances. The cellulose and
lignin of plant cell walls are closely interpenetrated by a mixture of polysaccharides called hemicellulose. It is soluble in dilute alkali
and readily hydrolyzed to pentose and hexose with some uronic acids.
Sarker and others showed that xylose linked with methyluronic acid formed the basic building units of hemicellulose in jute
(28). It appeared that six xylose units were linked with 1-methyl glucuronic acid units (29).

The structure of the repeating unit of jute hemicellulose 3-methoxy galacturonic acid is linked with xylose units. The hemi-
cellulose are relatively short-chain compounds and, therefore, occupy longitudinally the same space as the anhydroglucose unit in
the cellulose chain. The short-chain polysaccharides would, therefore, pack rigidly into the oriented cellulose structure between
which some cross-bridging or looping may also occur.

7.10.2.3.3 Lignin
Most plant tissues contain, in addition to carbohydrate and extractives, an amorphous polymeric gummy material called lignin
(30,31). The nature of lignin and its relationship to cellulose and other constituents of jute fiber are still uncertain. Unlike cellulose
and hemicellulose, lignin gives a series of color reactions that indicate the presence of compounds for which these reactions are
typical. Isolated lignin is generally an amorphous material with average high molecular weight (32).
Lignin is an insoluble, resinlike substance of phenolic character. It is built, to a large extent, of phenyl propane building stones,
often having a hydroxyl group in the para position and methoxyl group/groups in meta position/positions to the side chain (33,34).
248 Application and Advances in Microprocessing of Natural Fiber (Jute)–Based Composites

Besides, there may be carbon-to-carbon or carbon-to-oxygen bonds joining the aromatic ring to the portions of structure. The lignin
molecule, thus being polyfunctional due to the presence of alcoholic and phenolic hydroxyl groups, may exist in combination with
two or more neighboring chain molecules, cellulose or hemicellulose, serving the function of a cross-linking agent. Postulated
monomer in lignin as shown below (35):

7.10.2.4 Physicochemical Properties of Jute Fibers

An ordinary staple of jute fibers is as long as 4–7 feet, and often reach 12 feet in exceptional cases. But in spite of this, the ultimate
fibers are exceedingly short, ranging only from one-eighth of an inch to one-twelfth of an inch (36).

7.10.2.4.1 Physical Properties

Physical properties of fiber, such as breaking strength, extensibility, flexibility, moisture absorption, etc. all depend on a number of
factors, of which the length of the fiber molecules, the mode of alignment among them, and the nature and intensity of interchain
cohesive forces are most important. In pure cellulosic fiber the lateral cohesive forces, including hydrogen bonds, have maximum
intensity in the crystalline regions, where the chain molecules are arranged in a more organized manner. The crystalline portions
contribute to the strength and rigidity of the fibers, while amorphous portions, which allow a better freedom of movement of the
chain molecule, account for extensibility, flexibility, and moisture affinity. In jute fiber, crystallinity is exhibited only by a limited
portion of the cellulosic fraction, amounting to about 40% of the fiber mass, while in cotton, the corresponding value is about 70%;
this low crystallinity as compared to cotton arises due to the presence of noncellulosic constituents in jute. The noncrystalline region
of jute contributes to a considerable extent to its strength by the cross-linkages of incrustants which are distributed entirely in the
amorphous regions. If these cross-linkages are ruptured, appreciable loss of wet strength of the fiber results (37). Like tensile strength,
the other properties of jute fibers, such as extensibility and flexibility, are also influenced to a great extent by the cross-linkages in the
amorphous regions. Usually, the low interchain cohesion in the amorphous regions permits a better freedom of movement to the
chain molecules, as a result of which these regions impart the above useful qualities to the fiber. In jute, however, due to the presence
of cross-linkages, the relative movement of the carbohydrate chains is much restricted, which ultimately affects both flexibility and
extensibility (37). Jute has a fairly high affinity for moisture, and high hydroscopicity of the fiber compared to other pure cellulosic
fibers is attributable to its low crystalline/noncrystalline ratio. However, jute is the second widely used vegetable fiber, exceeded only
by cotton. The yield of the fiber is only about 4.5% of the green weight of stem; in fact, the yield of fiber is extremely small (38).

7.10.2.4.2 Chemical Properties

In its chemical composition, jute is quite different from cotton, being composed of a modified form of cellulose known as
lignocellulose or bastose which, properly speaking, is a compound of cellulose with lignin (38). Unlike pure cellulose fiber, jute
fiber is highly reactive towards various chemical reagents such as acids, alkalies, and oxidizing reagents; the higher reactivity arises
mainly from the noncellulosic constituents of the fiber, namely, hemicellulose and lignin. Lignin is unhydrolyzable by acids, readily
oxidizable, and soluble in hot alkali, while carbohydrates are easily hydrolyzed by strong mineral acids to water-soluble sugars and
 Application and Advances in Microprocessing of Natural Fiber (Jute)–Based Composites 249

relatively resistant to oxidizing agents (36,39). Jute fiber is highly susceptible to the action of light, the main features of the
photochemical changes being loss of tensile strength and development of a yellow or brown color. The degradation to jute caused
by light has been found to be the greatest among all natural cellulosic fibers. The reactions involved in photochemical degradation
of textiles are mainly oxidative in nature, and on prolonged exposure to light the constituent chain molecules are gradually oxidized
in all possible manners and ultimately broken down to smaller fragments. As a result, the tensile strength of the fiber is adversely
affected. It has been observed that all the main fiber components, including cellulose, suffer degradation, and the components
lignin and hemicellulose are much more reactive to light. Due to the influence of light, ligneous residues (phenolic group) are
transformed into colored quinoid derivatives resulting in a yellow or brown color. It is established that lignin is responsible for the
yellowing of jute fiber. In the absence of moisture or atmospheric oxygen, it is claimed that this photochemical action of light on
jute fiber is minimal (37,40,41).

7.10.3 Treatment of the Fiber

The treatment is done in two steps: (1) scouring and (2) bleaching.
1. Scouring
The removal of impurities such as dirty materials and gummy substances from textile materials is called scouring. It is carried out
by the use of a surface-active agent, such as soda, and detergent. Jute fiber was scored in a solution containing 6.5 g of soap flake and
3.5 g of soda per liter at 70–75  C for 30 min in a large beaker. The ratio of fiber to solution was 1:50. The fiber was thoroughly
washed with distilled water, dried in the open air, and finally stored in a desecrator.
2. Bleaching
For the purpose of bleaching, 1 g of jute fiber was dried at 105  C and treated with 0.75% or 7.5 g l
1 sodium chlorite (NaClO2)
solution dissolved in a known volume of water; its pH was 10.6, lowered to 4 by the acetic acid. A buffer mixture of pH 4 was
prepared and added to the chlorite solution in the proportion of 1 ml of buffer solution for every 10 ml of chlorite solution, to
ensure that pH remained at 4 throughout the progress of the reaction. The bleaching process was carried out by digesting the fiber for
about 90 min at 85–90  C. For each group, 80 ml of the mixture was used. After bleaching, the fibers were washed with distilled
water. It was then treated with Na2S2O3. The fibers were washed and dried in open air and then stored in a desecrator.

7.10.4 Principles of Fiber Reinforcement

The mechanical properties of a composite can depend on many factors, as alluded to in the introduction. Basically, these factors
include the specific properties of the matrix and the reinforcing agent; their respective volume fractions; the shape, size distribution,
and orientation of the reinforcing phase; and the bond between the reinforcement and its matrix. Let us examine in more detail the
relationships between these factors and their influence on the mechanical behavior of composite materials.

7.10.4.1 Stress–Strain Relationship

In order to analyze the stress–strain behavior of a composite, we will consider a simple situation where a matrix containing
continuous cylindrical fibers is deformed in the direction parallel to the long axis of the fibers, as illustrated in the following Figure 3
(42). Assume that no slippage occurs at the interface between the fibers and matrix, the elongation is the same in both phases.
Therefore, the engineering strain in the composite may be expressed as
Dl
ec ¼ ef ¼ em ¼
l0
where
ef ¼ strain in fibers,
em ¼ strain in matrix.
Furthermore, when these strains are elastic the engineering stress in the respective composite can be determined by applying
Hooke’s law as follows:
s f ¼ E f ef
sm ¼ Em em
where
sf ¼ stress in fiber,
sm ¼ stress in matrix,
Ef ¼ elastic modulus of fiber,
Em ¼ elastic modulus of matrix.
250 Application and Advances in Microprocessing of Natural Fiber (Jute)–Based Composites

Figure 3 Axial deformation due to the load (p) in a composite reinforced with continuous cylindrical fibers.

In most cases, the modulus of the fiber is greater than that of the matrix, but for a given strain the stress in the fiber is greater than
the matrix stress. Although this is a very simplified analysis it serves to illustrate the extremely important concept of fiber rein-
forcement. Generally, the fibers are more highly stressed than the matrix when a load is applied to the composite. The mechanism
permits transfer of the stresses from the matrix to the reinforcing phase. As a result, the composite can sustain greater stresses than
the nonreinforced matrix material. This concept of utilizing the advantages of one material such as high modulus or high strength,
in conjunction with the advantages of another, such as low density or corrosion resistance, is the very essence of composite material.
Fiber considerations: Since the fiber-reinforced composite material relies on the fiber for its strength and stiffness, it is essential
that this constituent possess high strength and high modulus compared to the matrix, then with the appropriate volume traction
accompanied by control of fiber orientation and fiber dimensions, mechanical behavior such as strength, toughness, and stiffness
can be optimized.
Variability in strength of fibers is also a concern in composite materials, since some fibers are inherently stronger than others. For
example, consider a situation where bundles of fibers are axially strained. The water fibers fail first, thereby increasing the load on
the remaining fibers. Even though the surviving fibers are stronger, their number is decreased, and as the load increases, they
continue to fail in a progressive manner. If this process continues, eventually the effective strength of the composite becomes
insufficient to support the applied load and the composite material fails.

7.10.4.2 Effective Fiber Length

Thus far, composite materials with continuous fibers embedded in a matrix have been considered. However, some composites
contain discontinuous fibers. Such reinforcement may fail as a result of the fiber fracturing during loading. In any event, the
composite properties no longer obey the rule of mixtures under these circumstances, and the reinforcement may be ineffective
unless the fibers are considerably longer than a certain ‘critical length.’
If one examines the stresses occurring at the ends of a hypothetical fiber embedded in a matrix as illustrated in Figure 4, the
tensile stress in the fiber drops from the nominal fiber (43) stress to zero at the fiber end. Correspondingly, the interfacial shear stress

Figure 4 Schematic of composite stress at the ends of a fiber, when the matrix exhibits elastic deformation (lc is the critical length).
 Application and Advances in Microprocessing of Natural Fiber (Jute)–Based Composites 251

increases from the nominal shear stress to a maximum value near the fiber end. The portion of fiber over which this process occurs is
denoted as lc/2 and represents the length of fiber that is ineffective with regard to tensile loading, because the stresses carried by the
end portion of the fiber are lower than the nominal stress. Since any fiber must be comprised of two ends, a reinforcing fiber must be
longer than lc in order to be effective. In other words, discontinuous fibers in a composite must be greater than lc if the load-carrying
capability of that composite is to be maximized.
Although many factors, such as fiber shape, end geometry, respective elastic and shear moduli of fiber and matrix, and interfacial
bond strength affect these stresses, the effective fiber length, when the matrix behaves as an ideal plastic material (i.e., no strain
hardening), can be expressed as
lc sfmax
¼
df 2smv
where
lc ¼ critical fiber length,
df ¼ fiber diameter,
sfmax ¼ maximum fiber stress,
smv ¼ shear strength of the matrix.
The value lc/df is referred to as the critical aspect ratio and is independent of volume fraction for matrices that behave plastically.
In cases where the matrix deforms elastically, the critical aspect ratio decreases for increasing values of Vf (fiber volm fraction). Thus,
for a specific fiber diameter, the critical length (lc) decreases as the fiber volume fraction increases (43).

7.10.4.3 Fiber Orientation

The alignment of fibers in reinforced composites is also a very important factor. Misalignment of fibers occurs during fabrication
simply becomes short fibers and slender filaments are difficult to align. Orientation of the fibers with respect to the direction of
applied loading affects the tensile strength of a composite; for small angles of disorientation (up to about 8) the strength of the
composite is unaffected. But when the fibers are misaligned and greater than this critical value (fcrit ), the strength of the composite
decreases precipitously.

7.10.4.4 Interfacial Bond

In addition to the aspect ratio and the orientation of the fibers, the strength and the bond between the fiber and matrix is a prime
factor in determining the mechanical behavior of a composite. A strong bond between these constituents is necessary for them to act
together during loading or service (42). To develop this bond, it is essential that the matrix wets the surface of the fiber during
fabrication. Such wetting is necessary to obtain good molecular atomic interaction between the constituents.
If the matrix material does not readily wet the fiber, special finishes called coupling agents can be used to promote mounding
between the matrix and its reinforcement. Such finishes are usually applied to the fiber reinforcement; fabrication of the composite
during the process referred to as ‘sizing.’
Surface roughness of the fiber phase is another important consideration in promoting bonding between the constituents of the
composite: If the surface is very rough, containing many minute disparities, the matrix material may not penetrate the depressions
and a poor interfacial bond will result (43).

7.10.5 Matrix Considerations

Matrix materials utilized in most commercial composites can be divided into two general categories: polymeric, including a number
of thermosetting and thermoplastic resins, and metallic, consisting of pure metals and alloys. The function of the matrix in
a composite material is usually multifold. Matrices are designed to protect the reinforcing phase from structural damage, corrosive
attack, and reactions that would degrade the reinforcement properties. The matrix phase also serves to transmit applied stresses to
reinforce constituents and stabilize them against buckling in situations where compressive stresses are axially applied to the
cylindrical fibers.
In other cases, the matrix may share load-carrying responsibility with the reinforcing phase. This aspect is important in
particulate strengthened composites; furthermore, the matrix may be selected for its physical properties, such as density, thermal,
and electrical conductivity (or electrical sensitivity), thermal expansivity, melting or softening temperature, and translucency or
opacity.

7.10.5.1 Thermoplastic Polymers as Matrix

This type of polymer consists of linear molecular chains that are not cross-linked. Instead, the attractive forces between the chains are
the weaker secondary bonding forces, i.e., van der Waals forces. Thus, they are not as rigid as the thermosets, and exhibit softening
252 Application and Advances in Microprocessing of Natural Fiber (Jute)–Based Composites

upon heating. Essentially, the thermoplastic resins are heated until soft and flowable, then they are simply molded into the desired
shape and allowed to cool. They are generally reinforced with short or chopped fibers, and the composite material is prepared as
cylindrical pellets. Subsequently, the composite pellets are processed by a fabricator in the conventional manner for thermoplastics,
such as injection or compression molding. The thermoplastics commonly used as matrix materials for fiber-reinforced plastics
include polycarbonates, polyamide (nylon 66), polystyrene, polyethylene, and polypropylene (PP). In general, the polymeric
materials display low tensile strengths compared to metals and ceramics. However, as a group they also exhibit relatively low
specific growth, which makes them attractive candidates for lightweight matrix applications.

7.10.5.2 Thermosetting Polymers as Matrix

This group of polymers is characterized by three-dimensional networks. Such nonlinearity occurs when there are more than two
reactive sites per monomer, and cross-linking takes place between linear chains. Indeed, this type of polymer is initially cured or
hardened by the application of heat, hence the term thermosets. These matrix materials are generally used in liquid formulations, so
they can be cast into any desired shape. In addition to cast ability, the initial liquid form facilitates infiltration of the reinforcing
phase and enhances setting of the fibers. The thermosetting resins commonly used as matrix materials include epoxies, polyesters
phonetics, and melamine.

7.10.5.3 Metal Matrix Materials

Metallic matrices serve the same basic function in composites as the polymeric materials just discussed. For instance, they protect the
reinforcing phase from structural damage and environmental degradation. They also transmit stress to the reinforcement phase and
stabilize the composite against buckling in compressive loading situations. The selection of matrix material strength, elastic
modulus, plasticity, density, and melting temperature, in addition, the interaction between the potential metallic matrix and its
reinforcement must be considered and if the composite is to function properly. Factors including the wetting and bonding char-
acteristics between fiber and matrix are extremely important, as well as chemical reactivity between these constituents after the
composite material is fabricated and put in service. Some of the matrix materials commonly employed in metal matrix composites
include aluminum, magnesium, nickel, copper, and titanium.

7.10.5.4 Moisture Effect and Resin Compatibility

The main problem leading to reduced mechanical properties in natural FRPs is the poor compatibility/adhesion between the
hydrophilic fibers and the hydrophobic matrix materials (44). Many researchers have been developing treatments to modify the
surface characteristics of the fibers to improve compatibility and adhesion. The three factors affecting the bond between two
materials are the mechanical interlocking, the molecular attractive forces, and the chemical bonds. Ideally, hydroxyl groups in
a resin would bond with the hydroxyl groups that are available in all NFs, creating hydrogen bonds. The bond strength between
resins and fibers is significantly lowered by the presence of moisture while curing due to the fact that H2O molecules will bond with
the available hydroxyl groups on the surface of the fiber, lessening the connections available for matrix bonding. When the water
evaporates, this then leaves voids in the cured composite. If fibers are properly dried before a suitable matrix is introduced, then
a better bond ought to result and future moisture uptake ought to be limited due to the lack of available hydroxyl bonding
locations. Nearly every researcher who has worked with NF composites agrees that there are significant challenges impeding their
advancement into the field of primary structural components. Applications for NFs are often limited to interior and nonstructural
applications due to their lower mechanical properties and poor moisture resistance, but these properties appear to have significant
room for improvement through the use of innovative surface treatments, resins, additives, and coatings. Many researchers have been
working to address these issues, with particular attention paid to the surface treatment of fibers and improving the fiber/matrix
interface. Because of their positive economic and environmental outlook, as well as their ability to uniquely meet human needs
worldwide, natural composites are showing good potential for use in infrastructure applications. The most common way to reduce
the moisture absorption capability of a NF seems to be through the process of alkalization (also known as mercerization). Alkali
treatment (usually with KOH or NaOH) reduces the hydrogen bonding capacity of the cellulose, eliminating open hydroxyl groups
that tend to bond with water molecules. Alkalization can also dissolve hemicellulose. The removal of hemicellulose, which is the
most hydrophilic part of NF structures, reduces the ability of the fibers to absorb moisture (45). If the fibers are not carefully washed
after alkalization, the alkali will continue to degrade the fibers long after exposure, eventually leading to significant fiber swelling
and breakdown. Some negative aspects of the alkali treatment process include high pH values, high surfactant content, polluted
wastewater, and the degradation of cellulose fibers. Alternatively, Kreze et al. (46) explored the use of pectin-dissolving enzymes.
While their research showed that the alkali-treated fibers were more effective at lowering moisture absorption, the enzyme-treated
fibers produced less polluted wastewater. Another process that shows promise for reducing the moisture content in NFs is the
Duralin steam treatment process (47–50). This process depolymerizes the hemicellulose and lignin into aldehyde and phenolic
functionalities, which are subsequently cured into a water-resistant resin. Untreated fibers reached a maximum moisture content of
over 42% in 100% RH while the fibers treated by the Duralin process reached a maximum moisture content of only around 14%
(48). The moisture diffusion time was also slowed for the fibers treated by the Duralin process. Some advantages of the Duralin
process include the omission of dew retting, increased fiber yield and quality, better dimensional and temperature stability, better
 Application and Advances in Microprocessing of Natural Fiber (Jute)–Based Composites 253

Figure 5 Optical emission spectrum of environment-friendly natural jute fiber. Reproduced from Morshed, M. M.; Alam, M. M.; Daniels, S. M.
Plasma Chem. Plasma Process. 2012, 32, 249–258.

resistance to fungal attack, and generally improved mechanical properties. On the other hand, there is a significant amount of added
embodied energy to the fibers due to the steaming process.
The surface properties of NFs play an important role in the biocomposite manufacturing process. Conventional methods of
surface treatment, like chemical treatment, produce large amounts of waste materials (51). Therefore, an environmentally friendly
plasma treatment of materials with less pollution and various applications is required for the twenty first century. Recently,
increasing interest in biodegradable plastics has been revived due to new technologies (52). A low-temperature plasma process is an
effective alternative method compared to the conventional vacuum drying method for removing moisture. Plasma drying removes
the moisture from fibers faster and to a lower level than conventional methods. It also improves the surface properties of the fibers.
Plasma treatment improves fiber-matrix adhesion largely by introducing polar or excited groups or even a new polymer layer that
can form strong covalent bonds between the fiber and the matrix, and sometimes by roughening the surface of fibers to increase
mechanical interlocks between the fiber and the matrix. The macromolecular and microstructural changes of cellulose have
confirmed change by plasma treatment. Plasma treatment may cause strain to develop in the crystallite by changing the lattice plane
due to line shifting.
Optical emission spectroscopy (OES) is one of the useful in situ methods for monitoring the moisture removal method. The OES
technique enables an analysis of the chemical species in the plasma without interfering for perturbing the plasma. Emission
spectrum of argon plasma while treating a fiber, in the range at 200–1100 nm, is shown in Figure 5, which shows the emission lines
of argon (w750.8 nm), hydrogen (w656.3 nm), and molecular bands of OH (w309 nm). The OH radical represents the result of
dissociation of H2O molecules from the fiber and humid air present inside the chamber. The presence of basic atomic line of
hydrogen (Ha) is due to the excitation of hydrogen atoms generated by dissociation of H2O molecules under the action of energetic
electrons in the plasma. The relative intensities of the atomic and molecular emission for Ha, Ar, and OH as a function of treatment
time are shown in Figure 6. For H and OH emissions, it was found that both intensities decreased with increasing process time,
which indicates that the dissociated molecules of moisture were pumped out from the chamber. This process can remove up to 90%
of the moisture within 600 s. The pre- and postprocessing of chamber diagnostics show that the moisture removal rates in both cases
are the same, which indicates that there was some moisture present inside the chamber as a result of loading and unloading the
samples (53).

7.10.6 Experimental Procedure for Composite Preparation

1. Raw materials:
(a) PP, (b) low-density polyethylene (LDPE) or any synthetic polymers, and (c) jute fibers (Figure 7)
2. Preparation of the specimen:
(a) Mixing, (b) casting, (c) curing and controlling, (d) cooling, and (e) demolding
3. Measurement of bulk density
4. Tensile testing
5. Water intake
6. Flexural testing
During fabrication the chief raw materials used are (1) PP, collected from a local market, (2) LDPE, also collected from a local
market, (3) jute fibers, collected from a rural area. Untreated light brown jute fiber is used as a reinforcement agent, obtained from
a rural area. In the thesis work no coupling agent is used.
254 Application and Advances in Microprocessing of Natural Fiber (Jute)–Based Composites

Figure 6 (a) Intensity of Ha emission line as a function of plasma process time. (b) Intensity of OH emission line as a function of plasma process
time. Reproduced from Morshed, M. M.; Alam, M. M.; Daniels, S. M. Plasma Chem. Plasma Process. 2012, 32, 249–258.

Figure 7 Jute fiber and polypropylene composites. (a) LDPE-fiber and (b) PP-fiber composites.

7.10.6.1 Preparation of the Specimen

7.10.6.1.1 Jute Fiber Cutting
To get sized jute fiber, bundles were cut into different lengths of 2–3 mm on average. With the help of a knife, the sized jute fibers
were manually agitated to loosen the jute fibers from each other. The jute fiber was kept at a dry environment for 7 days for the
partial removal of moisture.

7.10.6.1.2 Mixing
Mixing is the major part of this experimentation. If the mixing of the chopped fibers and matrix is not done homogeneously, the
quality of the products obtained will be very poor. So the more homogeneously the raw materials are mixed, the more improved the
resulting properties of the products. To obtain homogeneous mixing, a blender was used; blending was done for 3 min at 400 rpm
for each specimen.
 Application and Advances in Microprocessing of Natural Fiber (Jute)–Based Composites 255

7.10.6.1.3 Casting
A special molding device is made from steel to a very close tolerance for the molding process. The mixture of fiber and matrix is cast
by simply pouring the mixture into the mold and leveling it to the desired thickness. Only a slight stamping or hammering on the
mold is required for sufficient compaction. However, a vibration table or such will give a more efficient compaction and creates
a denser matrix.

7.10.6.1.4 Curing and Controlling

On pouring the fiber or matrix mixture into the special molding device, sufficient pressure of 50–105 KN is applied to get the
desired shape and possible homogeneity. The applied pressure is measured by using a pressure gauge set in the device. Heating is
done electrically, and the temperature set at 180  C for PP and 160  C for LDPE. Only 30–40 min is required to reach
temperatures of 180  C and 160  C. The temperature was maintained for 30 min. After completion of heating, the initial pressure
was set to zero and an additional pressure of 50 KN was applied to avoid any voids and to have a thickness. This additional
pressure was kept for 1 h.

7.10.6.1.5 Cooling
Cooling is essential throughout the curing operation. Cooling was done by tap water through the outer area of the heating plates of
the hydraulic press machine. The required cooling time is 15 min.

7.10.6.1.6 Demolding
The specimen was made by the Weber Pressen hydraulic press. After cooling, it adhered very strongly so we could not separate it
from the mold. It was removed by a makeshift setup device that we made.

7.10.6.1.7 Density Calculation

D ¼ Ws =V
where
D ¼ density of the specimen, kg m
3,
Ws ¼ weight of the specimen, kg, and
V ¼ volume of the specimen, m3.
In this way the density of each sample is measured.
1. Tensile strength:
A tensile specimen was prepared according to ASTM D638M-91a. The sample type was M-II. The test speed was 5 mm min
1.
Applied load
Tensile strength ¼
Cross sectional area of the load bearing area

2. Tensile strain: Tensile strength is calculated according to ASTM D638M-91a.

Extension
Tensile strain ¼
25

3. Flexural strength:
A flexural specimen was prepared according to ASTM D790M, 3-point loading. The specimen dimension was 125  10 
6–8 mm, and the support span was 96 mm. The test speed was taken as 2.6 mm min
1. The strength may be calculated for any point
of the load deflection by means of the following equation:
S ¼ 3PL=2BD2
where
S ¼ stress in the outer fibers at midspan, MPa,
P ¼ load at a given point on the load–deflection curve, N,
L ¼ support span, mm,
B ¼ width of specimen tested, mm,
D ¼ depth of tested specimen, mm.
In this way the flexural strength of each sample is measured.
256 Application and Advances in Microprocessing of Natural Fiber (Jute)–Based Composites

4. Flexural strain
A flexural specimen was prepared according to ASTM D790M, 3-point loading. The specimen dimension was 125  10 
6–8 mm, and the support span was 96 mm. The test speed was taken as 2.6 mm min
1. Nominal fraction change in the length of an
element of the outer surface of the test specimen at midspan, where the maximum strain occurs. It may be calculated for any
deflection using the following equation:
εf ¼ 6Dd=L2
where
εf ¼ main strain in the outer surface, mm mm
1,
D ¼ maximum deflection of the center of the beam, mm,
L ¼ support span, mm, and
d ¼ depth, mm.

7.10.7 Composite Fabrication

Biocomposites are emerging as a realistic alternative to glass-reinforced composites. Because biocomposites are derived from
renewable resources, material costs can be markedly reduced with their large-scale usage (54). There are several techniques for the
fabrication of NF composites. Most of the techniques used for making glass fiber composites are applicable for making NF
composites. However, the well-known methods for making composite are as follows: hand lay-up, resin transfer molding (RTM),
compression molding, pultrusion, injection molding, etc.

7.10.7.1 Hand Lay-Up/Spry-Up

Hand lay-up/spry-up is the simplest and oldest open molding method of the composite fabrication process. It is a low-volume,
labor-intensive method suited especially for large components, such as boat hulls. Fiber or other reinforcing mat or woven fabric or
roving is positioned manually in the open mold, and resin is poured, brushed, or sprayed over and into the chopped fiber where the
secondary spray-up layer imbeds the core between the laminates, resulting in composite. Entrapped air is removed manually with
squeegees or rollers to complete the laminate structure. Room temperature curing polyesters and epoxies are the most commonly
used matrix resins. Curing is initiated by a catalyst in the resin system, which hardens the fiber-reinforced resin composite without
external heat. For a high-quality part surface, a pigmented gel coat is first applied to the mold surface.

7.10.7.2 Resin Transfer Molding

To define RTM, the process is described as follows: Fiber reinforcement is placed in a mold set, the mold is closed and clamped, and
the resin is injected into the mold cavity under pressure. The motive force in RTM is pressure. Therefore, the pressure in the mold
cavity will be higher than atmospheric pressure.
In contrast, vacuum infusion methods use vacuum as the motive force, and the pressure in the mold cavity is lower than
atmospheric pressure. RTM (Figure 8) (55) is used when parts with two smooth surfaces are required or when a low-pressure

Figure 8 Resin transfer molding system. Reproduced from Chakraborty, S.; Chakraborty, L.; Joshi, V. K. A Review on Natural Fiber Composites,
www.fiber2fashion.com.
 Application and Advances in Microprocessing of Natural Fiber (Jute)–Based Composites 257

molding process is advantageous. Fiber reinforcement fabric or mat is laid by hand into a mold and resin mixture is poured or
injected into the mold cavity. The part is then cured under heat and pressure.

7.10.7.3 Compression Molding

Compression molding is a method of molding in which the molding material, generally preheated, is first placed in an open, heated
mold cavity. The mold is closed with a top force or plug member, pressure is applied to force the material into contact with all mold
areas, while heat and pressure are maintained until the molding material has cured. Compression molding is the oldest mass
production process for polymer products. The main reason for this choice of process in this case gives a clue to one of the features of
the process, namely the low level of orientation in the moldings. Compression molding is a simple, discontinuous technique using
a mold inserted between heated metal platens in a hydraulic press. The polymer compound is molten in the heat mold and kept
under pressure to fill the mold completely. In the case of a thermoplastic compound, the whole package has to be cooled under
pressure before the article can be ejected from the mold. This is very impractical and only applied for single productions in the
laboratory.
However, for thermosetting compounds, cooling is not necessary for ejection of the article, as it has already solidified at the
processing temperature due to strong cross-linking. Complete filling of the mold during cross-linking is rather tricky, but never-
theless compression moldings are very often used for processing of thermosetting resins. Figure 9 shows the compression molding
process.
The principle of the compression molding process can be outlined as follows:
1. The mold is held between the heated platens of the hydraulic press.
2. A prepared quality of molding compound is placed in the mold, usually by hand, and the mold is placed in the press.
3. The press closes with sufficient pressure to prevent or minimize flash at the mold part line.
4. The compound softens and flows to shape; the chemical cure then occurs as the internal mold temperature becomes high enough.
5. If necessary, cooling takes place, although for the vast majority of thermosets this is not needed.
6. The press is opened and the molding is removed. Frequently, the mold is removed from the press and opened on the bench to
extract the molding. It is reloaded with a fresh charge before returning it to the press to commence another cycle.

Figure 9 Compression molding system.

258 Application and Advances in Microprocessing of Natural Fiber (Jute)–Based Composites

7.10.7.4 Pultrusion
The term pultrusion combines the words ‘pull’ and ‘extrusion.’ Extrusion is the pushing of material, such as a billet of aluminum,
through a shaped die, whereas pultrusion is the pulling of material, such as fiberglass and resin, through a shaped die. Pultrusion is
a continuous process for manufacture of composite materials with constant cross section. Reinforced fibers are pulled through
a resin, possibly followed by a separate preforming system, and into a heated die, where the resin undergoes polymerization. Many
resin types may be used in pultrusion, including polyester, polyurethane, vinylester, and epoxy.
Pultrusion is a continuous process to manufacture composite profiles at any length. The impregnated fibers are pulled through
a hole (the heated mandrel), which is shaped according to the desired cross section of the product (Figure 10).
The resulting profile is shaped until the resin is dry. The advantages are the manufacturing of thin-wall shapes of ‘endless’ length,
large variety in cross-sectional shape, and the possibility for a high degree of automation. A disadvantage is the restriction to one
cross section, as shape variation in transverse direction is not possible. Pultrusion technology for manufacturing fiber composites
with polymer matrix appears to be energy efficient and resource saving. Economic and environmental factors favor use of a ther-
moplastic matrix, but due to the high viscosity of melts it is difficult to achieve high productivity and high quality of fiber fill
impregnation with this type of matrix (56).

7.10.7.5 Injection Molding

Injection molding is a manufacturing process for producing parts by injecting material into a mold. Injection molding can be
performed with a host of materials, including metals, glasses, elastomers, confections, and most commonly thermoplastic and
thermosetting polymers. Material for the part is fed into a heated barrel, mixed, and forced into a mold cavity where it cools and
hardens to the configuration of the cavity (57). Injection molding machines have many components and are available in different
configurations, including a horizontal configuration and a vertical configuration (Figure 11) (58).

Figure 10 Pultrusion process system. 1 – Continuous roll of reinforced fibers/woven fiber mat, 2 – Tension roller, 3 – Resin impregnator,
4 – Resin soaked fiber, 5 – Die and heat source, 6 – Pull mechanism, and 7 – Finished, hardened, fiber-reinforced polymer.

Figure 11 Injection molding overview. Reproduced from http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/InjectionMolding.

 Application and Advances in Microprocessing of Natural Fiber (Jute)–Based Composites 259

However, regardless of their design, all injection-molding machines utilize a power source, injection unit, mold assembly, and
clamping unit to perform the four stages of the process cycle. The injection unit is responsible for both heating and injecting the
material into the mold. The first part of this unit is the hopper, a large container into which the raw plastic is poured. The hopper has
an open bottom, which allows the material to feed into the barrel. The barrel contains the mechanism for heating and injecting the
material into the mold. This mechanism is usually a ram injector or a reciprocating screw. A ram injector forces the material forward
through a heated section with a ram or plunger that is usually hydraulically powered. Today, a more common technique is the use of
a reciprocating screw. A reciprocating screw moves the material forward by both rotating and sliding axially, powered by either
a hydraulic or electric motor. The material enters the grooves of the screw from the hopper and is advanced towards the mold as the
screw rotates. While it is advanced, the material is melted by pressure, friction, and additional heaters that surround the recipro-
cating screw. The molten plastic is then injected very quickly into the mold through the nozzle at the end of the barrel by the buildup
of pressure and the forward action of the screw. This increasing pressure allows the material to be packed and forcibly held in the
mold. Once the material has solidified inside the mold, the screw can retract and fill with more material for the next shot.

7.10.7.6 Filament Winding

Composite fiber is recognized by the industry as an engineered material that is capable of replacing conventional material in
producing durable and cost-effective products that are able to perform in adverse conditions. In general, composite fiber winding
machines are developed due to technological advances in various industries including aerospace, marine, electrical, chemical,
transportation, as well as piping systems. The first filament-winding machine was developed in 1950 in accordance with the
revolutions of filament winding applications (59). Filament winding consists of winding resin impregnated fibers or rovings of
glass, aramid, or carbon on a rotating mandrel in predetermined patterns. The method provides the greatest control over fiber
placement and uniformity of structure. In the wet method, the fiber picks up the low viscosity resin either by passing through
a trough or from a metered application system. In the dry method, the reinforcement is in the preimpregnated form. After the layers
are wound, the component is cured and removed from the mandrel. Traditionally used to produce pressure vessels, rocket motor
cases, tanks, ducting, golf club shafts, and fishing rods, filament winding technology has been expanded; noncylindrical,
nonspherical composite parts are now commonplace. Typical thermoset resins used in filament wound parts include polyesters,
vinyl esters, epoxies, and phenolics.

7.10.8 Conclusions

Due to various environmental concerns, NF has been gaining special attention of technologists, engineers, industrial engineers, and
manufacturers for its enormous potential for application in different engineering utilities in the area of building construction,
railway, automotive, packaging, defense, etc. Prior to making the natural jute fiber base composite, the fiber should be modified.
Plasma modification processes have taken on increased importance in the current climate since aqueous based wet chemical
cleaning is environmentally deleterious. The plasma process removes moisture from fibers faster and more effectively than the
conventional drying method. The temperature sensitive jute fibers were dried more effectively in argon plasma without damaging its
constituents. From the above discussion, it may be concluded that the NF-reinforced thermoplastic composites may be processed
with emphasis on improvement of microstructure and properties of NFs, processing techniques, chemical modification, and
physical and mechanical properties of the composites.

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