1

RINGKASAN FAKTA PENTING KIMIA SPM

 2

1. Define atoms, molecules and ions,
2. Draw the arrangement of particles
- An atom is the neutral particle of an element that can take part in a
chemical reaction.
- A molecule is a neutral particle consist of a group of two or more
atoms which are chemically bonded together.
- An ion is a positively charged or negatively–charged particle.

Solid Liquid Gas

3. The movement of bromine particles in Explain by using kinetic theory

air
4. What is melting point?
5. Explain why the temperature remains
unchanged during the melting process.
- The bromine molecules are made of tiny and discrete particles/
molecules.
- The particles *move randomly and collide each other and with other
particles in air to fill up space.
- The molecules moves randomly and move in all direction in air from
area of higher concentration to area of lower concentration.
- The bromine molecules move very fast through large space of air
particles
*move – for gas
- Melting point is the temperature at which the substance at its solid
state changes to liquid state at certain pressure.
- Heat energy absorbed by the particles is used to overcome the
forces of attraction between the molecules so that the solid can turn
into liquid.

6. Explain why the temperature remains - The heat lost to the surroundings is exactly balanced by the heat
unchanged during the freezing process. energy given out / released as the molecules attracted one another
to form solid.

7. State the main subatomic particles of an - An atom contains three types of subatomic particles; proton, neutron
atom. and electron.
8. Compare and contrast the relative Subatomic Relative Relative
Symbol
atomic mass and the relative charge of particle mass charge
the subatomic particles of the atom. Proton p 1 +1
Electron e 1/1840 -1
Neutron n 1 Neutral

9. State the meaning of proton number and
nucleon number
10. State the meaning of isotopes.
11. State the chemical and physical
properties of isotopes
12. State the meaning of empirical
formula.
13. State the meaning of molecular
formula.
14. Why was the crucible lid opened once
in a while during the experiment?
15. State how to determine that the
reaction between magnesium and
oxygen has completed.
16. Suggest a suitable chemical
substance for X in Part B and state the
function of X.
17. Why is hydrogen gas passed through
the combustion tube after heating has
stopped?
18. Why the method to determine the
empirical formula of copper(Il) oxide
cannot be used to determine the
empirical formula for magnesium
oxide?
19. Why the method to determine the
empirical formula of magnesium oxide
cannot be used to determine the
empirical formula for copper(Il) oxide?
3
- Proton number of an element is the number of proton in the
nucleus of its atom.
- Nucleon number of an element is the total number of proton and
neutron in in the nucleus its atom.
- Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number
of proton but different number of neutron. //
- Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same proton
number but different nucleon number.
- The isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties
because the atoms have the same same electron arrangement
and the. number of valence electrons
- The isotopes of an element have the different physical properties
because they have different in nucleon number.
• Empirical formula is the formula that shows the simplest whole
number ratio of atoms of each element in the compound
• Molecular formula is the formula that shows the actual number of
atoms of each element that are present in a molecule of the
compound.
 To allow oxygen from the air to react with magnesium.
 Repeat the heating, cooling and weighing process until a constant
mass is obtained.
 Substance X : Anhydrous calcium chloride/ concentrated sulphuric
acid
Function : To dry the hydrogen gas
- To prevent copper metal react with oxygen gas from surrounding to
form copper (II) oxide again //
To avoid the oxidation of copper//
To avoid the formation of copper (II) oxide.
• Magnesium is more reactive than hydrogen.
Hydrogen gas cannot reduce magnesium oxide to magnesium.//
Hydrogen cannot remove oxygen from magnesium oxide
• Because copper is not a reactive metal.
It reacts slowly with oxygen. Therefore, it is difficult to convert copper
to copper(II) oxide completely.

20. State how the elements are arranged in
the Periodic Table
21. What is the meaning of the “period” in
the Periodic Table of element?
22. What is the meaning of the “group” in
the Periodic Table of element?
39
23. State the position of element, 20 𝑋 in
Periodic table of Elements. Explain
your answer
24. Why helium gas is not reactive
chemically?
25. Explain why argon does not react with
hot tungsten filament in term of electron
arrangement.
26. Why the melting point and boiling point
increase when going down Group 18
27. Why helium gas is more suitable to fill
weather balloon compared to hydrogen
gas?
28. State the physical properties of Group 1.
29. Why the melting point and boiling point
decrease when going down Group 1
30. Why all alkaline metal can conduct
electricity
31. The reactivity of Group 1 increases
when going down the group. Explain
why.
32. Compare and explain reactivity of
element X and Y
Element X Y
Proton Number 11 19
33. Sodium burnt in oxygen and the product
is dissolved in water. What is the
property of the solution formed?
Explain why.
4
Elements are arrange horizontally in the Periodic Table in increasing
order of proton number
A horizontal row of elements in the Periodic Table of Element.
A vertical column of elements in the Periodic Table of Element.
- Electron arrangement of X atom is 2.8.8.2
- X atom has 2 valence electrons. Therefore, it is in Group 2.
- X atom has 4 shells occupied with electrons
- Therefore, it is in Period 4.
- Helium atom has 2 valence electrons. The atom has achieved
stable duplet electron arrangement.
- The atom does not need to gain, lose or share electrons with other
atom of elements.
- Argon atom has achieved octet electron arrangement
Argon atom’s outermost shell is completely filled with electrons.
- This electron arrangement is stable //Argon is inert / unreactive.
- Argon atom does not need to gain, lose or share electrons with
other elements.
- the atomic size of the elements increase down the group
- the attraction force between atoms of each element become
stronger.
- Thus more heat energy required to overcome the stronger forces of
attraction.
- Because helium gas is lighter and not flammable/inert and hydrogen
is flammable
- Alkali metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
- They are soft and can be cut easily with a knife.
- All alkali metals are grey in colour with silvery and shiny surfaces
when freshly cut.
- They have relatively low melting and boiling points compare to other
metals such as iron (MP : 1540°C).
- There have low densities end float on surface of water.
- The atomic size of the elements increase down the group.
- the attraction force between atom of each element become
weaker.
- Thus less heat energy required to overcome the weaker forces of
attraction
Each atom has one electron valence that act as free moving electron
- When going down Group 1, proton number of elements is increase.
- The atomic size increases.
- The single valence electron becomes further away from the nucleus.
- Hence, the force of attraction between the nucleus and the valence
electron becomes weaker.
- As a result, it is easier for the atom to lose the single valence
electron to achieve the octet or duplet electron arrangement.
- Electron arrangement of X atom is 2.8.1 and Y atom is 2.8.8.1
- The number shells occupied with electrons of atom Y is more than
atom X.
- The size of atom Y is larger than atom X
- Force of attraction/nuclei attraction between the nucleus and the
valence electron for atom Y is weaker then atom X.
- Therefore it is easier for atom Y to release the valance electron
compared to X atom.
- Element Y is more reactive than element X
- The solution is an alkaline solution.
- Sodium burns in oxygen to produce sodium oxide. Sodium oxide
dissolves in water to produce sodium hydroxide solution.
- Write a balanced equation for both reactions:
1.
2.

34. State the physical properties of Group
I7.
35. State the changes of the physical
properties of Group 17 when going
down the group.
36. Compare and explain reactivity of
element X and Y
Element X Y
Proton Number 9 17
37. Chlorine gas is dissolved in water.
What can you observe if a piece of blue
litmus paper is immersed into the
solution formed? Explain why.
38. State four special characteristic of
transition elements.
39. When across Period 3 from sodium to
argon, the atomic size decreases.
Explain why.
40. Compare and explain
electronegativity of element X and Y
Element X Y
Proton Number 11 17
41. State two physical properties of ionic
compounds.
42. State two physical properties of covalent
compounds.
43. Explain why covalent compound do not
conduct electricity in all states.
44. Explain why ionic compounds are able to
conduct electricity in aqueous solution or
in molten state but not in solid state.
5
- Halogens exits as diatomic molecules.
- Halogens have low melting and boiling points.
- They are good insulator of electricity.
- They are poor conductors of heat.
- The physical state of halogens at room temperature changes from
gas to liquid, then to solid.
- The colour of halogen becomes darker.
- Electron arrangement of X atom is 2.7 and Y atom is 2.8.7
- The number shells occupied with electrons of atom Y is more than
atom X.
- The size of atom Y is larger than atom X.
- Thus, the force of attraction the nucleus to attract one electrons
to the outermost shells of atom Y is weaker than atom X
- Element Y is less reactive than element X
- Blue litmus paper turns red and then bleached.
- When chlorine gas dissolves in cold water, it forms hydrochloric acid,
HCI and hypochlorous acid, HOCl.
- Hydrochloric is an acid which tums blue litmus paper red while
hypochlorous acid is a strong bleaching agent which decolourise the
litmus paper.
- Transition elements form coloured solutions or compounds.
- Transition elements show different oxidation number in their
compounds.
- Transition elements act as catalysts in certain chemical reactions.
- Transition elements can form complex ions.
Across Period 3 from left to right;
- The number of protons in the nucleus increases. This increases the
positive charge of the nucleus.
- As a result, the attraction force between the nucleus and the
electrons in the shells becomes stronger.
- Electrons are pulled closer to the nucleus, causing the atomic size
to decrease.
- Electron arrangement of X atom is 2.8.1 and Y atom is 2.8.7
- Atoms X and Y have same number shells occupied with electrons .
- The number of protons in the nucleus of atom Y is more than atom
X
- The attraction forces between the nucleus and the electrons in the
outermost shell of atom Y is stronger than atom X
- The size of atom Y is smaller than atom X
- The tendency to attract electrons of atom Y is stronger tha atom
X
- Element Y is more electronegative than element X.
- High melting point and boiling point
- Conduct electricity in aqueous solution molten state.
- Usually dissolve in water
- Do not dissolve in organic solvent.
- Low melting point and boiling point.
- Do not conduct electricity in any state.
- Usually dissolve in organic solvents such as benzene
- Do not dissolve in water.
- Covalent compound do not conduct electricity in all state because
they consist of neutral molecules.
- There are no freely moving ions.
- Ionic compounds can conduct electricity in aqueous solution or in
molten state because the ions can move freely .
- Ionic compound in solid state cannot conduct electricity because the
ions are held together by the strong electrostatic forces and are
not freely move

45. Why ionic compound has high melting
point and boiling point
46. Why covalent compound has low melting
point and boiling point
47. Magnesium chloride and hydrogen
chloride are two compounds of chlorine.
At room condition, magnesium chloride
exists as a solid but hydrogen chloride
exists as a gas. Explain why.
48. Explain the formation of ionic bond
between sodium atom, 23 11𝑁𝑎 and chlorine
atom, 35
17𝐶𝑙
49. Explain the formation of covalent bond
between carbon atom, 126𝐶 and chlorine
atom, 35
17𝐶𝑙 .
50. To compare the characteristics for the
formation of ionic and covalent bonds.
6
- In ionic compounds, the oppositely charged ions are held together
by a strong electrostatic forces.
- Higher amount of heat energy is needed to overcome the forces.
- In covalent compound, the molecules are attracted by weak van
der Waals force.
- Lower amount of heat energy is needed to overcome the forces.
- Magnesium chloride is an ionic compound whereas hydrogen chloride
is a covalent compound.
- Magnesium ion and chloride ions are held together by strong
electrostatic forces, more heat needed to overcome it. Therefore, it
has very high melting point and boiling point and exists as solid at
room condition.
- Hydrogen chloride consists of molecules. The van der Waals force
between the molecules is weak, less heat needed to overcome it.
Therefore, it has low melting point and boiling point and exists as gas
at room condition.
- Electron arrangement of sodium atom is 2.8.1
- A sodium atom donate/release one electron to achieve the stable
electron arrangement which is 2.8.
- Sodium ion, Na+ is formed.
- Half equation : Na  Na+ + e
- Electron arrangement of chlorine atom is 2.8.7
- Electron from sodium atom is released to a chlorine atom
- A chlorine atom accept/receive one electron from sodium atom to
achieve the stable electron arrangement which is 2.8.8.
- Chloride ion, Cl- is formed.
- Half equation : Cl + e  Cl-
- The sodium ion, Na+ and chloride ion, Cl- formed are attracted
by electrostatic force.
- The strong attraction forces between the opposite-charged ions is
called ionic bond.
- Carbon atom has electron arrangement of 2.4
- Chlorine atom has electron arrangement of 2.8.7
- One carbon atom contributes 4 valence electrons to four chlorine
atoms.
- Four chlorine atoms contribute 1 valence electron each to carbon
atom.
- Carbon atom shares 4 pairs of electrons with 4 chlorine atoms to
form 4 single covalent bonds in carbon tetrachlorine molecule.
- All of Carbon and Chlorine atoms achieve stable octet electron
arrangement.
- A covalent compound with formula CCI4 is formed.
Ionic bond Characteristic Covalent bond
Valence electrons Electrons involved Valence electrons
Metal atoms and non Non-metals atom and
Elements
metal atoms non metal atoms
Electron transfer to Sharing electron to
achieve stable Bond formation achieve stable
electron arrangement electron arrangement
Ions Particles Molecules

51. State the meaning of electrolyte.
52. State the meaning of electrolysis
53. State the energy change in electrolysis.
Electrolysis of molten electrolyte Electrolysis of aqueous electrolyte (no Electrolysis of aqueous electrolyte
gas released)
54. Explain how copper electrodes and
carbon electrode affect the selective
discharge of ions at the anode during
electrolysis of copper(ll) sulphate
solution.
55. Explain how concentration of ions in
electrolyte affects the selective discharge
of ions at the anode during electrolysis of
hydrochloric acid.
56. Explain why the intensity of blue
copper(ll) sulphate solution remains
unchanged when copper is used as
electrodes.
57. Explain the process of electrolysis of
sodium nitrate solution using carbon
electrode
58. Explain how Daniell Cell can generate
electricity.
7
 Electrolyte is the substance that can conduct electricity in molten
or aqueous state and undergo chemical change.
- Electrolysis is a process whereby compounds in molten or
aqueous states decomposed into their constituent elements by
passing electricity through them.
- Energy change in electrolysis is electric energy to chemical energy
(gas is released)
- When electrolyse copperl(ll) sulphate solution using copper electrodes,
sulphate ions and hydroxide ions are attracted to the anode.
- Copper atom at the anode ionises / release electrons to form
copper(ll) ions because copper is active electrode
Cu  Cu2+ + 2e
- When electrolyse copperl(ll) sulphate solution using carbon electrodes,
sulphate ions and hydroxide ions are attracted to the anode. ion is
discharged at anode to produce oxygen gas because the position
of hydroxide is lower than chloride in the discharge series of
anion.
4 OH-  2 H2O + O2 + 4e
- When using dilute hydrochloric acid (0.0001 mol dm -3), hydroxide ions
and chloride ions are attracted to the anode. Hydroxide ion is
discharged at anode to produce oxygen gas because the position
of hydroxide is lower than chloride in the discharge series of
anion.
4 OH-  2 H2O + O2 + 4e
- When using concentrated hydrochloric acid (1.0 mol dm -3), chloride ion
is discharged at anode to produce chlorine gas because the
concentration of chloride ions is higher the hydroxide .
2 Cl-  Cl2 + 2e
- The rate of the discharged of copper(ll) ions at the cathode is the
same as the rate of ionisation of copper atom to copper(II) ion at
copper anode. The concentration of copper(ll) ions remains
unchanged.
- The concentration of copper(ll) ions remains unchanged.
- Sodium nitrate solution consists of Na+, NO3-, H+, and OH- ions.
- During electrolysis, Na+ and H+ ions move to cathode and NO3- and
OH- ions move to anode.
- At cathode, H+ ion is selectively discharged because it is lower than Na +
ion in electrochemical series.
- Hydrogen gas is released at cathode.
- At anode, OH- ion is selectively discharged because it is lower than
NO3- ion in electrochemical series.
- Oxygen gas is released at anode.
- In Daniell Cell, zinc is more electropositive than copper.
- Zinc acts as the negative terminal and copper acts as the positive
terminal.
- Zinc atom releases electrons to form zinc ions, Zn2+.
- Electrons flow from zinc electrode to copper electrode through the
external circuit.
- At copper electrode, electrons are received by the copper(Il) ions,
Cu2+ in the copper(II) sulphate solution to form copper atoms.
- The continuous flow of electrons from zinc electrode to copper
electrode produces electric current in the Daniell Cell.

59. What is the meaning of strong acid and weak
acid
- Example : Ethanoic acid
60. What is the meaning of strong alkali and
weak alkali.
61. What is neutralisation?
62. The pH value of glacial ethanoic acid is 7 but
the pH value of dilute ethanoic acid is 5.
Explain why the pH values of the two
substances are different
63. Explain why sulphuric acid and hydrochloric
acid have different pH value.
64. The pH value of solution ammonia in water is
9 but the pH value of solution of ammonia in
trichloromethane is 7. Explain why the pH
values of the two solutions are different.
65. The pH values of 1.0 mol dm-3 of ethanoic
acid and 1.0 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid is 4
and 1 respectively. Explain the differences.
8
- Strong acid is an acid that ionizes completely in water to
produce higher concentration of hydrogen ions, H+ and had a
lower pH value.Example : Hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and
sulphuric acid
HCl  H+ + Cl-
- Weak acid is an acid that ionizes partially in water to produce
lower concentration of hydrogen ions, H+ and had a higher pH
value
CH3COOH (aq) ⇋ CH3COO- + H+
- Strong alkali is an alkali that ionizes completely in water to
produce high concentration of hydroxide ions, the pH value is
higher
Example : Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide
NaOH → Na+ + OH-
- Weak alkali is an alkali that ionizes partially in water to produce
low concentration of hydroxide ions, OH- the pH value is lower
Example : Aqueous ammonia
NH3 + H2O ⇋ NH4 + + OH-
- Neutralisation is a reaction between an acid and a base / alkali to
produce salt and water only
- Glacial ethanoic acid molecule does not ionize and consists of
only neutral CH3COOH molecule. No hydrogen ion presents.
- Glacial ethanoic acid does not show acidic properties
-
Ethanoic acid solution is a weak acid which ionizes partially in
water to produce a lower concentration of hydrogen ions and
ethanoate ions.: CH3COOH (aq) ⇋ CH3COO- + H+
- The presence of hydrogen ions causes ethanoic acid solution to
show acidic properties
- Glacial ethanoic acid has a pH value of 7 and the pH value of
ethanoic acid solution is less than 7
- Sulphuric acid is a diprotic acid which 1 mol of sulphuric acid
ionizes completely in water and produce 2 mol of hydrogen
ions.
H2SO4  2H+ + SO42-
- Hydrochloric acid is a monoprotic acid which 1 mol of
hydrochloric ionizes completely in water to produce 1 mol of
hydrogen ions.
HCl  H+ + Cl-
- The concentration of hydrogen ions in sulphuric acid is
double of the concentration of hydrogen ion in hydrochloric acid.
- The pH value of sulphuric acid is lower than the pH value of
hydrochloric acid
- Dry ammonia gas (or ammonia gas) dissolved in
trichloromethane consists of neutral molecules, NH3 only.
- There is no hydroxide ions, OH-. Therefore, it does not show
alkaline property.
- In water, the NH3 molecules will ionise to produce hydroxide
ions, OH-
- The presence of hydroxide ions, OH- will cause the aqueous
ammonia solution to show alkaline properties.
- Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid which ionizes completely in
water to produce a higher concentration of hydrogen ion.
HCl  H+ + Cl-
- Ethanoic acid is a weak acid which ionizes partially in water to
produce a lower concentration of hydrogen ions.
CH3COOH ⇋ CH3COO- + H+
- The concentration of hydrogen ions in hydrochloric acid is
higher than the concentration of hydrogen ion in ethanoic
acid.
- The pH value of hydrochloric acid is lower than the pH value
of ethanoic acid
 9

66. Given dilute nitric acid and dilute sulphuric - Nitric acid is a monoprotic acid whereas sulphuric acid is a
acid have the same concentration of 0.5 mol diprotic acid.
dm-3. In a neutralisation experiment, 20 cm 3 - One mol of nitric acid ionise to one mol of hydrogen ion
of nitric acid is required to neutralise 20 cm 3 whereas one mol of sulphuric acid ionise to two mol of
of sodium hydroxide solution but only 10 cm 3 hydrogen ion
of sulphuric acid is required to neutralise 20 - The number mol of hydrogen ions in sulphuric acid is double
cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution. Explain than that in nitric acid.
why. • As a result, the volume of sulphuric acid required is half
compared to nitric acid.
67. Based on the diagram suggest the name of SET 1 SET 2
solvent X and solvent Y. Explain the
observation in test Tube I and Test tube II.
Write the chemical equation for the reaction
that occurs in Test tube II. Hydrogen
Hydrogen chloride in
chloride in solvent Y
solvent X

Magnesium

68. Explain why solution of hydrogen chloride in
water can conduct electricity but solution of
hydrogen chloride in methylbenzene cannot
conduct electricity?
1. Solvent X is tetrachloromethane/benzene
2. Solvent Y is Water
3. Hydrogen chloride in solvent X exists as molecules / no H+ ion.
4. Hydrogen chloride in solvent X does not react with magnesium.
5. Hydrogen chloride in solvent Y ionises to produce H+ ions.
6. The present of H+ ions responsible to shows acidic properties.
7. Hydrogen chloride in solvent Y react with magnesium
2HCl + Mg → MgCl2 + H2
- Hydrogen chloride is a covalent compound.
- In methylbenzene, hydrogen chloride exists as molecule, no
free moving ion. Therefore, it cannot conduct electricity.
- In water, hydrogen chloride ionises to produce hydrogen ion
and chloride ions which are free to move.
- Therefore, it can conduct electricity.

PREPARING 100 cm3 of 2.0 moldm-3 STANDARD SODIUM HYDROXIDE SOLUTION

(a) 1. Calculate mass sodium hydroxide

Mol NaOH = 2 X100/1000 = 0.2 mol
Mass of NaOH = 0.2mol x 40 gmol-1
= 8.0 g
2. 8.0 g of solid sodium hydroxide is weighed in a dry
weighing bottle
3. 8.0 g of solid sodium hydroxide in the weighing bottle is
transferred into a beaker containing 25 cm3 of
distilled water. The mixture is stirred to dissolve the
solid.

(b) 4. The solution from the beaker is then carefully poured

into a 100 cm3 volumetric flask through a filter funnel
5. The weighing bottle and the beaker are rinsed with a
small amount of distilled water and poured into the
volumetric flask

(d) 6. Distilled water is poured into the volumetric flask

until the calibration mark
7. The volumetric flask is then closed with a stopper
and inverted a few times to get homogenous solution .
 10

Preparation of standard solution using dilution method

(i) Quantity that are needed
(a) the volume and concentration of the stock solution
(b) the volume of the new solution

(ii) Adding water to the standard solution lowered the concentration of the solution. Since no solute is added, the
quantities of solute in the solution before and after dilution remain unchanged.

Number of mole of solute before dilution = Number of mole of solute after dilution

M1V1 = M2V2
M1 = molarity of solution before dilution
V1 = volume of solution before dilution
M2 = molarity of solution after dilution
V2 = volume of solution after dilution

PREPARING 100 cm3 OF 0.2 moldm-3 OF SODIUM HYDROXIDE SOLUTION FROM 2 moldm-3 OF SODIUM
HYDROXIDE SOLUTION USING DILUTION METHOD

1. Calculate the volume of sodium hydroxide 2 moldm 3 solution required

M1V1 = M2V2
2 moldm-3 x V1 = 0.2 moldm-3 X 100 cm3
V1 = 10 cm3

2. Use pipette to draw 10 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution from stock

solution (2 moldm-3 sodium hydroxide solution )

3. Transfer 10 cm3 of 2 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution into 100 cm3
volumetric flask
.

4. Add distilled water to the calibration mark .

5. The volumetric flask is inverted a few times to get homogenous solution
 11

69. What is salt? • A salt is a compound formed when the hydrogen ion, H+ from an acid is
replaced by a metal ion or an ammonium ion, NH4+.
70. Solubility of salts in water All sodium, potassium and ammonium salts are soluble in water.
All nitrate salts are soluble in water.
All sulphate salts are soluble in water except calcium sulphate, lead (II)
sulphate and barium sulphate.
All chloride salts are soluble in water except silver chloride , lead (II)
chloride and mercury (I) chloride.
All carbonate salts are insoluble in water except sodium carbonate,
potassium carbonate and ammonium carbonate

71. Method used to prepare salt depend on
the solubility of the salt
a. Soluble salts are prepared from the reactions between an acid with
metal, base, alkali and metal carbonate.
i. metal + acid  salt + hydrogen
ii. metal oxide (or metal hydroxide) + acid  salt + water
iii. alkali + acid  salt + water
iv. metal carbonate + acid  salt + carbon dioxide + water

b. Insoluble salts are prepared by the precipitation method through a

double decomposition reactions.
i. In this reaction, the precipitate of insoluble salt is formed when
two different solutions that contains the cation and anion of the
insoluble salt are mixed.
ii. The insoluble salt is obtained as a residue of a filtration

The preparation of soluble salts of sodium, potassium and ammonium

Soluble salt Sodium Chloride, NaCl

Name two chemical 1. sodium hydroxide
substances to prepare the 2. hydrochloric acid
salt
List of apparatus and 1. burette
material 2. retort stand
3. conical flask
4. Bunsen burner
5. Filter funnel
6. Spatula
7. Filter paper
8. Distilled water
9. Beaker
Chemical equation NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O
Procedure: (Diagram) Description
1. A pipette is used to transfer 25.0 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution to a conical
flask. 2 to 3 drops of phenolphthalein is added.
2. A burette is filled with hydrochloric acid and record the initial burette reading.
3. Titration is carried out carefully by slowly adding the acid into the conical flask
and the flask is shaken well.
4. The acid is added continuously until the indicator turns from pink to colourless.
The final burette reading is recorded.
5. The volume of acid used to neutralize 25.0 cm3 of the alkali is determined. (let
the volume be V cm3 )
6. 25.0 cm3 of the same sodium hydroxide solution is pipetted into a conical flask.
No indicator is addeded.
7. From the burette, exactly V cm3 of hydrochloric acid is added to the alkali and
is shaken well.
 12

8. The contents of the conical flask is poured into an evaporating dish.

9. The solution is heated gently to evaporate most of the water to produce a
saturated solution.

10. The hot saturated salt solution is cooled until the crystals are formed

11. The mixture is filtered to separate the salt crystals

12. The crystals are dried by pressing them between filter papers

The preparation of soluble salts (not sodium, potassium or ammonium salt)

Soluble salt Copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4

Name two chemical 1. copper(II) oxide
substances to prepare 2. sulphuric acid
the salt
List of apparatus and 1. Bunsen burner
material 2. Filter funnel
3. Spatula
4. Filter paper
5. Distilled water
6. Beaker
Chemical equation CuO + H2SO4  CuSO4 + H2O
Procedure: (Diagram) Description
1. 50 cm3 of sulphuric acid 1 mol dm -3 is poured into a beaker. The acid is warmed.
2. By using a spatula, copper(II) oxide powder is added the acid.
3. The mixture is stirred with a glass rod.
4. Copper(II) oxide is added continuously until excess/some of it no longer dissolves.

5. The mixture is filtered .

6. The filtrate is evaporated until saturated

 13

7. The saturated solution is cooled until crystals are formed.

8. The mixture is filtered to separate the salt crystals

9. The crystals are dried by pressing them between filter papers

The preparation of insoluble salts

Insoluble salt
Name two chemical
substances to prepare the
salt
Chemical equation
Ionic equation
Procedure: (Diagram)
Lead(II) iodide, PbI2
1. lead(II) nitrate
2. Sodium/potassium iodide
Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI (aq)  PbI2 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)
Pb2+ (aq) + 2I- (aq)  PbI2 (s)
Description

1. 50 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 lead(II) nitrate solution is measured poured into a beaker
2. 50 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3 potassium iodide is measured and added into the beaker
3. The mixture is stirred with a glass rod
4. A yellow precipitate of lead(II) iodide is formed immediately

5. The mixture is filtered

6. The yellow precipitate is rinsed with distilled water to remove impurities

7. The yellow solid, lead(II) iodide is then pressed between a few pieces of filter
papers to be dried

72. Describe a chemical - 2 cm3 of the solution is poured into a test tube.
test to identify the - 2 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid is added into the test tube
presence of carbonate - The gas liberated is immediately bubbled / passes through lime water.
ions, CO32- in a - The time water turns milky / chalky.
solution.
73. Describe a chemical - 2 cm3 of the solution is poured into a test tube.
test to identify the - 2 cm3 of dilute nitric acid is added into the test tube follow by about 2cm 3 of silver
presence of chloride nitrate solution.
ions, CI- in a solution. - A white precipitate is formed.
 14

74. Describe a chemical - 2 cm3 of the solution is poured into a test tube.
test to identify the - 2 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid is added into the test tube followed by about 2
presence of sulphate cm3 of barium chloride solution.
ions, SO42- in a - A white precipitate is formed.
solution.
75. Describe a chemical - 2 cm3 of the solution is poured into a test tube.
test to identify the - 2 cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid is added into the test tube followed by 2 cm 3 of
presence of nitrate iron(II) sulphate solution. The mixture Is shaken well.
ions, NO3-, in a - The test tube is slanted slightly. A few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid are
solution. dropped carefully and slowly along the side of slanting test tube into the mixture.
- A brown ring is formed.
76. Describe a chemical (a) Copper(Il) ion
test to identity the - 2 cm3 copper(II) sulphate solution is poured into a test tube.
following ions - Sodium hydroxide solution is added drop by drop until in excess.
a) Copper(ll) ion, Cu2+ - A blue precipitate is formed and insoluble in excess sodium
b) Magnesium ion, Mg2+ hydroxide solution.
c) Zinc ion, Zn2+ - Ammonia solution is added drop by drop until in excess. A blue precipitate is formed
d) Iron(II) ion, Fe2+ and dissolves in excess ammonia solution .
e) Iron(III) ion, Fe3+ (b) Magnesium ion
- 2 cm3 magnesium sulphate solution is poured into a test tube.
- Sodium hydroxide solution is added drop by drop until in excess A white precipitate
is formed and insoluble in excess sodium hydroxide solution.
- Ammonia solution is added drop by drop until in excess. A white precipitate is
formed and insoluble in excess ammonia solution.
(c) Zinc ion
- 2 cm3 zinc sulphate solution is poured into a test tube.
- Sodium hydroxide solution is added drop by drop until in excess. A white precipitate
is formed and dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide solution to form a colourless
solution.
- Ammonia solution is added drop by drop until in excess. A white precipitate is
formed and dissolves in excess ammonia solution to form a colourless solution.
(d) Iron (Il) ion
- 2 cm3 iron(II) chloride solution is poured into a test tube.
- Sodium hydroxide solution is added drop by drop until in excess.
- A green precipitate is formed and insoluble in excess sodium hydroxide solution.
Or
- 2 cm3 iron(II) chloride solution is poured into a test tube.
- Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) solution is added into the test tube.
- A dark blue precipitate is formed.
(e) Iron (IIl) ion
- Sodium hydroxide solution is added drop by drop until in excess.
- A brown precipitate is formed and insoluble in excess sodium hydroxide solution.
- Or
- 2 cm3 iron(lll) chloride solution is poured into a test tube.
- Potassium thiocynate solution is added info the test tube.
- A red blood colouration is formed
Cation NaOH solution Ammonia Solution NH3
Ca2+ WPIS No change
2+
Mg WPIS WPIS
Zn2+ WPS WPS
3+
Al WPS WPIS
2+
Pb WPS WPIS
Cu 2+ BPIS BPS
2+
Fe GPIS GPIS
3+
Fe BrPIS BrPIS
NH4+ Ammonia gas released when heated No change
77. Describe a chemical test •2 cm3 of each solution is poured into two separated test tubes.
to differentiate the lead(Il) • Add 1 cm3 potassium iodide solution, KI into each of test tube.
ion, Pb2+ and aluminium • The solution in the test tube produce yellow precipitate consists of lead(Il) ion.
ion, Al3+.
78. Describe a chemical test • 2 cm3 ammonia solution is poured into a test tube.
to identify the presence of • Sodium hydroxide solution is added into the test tube
ammonium ions, NH4+ in • The mixture is heated and a damp red litmus paper is placed near the mouth of test
a solution tube.

• The damp red litmus paper turns blue.
79. What is the meaning of alloy?
80. State the aims of making alloys
81. Bronze is an alloy consists of copper
and tin. Explain why bronze is harder
than copper.
82. What are raw materials used in Contact
process
83. State the optimum conditions for the
Contact process
84. Explain the industrial process involved
in the manufacture of sulphuric acid
Write all the chemical equations
involved.
85. Side effect of Sulphur dioxide
15
• Alloy is a mixture of two or more elements with a certain fixed
composition in which the major component is a metal.
• Improve the appearance of the pure metal
• Improve the strength and hardness of the pure metal
• Increase the resistance to corrosion of the pure metal
- Copper atoms in copper block are of the same sizes and
arranged in an orderly arrangement.
- The layers of copper atoms slide easily if force is applied.
- Tin atom added to copper atoms in bronze atoms are of
different sizes.
- The presence of tin atoms disrupts the orderly arrangement
of copper atoms to bronze block.
- This reduces the layers of copper atoms from sliding over one
another easily when force is applied
Copper
Tin
ato
Sulphur, air and water
• Catalyst - Vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5
• Temperature - 450°C
• Pressure - 1 atmosphere.
• Molten sulphur is burnt in excess air to produce sulphur dioxide gas.
S + O2  SO2
• Sulphur dioxide and excess oxygen gas are passed over vanadium(V)
oxide catalyst at 450°C and pressure of 1 atmosphere.
2 SO2 + O2  2 SO3
• Sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to form
oleum
SO3 + H2SO4  H2S2O7
• The oleum is then diluted in water to produce dilute sulphuric acid
H2S2O7 + H2O  2 H2SO4
- Sulphur dioxide gas from the burning of product manufactured from
sulphuric acid can cause lung disease and acid rain.
- Sulphur dioxide dissolves in rain water to form sulphurous acid
which will result in acid rain.
Chemical equation : SO2 + H2O  H2SO3
- Effects of acid rain:
(i) Acid rain corrodes building, monuments and statutes made of
marble (calcium carbonate) because calcium carbonate reacts
with acid to produce salt, water and carbon dioxide.
Chemical equation : CaCO3 + H2SO4  CaCl2 + H2O +
CO2
(ii) Acid rain corrodes structure of building and bridges which are
made of metal. The iron from steel reacts with sulphuric acid to
form rust.
(iii) Acid rain increases the acidity of lakes and river causes the
aquatic organism to die
(iv) Acid rain increases the acidity of soil. Acidity soil is not suitable
for the growth of plants

86. Ways to reduce the production of
sulphur dioxide and effect of acid rain
87. State the optimum conditions for the
Haber process
88. Properties of ammonia
89. What is the meaning of polymers and
polymerization? Name the monomer of
polythene and polyvinyl chloride.
90. Explain how synthetic polymers can
cause environmental pollution
91. Advantages of synthetic polymers
92. Environment pollution from synthetic
polymers
93. Reducing pollution of synthetic
polymers
94. Main component in glass
95. Common properties of glass
# Study the component and properties of
soda lima glass, borosilicate glass,
fused glass and lead glass
16
- Gas released from power station, factories and vehicle are sprayed
with powdered calcium carbonate.
- Add calcium oxide and calcium carbonate to the lake and river
Equation: 3H2 + N2  2NH3
Raw material: hydrogen gas and nitrogen gas
• Catalyst - Iron filling
• Temperature - 450°C - 550°C
• Pressure - 200 atmospheres
1. Colour: Ammonia is a colourless gas.
2. Solubility: Ammonia is very soluble in water.
3. Smell : Ammonia has a pungent smell.
4. Ammonia dissolves in water to produce an ammonium hydroxide
solution.
5. Turn red litmus paper to blue
6. Give a white fumes when reacted with hydrogen chloride gas
- Polymers are long chain molecules made up of many identical
repeating units called monomers.
- Polymerization is the process by which the large number of monomers
are joined together to form a big molecule known as the polymer.
- Ethene and chloroethene respectively.
- Non/not easily biodegradable
- Improper disposal can cause blockage of drainage//flash flood
- Improper disposal can cause eye sore
- Burning can cause acidic gas//poisonous gas//bad smell
- Burning can cause greenhouse effect//global warming/thinning the
ozone layer
- Very stable and do not corrode
- Inert to chemical reaction
- Light and strong
- Cheap
- Easily shaped and coloured
- Disposal of synthetic polymers such as plastic bottles and containers
cause blockage of drainage systems and rivers thus causing flash
floods
- Open burning of synthetic polymers will release acidic and poisonous
gas that cause air pollution.
- Burning of most of the synthetic polymers will produce :
i. Carbon dioxide which cause greenhouse effect
ii. Carbon monoxide which is poisonous
iii. Burning of PVC will release hydrogen chloride which will cause
acid rain
iv. Burning of synthetic polymers contains carbon and nitrogen
such as nylon will produce highly poisonous gas such as
hydrogen cyanide.
- Plastic containers that are left in open area collect rain water will
become breeding ground for mosquito which will cause diseases such
as dengue fever
- Reduce, recycle and reuse the synthetic polymers
- Using biodegradable polymers
- On-going research to produce cheap biodegradable polymers.
- Disintegrate plastics by pyrolysis : plastics can be disintegrated by
heating at temperature between 400 – 800oC without oxygen.
- Main composition of glass is silicon dioxide, SiO2 which exist naturally
in sand
- transparent - resistant to chemical
- hard but brittle - easy to clean
- non porous - can withstand compression.
- heat insulator
 17

Composite material Composition Properties Uses

Reinforced concrete Steel bars, polymer fibers
and concrete (cement, sand
and pebbles)
Superconductors Barium carbonate, copper
(II) oxide and sodium oxide
heated to form a type of
ceramic known as
perovoskyte
Fibre optic Silica, sodium carbonate,
calcium oxide
Fibre glass Polyester resin glass
Photochromic glass Glass and silver chloride or
silver bromide
Very strong and can be moulded Construction of building,
into any shape bridges and oil platforms
Conducting electricity with no Used in medical magnetic-
resistance when it is cooled at low imaging devices(MRI),
temperature generators, transformers,
computer parts and bullet
train
Low material costs, Transmit data, voice and
High transmission capacity, image in a digital format.
chemical stability,
Less susceptible to interference.
High tensile strength,
Easy to colour,
Low in density,
Very strong.
When it is exposed to light, silver
chloride is converted to silver and
darken the glass

1) What is rate of reaction?
2) What are observable changes to
reactants or products for determining
rate of reaction?
3) State 2 different ways to measure the
rate of reactions of a chemical reaction.
4) What is stated in the collision theory?
5) What is activation energy?
6) What is effective collision?
7) State the factors that affect the rate of a
chemical reaction.
1) Explain how total surface area (size of
reactant) can increase the rate of
reaction based on collision theory.
(Specific : reaction between calcium
carbonate and hydrochloric acid
solution)bezakan dengan “compare
and explain”
2) Explain how concentration can
increase the rate of reaction based on
collision theory.
(Specific : reaction between zinc
powder and hydrochloric acid solution)
bezakan dengan “compare and explain”
- Rate of reaction is the change In the quantity of the reactant or
product per unit time (general definition)
- Rate of reaction is the volume of carbon dioxide gas released per
second (specific)
The amount of a reactant used up or a product obtained can be
measured in terms of
(a) changes in the mass or concentration of the reactant or product
(b) volume of gas produced
(c) changes in colour
(d) formation of precipitate
(e) changes in mass of the reaction mixture
- Type of determination in the rate of reaction;
1. Average rate of reaction (rate in a certain period of time)
2. Rate of reaction at a given time (instantaneous rate of reaction)
- According to the collision theory, for a reaction to be occurred, the
particles of the reactants must:
 collide with each other,
 collide with the correct orientation,
 achieve total energy that equals to activation energy.
- The minimum energy in the system of reaction that the reacting
particles must possess to start a chemical reaction.
- Collisions with the correct orientation and able to overcome the
activation energy of the system.
Factors that affect the rate of reaction;
1. Size of solid reactant
2. Concentration of solution
3. Temperature of reactant
4. Presence of catalyst
5. Pressure of gas reactant
- When the size of solid calcium carbonate becomes smaller, the
total surface area exposed to collision increase.
- The frequency of collision between calcium carbonate and
hydrogen ions increase.
- This increases the frequency of effective collision between calcium
carbonate and hydrogen ions
- Hence the rate of reaction increases.
- When the concentration of hydrochloric acid solution increases,
the number of hydrogen ions per unit volume increases.
- Particles have more chances to collide more often.
- The frequency of collision between zinc atoms and hydrogen ions
(the reacting particles) increase.
- This increases the frequency of effective collision between zinc
atoms and hydrogen ions
- Hence, the rate of reaction increases.

3) Explain how temperature can increase
the rate of reaction based on collision
theory.
(Specific : reaction between sodium
thiosulphate solution and sulphuric acid
solution)
bezakan dengan “compare and explain”
4) Define the term catalyst
5) Explain how catalyst can increase the
rate of reaction based on collision
theory.
(Specific : reaction in the decomposition
of hydrogen peroxide by using
manganese(IV) oxide powder)
6) If a graph of the reaction between
excess of magnesium ribbon and
sulphuric acid solution 0.1 mol dm -3 is
obtained as follow (labelled as X),
suggest how to get graph Y with a
higher gradient?
Volume of H2 (cm3)
Y
X
Time (s)
7) State briefly, how the knowledge about
the factors that affect the rate of
reaction is applied in human daily life.
8) Food store in a refrigerator lasts longer
than food stored in a kitchen cabinet.
Explain why.
9) One kilogram of meat, cut into big
pieces, takes a longer time to cook
compared to one kilogram of meat cut
into small piece. Explain the above
statement based on the size of the
meat.
18
- When the temperature of reactant increases, the kinetic energy of
the particles increases.
- Particles move faster and collide more often.
- The frequency of collision between thiosulphate ions and hydrogen
ions (the reacting particles) increase.
- This increases the frequency of effective collision between
thiosulphate ions and hydrogen ions.
- Hence, the rate of reaction increases.
- Catalyst is the substance which can change the rate of a chemical
reaction while it remains chemically unchanged at the end of the
reaction.
- When a positive catalyst is used, it provides an alternative path with
lower activation energy.
- More collided hydrogen peroxide molecules are able to overcome that
lower activation energy.
- This increases the frequency of effective collision between hydrogen
peroxide molecules (the reacting particles).
- Hence, the rate of reaction increases.
Catalyst does not increase the frequency of collision between reacting
particles.
How to increase the rate of reaction?
Graph Y can be obtained by;
1. change with magnesium powder (smaller size of reactant)
2. heat the mixture of reactant (higher temperature)
3. add copper(II) sulphate solution (presence of catalyst)
# The amount of product the reaction is equal. Mol of hydrogen
gas released is depends on mol of sulphuric acid because
magnesium is in excess.
• Application of the rate of reaction;
1. Keep food in fridge
2. Cook food in smaller sizes
3. Use iron filling in Haber process
4. Use vanadium(V) oxide in Contact process
- Temperature in refrigerator is lower. The lower temperature caused
the bacteria to be less active. A little toxin is released by the bacteria.
The rate of the food turns bad is lower.
- Temperature in kitchen cabinet is higher. The higher temperature
caused the bacteria to be more active. A more toxic is released
by the bacteria. The rate of the food turns bad is higher
- Meat cut into small pieces have smaller size compare to the meat
cut into big pieces.
- The smaller the size, the bigger the total surface area of the meat,
hence the smaller size of meat absorbed more heat. The smaller
size of meat takes shorter time to cook

10) What is hydrocarbon compound?
11) What is saturated and unsaturated
hydrocarbon?
State an example for each of them.
12) What is the meaning of structural
formula?
13) State the functional group and general
formula of each of the following
homologous series;
(a) Alkane
(b) Alkene
(c) Alcohol
(d) Carboxylic acid
(e) Ester
14) What is isomerism?
15) Explain why on going down the alkane
series, the melting and boiling point
increase?
16) Explain why alkanes are non-
conductors of electricity.
17) Explain why ethene gas can
decolourises purple colour of the
acidified potassium manganete(VIl)
solution but ethane cannot
decolourises the acidified potassium
manganate(VII) solution.
18) Beside acidified potassium
manganate(VII) solution, state other
chemicals that can be used to
differentiate between the two
colourless liquid of hexane and
hexane. State also the observation.
19) Both hexane and hexene have six
carbon atoms per molecules, but
hexene burns with a more sooty flame.
Explain why
20) Pentane and propane are members of
alkane family. Explain why the melting
point of pentane is higher than
propane.
21) State 5 characteristics of a
homologous series of carbon
compound.
19
- Hydrocarbon is a compound that contains carbon atoms and hydrogen
atoms only in its molecule.
- Saturated hydrocarbon is the hydrocarbon compound that contains only
single covalent bond in its molecule
Example : ethane.
- Unsaturated hydrocarbon is the hydrocarbon compound that contains
multiple (double or triple) covalent bond (between carbon atoms) in
its molecule.
Example : ethene.
Formula that shows how atoms are bonded to each other in a
molecule of the organic compound.
Homologous
Functional group General formula
series
Alkane single covalent bond CnH2n+2
Alkene carbon-carbon double CnH2n
covalent bond, -C=C-
Alcohol hydroxyl, -C-OH CnH2n+1OH
Carboxylic acid carboxyl, -COOH CnH2n+1COOH
Ester Carboxylate, -COOC- CnH2n+1COO CnH2n+1OH
- Isomerism is the phenomenon whereby two or more molecules that
have the same molecular formula, but different structural
formulae.
- All of isomers have same chemical properties (because have the same
functional group) but different physical properties.
- The higher the number of carbon atoms per molecule, the higher the
melting point and boiling point
Explanation :
- When the number of carbon atoms per molecule increases, the
size alkane molecule become bigger.
- The van der waals forces of attraction between molecules
increase.
- More heat energy to overcome the forces of attraction between
molecules
- Alkanes are covalent compounds made up of neutral molecules.
- No free moving ions.
- Hence alkanes are non-conductors of electricity.
- Ethene is an unsaturated hydrocarbon; it contains a carbon-carbon
double bond.
- Therefore, it can undergoes addition reaction with the acidified
managanate(VII) solution.
- Ethane is a saturated hydrocarbon; it contains single bonds only.
- Therefore it cannot undergo any addition reaction
1. Bromine water, Br2(aq)
Hexene turns brown bromine water to colourless.
2. Acidified potassium dichromate(IV) solution, K2Cr2O7(aq)/H+
Hexene turns orange colour of acidified potassium dichromate(IV)
solution into green.
- This is because hexene contains a higher percentage by mass of
carbon atoms per molecule compare to haxane.
- # Show calculation for the percentage of carbon by mass in
hexane and hexene
- The molecular size of pentane is bigger than that of propane.
- The intermolecular / van der Waals forces between molecules in
pentane are stronger.
- It needs more heat energy to overcome the stronger forces between
molecules.
1. Members can be represented by the same general formula.
2. The next member in series is differ by –CH2 with molar mass of 14
3. Physical properties of members change gradually as number of C
atoms increase.
4. Chemical properties of members are similar as they have same
functional group.
5. Members can be prepared by the same method.

22) State the name of process for the
following reaction:
a) Ethene to ethane
b) Ethene to ethanol
c) Ethanol to ethene
d) Ethanol to ethanoic acid
e) Ethanol + ethanoic acid to ethyl
ethanoate
23) Describe a test to differentiate between
hexane and hexene.
24) Write the chemical equations for each
of the following reaction;
a) Hydrogenation of ethene
b) Hydration of propene
c) Ethene + bromine
d) Ethene + acidified KMnO4(aq)
e) Polymerisation of ethene
f) Ethanol + conc. propanoic acid
g) EthanoI + acidified K2Cr2O7(aq)
h) Ethanoic acid + Mg ribbon
I) Propanoic acid + CaCO3
25) Explain the coagulation process of
latex when formic acid is added.
26) Explain how to prevent coagulation of
latex.
20
• Name of process;
a) hydrogenation
b) hydration
c) #dehydration
d) #oxidation
e)# esterification
# : experiments are conducted in the laboratory. Procedure for the
experiments are important(Describe experiment…)
1) About 3 cm3 of hexane is poured into a test tube.
2) 3 drops of bromine in 1,1,1-trichloroethane are added into the hexane
in the test tube.
3) The mixture is shaken well.
4) The colour change of the solution in the test tube is recorded.
5) Steps 1 to 4 are repeated with hexene.
Result:
Hexene decolourises the brown bromine water.
Hexane does not decolourise the brown bromine water.
Chemical equation involved by carbon compounds
a) C2H4 + H2  C2H6
b) C3H6 + H2O(g)  C3H7OH
c) C2H4 + Br2  C2H4Br2
d) C2H4 + H2O + [O]  C2H4(OH)2
e) n C2H4  -[- C2H4 -]n-
f) C2H5OH  C2H4 + H2O
g) C2H5OH + 2[O]  CH3COOH + H2O
h) CH3COOH + Mg  (CH3COO)2Mg + H2
h) 2 C2H5COOH + CaCO3  (C2H5COO)2Ca + H2O + CO2
- A rubber particle is made of long-chain rubber molecules enclosed
by a layer of negatively charged protein membrane. The protein
membrane is negatively charged and causes the rubber molecules
repel each other.
- When a dilute acid such us, methanoic acid (formic acid) is added
hydrogen ions, H+ from the acid neutralise the negative charges on
the protein membrane.
- As a result, the rubber particles become neutral and no longer repel
each other. The neutral rubber particles collide each other and
break the thin protein membrane.
- The rubber polymers are freed.
- The free moving rubber polymers combine with one another and to
coagulate.
- Alkali solution such as ammonia aqueous, NH3(aq) solution is usually
added to latex to preserve the latex in the liquid state.
- Ammonia solution, NH3(aq) contains hydroxide ions, OH- that
neutralize hydrogen ion from the acid produced by bacteria.
- This helps the rubber particles to remain their negative charges on the
protein membranes and preventing the latex from coagulating.

27) What is meant by oxidation and
reduction based on loss or gain of
oxygen?
28) What is oxidation and reduction based
on transfer of electrons?
29) What is oxidation and reduction based
on changes in oxidation number?
30) What is redox reaction?
State an example of redox reactions.
31) What is oxidising agent and reducing
agent based on the transferring of
electrons?
State an example of oxidising agent and
reducing agent
32) Determine whether the reaction
between hydrochloric acid and sodium
hydroxide is a redox reaction.
Explain your answer based on
changes in oxidation number.
33) Determine whether the reaction
between hydrochloric acid and
magnesium is a redox reaction.
Explain your answer based on
changes in oxidation number.
34) The reaction between zinc and
copper(II) sulphate solution is a redox
reaction. Explain based on transfer of
electron..
35) Chlorine water is added to potassium
iodide solution in a test tube. 2cm 3 of
1,1,1-trichloroethene is added into the
test tube and the mixture is shaken
thoroughly. The colour of 1,1,1-
trichloroethene changes from colourless
to purple. Explain the observation.
36) Describe the rusting process of an iron
bar.
21
- Oxidation is a gain of oxygen.
- Reduction is a loss of oxygen.
- Oxidation is the process of losing of electrons.
- Reduction is the process of gaining of electrons.
- Oxidation occurs when there is an increasing in oxidation number.
- Reduction occurs when there is a decreasing in oxidation number.
- The chemical reaction involving oxidation and reduction that occur
simultaneously.
- Oxidising agent is chemical / reagent which receiving electrons and
itself undergoes reduction process.
- Example : bromine water, chlorine water, acidified potassium
manganate(VII) solution, acidified potassium dichromate(VII)
solution
- Reducing agent is chemical / reagent which loses electrons and itself
undergoes oxidation process.
Example : zinc, potassium iodide solution, potassium bromide
solution, iron(II) sulphate solution
- No. Neutralisation is not a redox reaction.
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
Oxidation number: +1 -1 +1 -2 +1 +1 -1 +1 -2
- There is no change of oxidation number of any element of compound
in the reaction.
Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓↓ ↓
Oxidation number: 0 +1 +6 -2 +2 +6 -2 0
- Magnesium, Mg undergoes oxidation because its oxidation number
of magnesium increases from 0 to +2. Magnesium is a reducing
agent
- Hydrogen ion, H+ undergoes reduction because its oxidation
number of hydrogen in sulphuric acid decreases from +1 to 0.
Sulphuric acid an oxidising agent
- The reaction is redox reaction
- Zinc undergoes oxidation because zinc atom releases 2 electrons to
form zinc ion, Zn 2+.
- Copper(Il) ion, Cu 2+ undergoes reduction because copper(II) ions
receives 2 electrons to form copper atom.
- The oxidation and reduction process occur simultaneously.
- Chlorine water undergoes reduction because chlorine molecule
receives electrons to form chloride ion . Chlorine water is an an
oxidising agent.
Cl2 + 2e  2Cl-
- Potassium iodide/iodide ions undergoes reduction because iodide
ion releases electrons to form iodine molecules. Potassium
iodide/iodide ions is a reducing agent
2I-  I2 + 2e
- he presence of iodine gives purple colour in 1,1,1-trichloroethene
layer.
- Iron surface under the centre of a water droplet acts as the anode
(negative terminal).
- Iron surface at the edge of the water droplet serves as the cathode
(positive terminal).
- At the anode, iron atoms lose electrons to form iron(II) ions.
Fe(s)  Fe2+(aq) + 2e (Oxidation)
Iron undergoes oxidation / iron rusts
- Electrons flow to the edge of the water droplet (cathode) and are
received by oxygen and water molecules to form hydroxide ions.
O2(g) + 2 H2O(l) + 4 e  4OH-(aq) (Reduction)
- The Fe2+ ions combine with OH- ions to form iron(II) hydroxide.
Fe2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)  Fe(OH)2(s)
- The iron(II) hydroxide is then further oxidised by oxygen to form

37) When iron is in contact with
magnesium, rusting of iron is prevented.
Explain why?
38) When iron is in contact with copper,
rusting of the iron is speed up. Explain
why?
39) What is exothermic reaction and
endothermic reaction?
State an example for each reaction.
40) What is heat of precipitation?
41) What is heat of displacement?
42) What is heat of neutralisation?
43) What is heat of combustion?
44) Explain why the heat of combustion of
butanol is higher than ethanol.
45) Explain why the heat of neutralisation
between strong acid and strong alkali is
a constant, which is -57 kJmol-1.
46) Explain why the heat of neutralisation
between ethanoic acid and sodium
hydroxide is less than -57 kJ mol-1.
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hydrated iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3.xH2O (brown substance known as rust),
whereby x varies.
𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Fe(OH)2(s) → Fe2O3.xH2O
- Magnesium is more electropositive than iron.
- Magnesium atom releases electrons to form magnesium ion
Magnesium corrodes
Mg(s)  Mg2+(aq) + 2e
- Iron(II) ions, Fe2+ are not present. Thus, iron is prevented from rusting.
- Iron is more electropositive than copper.
- Iron atom releases electrons form iron(II) ion, Fe2+. Iron rusts
Fe(s)  Fe2+(aq) + 2e
- The presence of copper increase the rate of the formation of iron(II)
ions, Fe2+. As a result, the rusting of iron is speed up.
- Exothermic is a chemical reaction that gives out heat to the
surroundings
Example : 2 Na(s) + 2 H2O(I)  2 NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
- Endothermic is a chemical reaction that absorbs heat from the
surroundings.
Example : NaHCO3(s) + HCI(aq)  NaCI(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
- The heat change when one mole of a precipitate is formed from
their ions in aqueous solution.
- The heat change when one mole of a metal is displaced from its
salt solution by a more electropositive metal.
- The heat release when one mole of water is formed from the
reaction between an acid and an alkali.
- The heat release when one mole of a substance (fuel) is completely
burnt in oxygen under standard conditions
- The number of carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms per molecule
of butanol is higher than ethanol.
- When more carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms are burnt, more
carbon dioxide and water molecules are formed.
- This will cause more chemical bonds to be formed and more heat
energy to be released.
- All neutralisation between a strong acid and a strong alkali are the
same.
- Neutralisation involves the reaction between hydrogen ions, H+
from the acid and hydroxide ions, OH- from the alkali to produce
molecules of water, H2O.
H+ + OH-  H2O
- This is because ethanoic acid is a weak acid which exists as
molecules when they dissolve in water.
- They only ionise partially in water to produce low concentration of
hydrogen ions, H+, some ethanoic acid remains in the form of
molecule
- Some of the heat given out during neutralisation reaction is used in
used to ionise the acid molecules completely to produce hydrogen
ions.
- As a result, the value of H is always less than -57 kJ mol-1.

47) What is soap?
48) What is saponification process?
49) What is detergent?
50) What is hard water?
51) State the function of each of the
following additives in detergent
a) Whitening agent (example: sodium
perborate)
b) Optical brightener (fluorescent dies)
a) Biological enzyme (example:
amylase, lipase, protease and
cellulase)
d) Fragrance
52) State the function of each of the
following food additives.
a) Preservatives (E.g.: Sodium nitrite,
sodium benzoate)
b) Antioxidants (E.g.: Ascorbic acid)
a) Flavourings (E.g.: Monosodium
glutamate, Aspartame)
d) Stabilisers
e) Thickeners
53) State the functions of the following
modem medicines;
a) Analgesics (e.g.: paracetamol,
aspirin, codeine)
b) Antibiotics (e.g.: penicillin,
streptomycin)
a) Psychotherapeutic medicine (e.g.:
stimulant, antidepressant,
antipsychotic)
54) Explain why the cleansing action of a
detergent is more effective than soap in
hard water.
Edited by Cikgu Wan Afifah….
23
- Soap is the sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids.
- It is an alkaline hydrolysis reaction to produce soap.
- Detergent is sodium salt of sulphonic acid.
- The water that contains high concentration of magnesium ions,
Mg2+ or / and calcium, Ca2+ ions.
- Function of additives in detergent.
a) Bleach the white fabric but does not bleach the dye on the coloured
fabrics.
b) Convert some ultraviolet radiation to blue light and cause the fabrics
looked brighter and whiter rather than yellow.
c) Break down and remove stains such as proteins, fats, carbohydrates,
blood and oil.
d) Give detergent and fabrics a better smell.
- Function of food additives;
a) To slow down or prevent the growth of bacteria or fungi, so that the
food can be kept longer.
b) To prevent oxidation that causes rancid fats and brown fruits.
c) To improve the taste or smell of food and restore taste loss due to
food processing.
d) To helps to mix two liquids that usually do not mix together to form an
emulsion.
e) Substance that thicken the food and give the food firm, smooth and
uniform texture.
- Function of modern medicine;
a) to relieve pain.
b) to treat infections caused by bacteria
c) to alter abnormal thinking, feeling or behaviour.
Stimulant : To increase or maintain alertness of the central nervous
system.
Antidepressant : To treat depression
Antipsychotic : To treat psychiatric illness.
- Soap anions react with magnesium or calcium ions to form an
insoluble precipitate called as scum.
- The amount of soap anion available for cleaning is reduced
- Foams cannot be formed and soap is not effective as a cleaning
agent.
- Detergent reacts with magnesium or calcium ions to form soluble
substance. It does not form scum.