Physics Lab Report

LASER OPTICS

Aryan Bansal | Physics Lab | July 22, 2019

Purpose
To understand the concept of Laser optics and affect of Polarization.

We use various kinds of Polarizers from linear polarizer to lamda/4 waveplate and study
its affect on a laser light.

Theory
EMMISION OF LIGHT

- Here are some ways to emit a light:

1. Spontaneous emmision:
We consider an atom with only two states. A lower state ‘b’ and a higher state ‘a’.
When an atom in state a transitions to state b, it loses energy which is release in
the form of light.

ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸𝑎 − 𝐸𝑏

The time-dependednt change in number of atoms that are moving from state a to
b is given by:

2. Stimulated Emmision
Here, the atoms in lower state b absorb light and transition into state a. Later
those atoms in state a emit light to transition back to state b.
AMPLIFICATION OF LIGHT

-After the emmision, we need to be able to amplify the light signal to get a higher
intensity light. This can be achieved by:
1. A light incident to atoms either causes light absorption by atoms or stimulated
emmision. The probability of emmision is given by equation 14 of the lab
handouts.

The number of atoms with transition ab and ba are NaWi and NbWi respectively.

The Power of light emmited is hence, 𝑷 = (𝑵𝒂 − 𝑵𝒃 )𝑾𝒊 𝒉𝝂

The amplification of emmited light is given by:

The latter two equations signify that if Na>Nb, Intensity of light is exponentially increased.

And if, Na<Nb, the intensity is exponentially decreased.

RESONATOR FOR LIGHT EMMISION

Hence, we notice, we can amplify the light by using a material with inversion distribution
(Na>Nb). And if we pass the light through it many times, we can amplify it by a lot. But
since light has a phase, and returning light can interfere with the original light and reduce
the intensity, we need to use resonators to avoid that.

Resonator is a combination of two mirrors parallel to each other. If lights are not in phase
the light returning from mirror 2 interferes from the light from mirror 1 and disappears.
But if they are in phase, the light will be amplified as it forms a standing wave. Such an
amplified light is called longitudinal mode.
3-LEVEL AND 4-LEVEL LASER

The above resonators are based on 2-level system which cannot emit stable light.
Therefore, lasers used practically are based on either 3 or 4 level system.

Three level laser

In three-levels, the atoms are pumped to a higher state from where they transition rapidly
to a slightly lower state radiationless. After that the atoms transition once again back to
the ground state. Example of such a system is Ruby laser.

Four level laser

In Four level system, the atoms follow almost all the same transitions as 3-level system
except that the final state of atoms is not the ground state but a state with energy slightly
higher than ground state. Example of such a system is He-Ne laser and ND;YAG laser.
Experiment 1
ADJUSTMENT OF RESONATOR

Emit He-Ne laser by adjusting the two optical mirrors at both the ends of the resonator.

As we noticed earlier in theory, the mirrors need to be adjusted so that the light from
mirror 2 is in phase with mirror 1 and amplification can take place.

Experiment 2
MEASUREMENT OF OUTPUT PROPERTY OF PHOTO DIODE

Here we investigate the properties of laser or photo diode by converting the strength of
solar cell to output voltage. Later we find a relation between this output voltage and the
intensity of the light detected.

Follow these steps:

1. Illuminate the laser to the solar cell. Confirm the incidence.

2. Read the value output shown by the digital voltmeter.
3. Decrease the intensity of the laser using ND filters. ND-2 means intensity is
halved, ND-4 means intensity is one-fourth.
4. Plot obtained data (Intensity vs output voltage) in a semi-log graph.
5. To further examine the properties, try repeating the experiment in various
conditions:
a. Darken the room
b. Change the direction of the cell

Experiment 3
POLARIZATION PROPERTY OF HE-NE LASER

Insert a linear polarizer to the polarization axis. Measure the intensities of light by
changing the polarizer angle.

Follow these steps:

1. Set the linear polarizer as vertically as possible to the plane.

2. Adjust the rotation angle of the polarizer as indicated and measure the intensity
3. Change the angle of polarizer while measuring the intensities.
 4. Plot the intensity vs Angle graph.
5. Determine the direction of polarization plane of the laser.

Experiment 4
MEASUREMENT OF BREWSTER’S ANGLE

Measure intensities of reflected light from BK7 glass plate with different incident angles.
Based on incident angle dependency of reflectance ratio, determine the brewster’s angle of
the glass plate.

Follow these steps:

1. Set the glass plate as vertically as possible to the laser axis.

2. Adjust the incident angle of the glass plate and measure the intensities and plot a
function of reflectance ratio and angle.
3. Calculate reflectance ratio of glass plate with refractive index n and considering S
and P polarized laser.
4. Consider whether the used laser is S polarized or P polarized and hence calculate
the refractive index n of the glass plate.

Experiment 5
ROTATION OF POLARIZATION PLANE OF THE LASER BY QUARTER WAVE PLATE

Demonstrate change of polarization plane of laser by using a quarter waveplate.

Follow these steps:

1. Set λ/4 plate and linear polarizer in the order from laser tube to laser axis.
2. Adjust rotation angle of λ/4 plate and measure intensity of laser by changing the
polarizer angle.
3. Consider a parameter for vertical scale of the graph whose horizontal scale is
rotation angle of λ/4 plate.
4. Calculate laser intensities against rotation angle of λ/4 plate and linear polarizer.
5. Based on calculated intensities, calculate the parameter of vertical scale and
compare with experimental data.
Experiment 6
POCKELS EFFECT

Study the Pockels effect by measuring laser intensities through KDP crystal applied with
high voltage.

Follow these steps:

1. Set KDP crystal and linear polarizer in order from laser tube to laser axis.
2. Apply a voltage to KDP crystal and measure the intensity of the laser.
3. Calculate an equation for laser intensities against KDP crystal.
4. From the experimental data in comparison with calculated equation, estimate
value of crystal axis of Pockels cell consisting of KDP crystal.
5. Demonstrate relationship between phase differences and applied voltages. On the
basis of relationship, obtain the voltage to induce a phase difference of π.
Observation

Experiment 1
The mirrors need to be adjusted very carefully as only a specific position of the mirror
emits amplified light. A small change in the position would result in drastic change in the
intensity of the light.

Experiment 2
The semi log graph of the observed data (Intensity vs Output Voltage)

Output vs Log Intensity

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
-1

-2

-3

-4

-5 y = 30.472x - 11.541

-6

Output vs Log Intensity

1
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5 y = 30.99x - 11.66
-6

The experiment was repeated twice to get more accurate results and avoid errors. The
accepted value was then :
y = 28.076x – 12.076

Default 3rd time (with new intensity)

1

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
-1

-2

-3

-4
y = 28.076x - 12.076
-5

-6
For different conditions:

1. Darken the room:

Output vs Log Intensity

1
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
y = 29.781x - 11.231

-6

2. Change the angle

Output vs Log Intensity

1
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5 y = 39.414x - 12.424
-6

When we switch off the lights and darken the room, the intensity is almost similar to
when the lights were still on. So not much differs.

When the angle is changed, the Intensity changes proportionally to the angle changed.
Experiment 3
Angle θ Voltage Angle in radian cos^2 θ Intensity
0 0.4147 0 1 0.64863651
10 0.4117 0.174444444 0.969877 0.59624072
20 0.407 0.348888889 0.883136 0.52253255
30 0.399 0.523333333 0.75023 0.41741431
40 0.3869 0.697777778 0.587173 0.29718644
50 0.3666 0.872222222 0.413612 0.1680761
60 0.3428 1.046666667 0.25046 0.08616018
70 0.305 1.221111111 0.117376 0.02981272
80 0.246 1.395555556 0.030396 0.00568853
90 0.1959 1.57 6.34E-07 0.00139353
100 0.278 1.744444444 0.029852 0.0139696
110 0.323 1.918888889 0.116353 0.04941743
120 0.353 2.093333333 0.249081 0.1147302
130 0.3748 2.267777778 0.412043 0.21158781
140 0.3896 2.442222222 0.585604 0.32059059
150 0.4002 2.616666667 0.74885 0.43171709
160 0.4068 2.791111111 0.882111 0.51960665
170 0.411 2.965555556 0.96933 0.58463708
180 0.4114 3.14 0.999997 0.59123979
190 0.4094 3.314444444 0.970419 0.5589554
200 0.404 3.488888889 0.884157 0.48032323
210 0.3956 3.663333333 0.751607 0.37941131
220 0.3826 3.837777778 0.58874 0.26338922
230 0.3638 4.012222222 0.415181 0.15536918
240 0.3388 4.186666667 0.251841 0.0770076
250 0.304 4.361111111 0.118403 0.02898734
260 0.2434 4.535555556 0.030945 0.00528807
270 0.2094 4.71 5.71E-06 0.00203576
280 0.2858 4.884444444 0.029312 0.01738967
290 0.3294 5.058888889 0.115333 0.05914486
300 0.3584 5.233333333 0.247705 0.13351231
310 0.3784 5.407777778 0.410476 0.23409188
320 0.3902 5.582222222 0.584034 0.32603687
330 0.4025 5.756666667 0.747467 0.46051493
340 0.4102 5.931111111 0.881082 0.57165204
350 0.4125 6.105555556 0.968778 0.60978429
We measured the intensities agaisnt rotation angle of linear polarizer. The data is shown
above. We can observe that it is there is a cosine^2 relationship.

Experiment 3
0.45

0.4

0.35

0.3
Voltage

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380
Angle θ

The graph is reasonable as it matches the theoritical prediction.

Also, the plane of polarization of laser light is already set to horizontal as the maximum
intensity is achieved at either 0 degrees or 180 degrees i.e. parallel to horizontal plane.
Experiment 4
Angle θ Voltage Intensity
0 0.4318 1.048349
10 0.295 0.022515
20 0.2907 0.019954
30 0.2835 0.016302
40 0.2673 0.010345
50 0.2393 0.004713
53 0.2152 0.002396
54 0.2098 0.002059
55 0.2028 0.001691
56 0.2118 0.002178
57 0.2207 0.002796
60 0.2405 0.004875
65 0.2465 0.005769
70 0.2631 0.009194
80 0.3649 0.160242

The above data is relation between rotation angle of glass slab vs Intensity.
 Voltage vs Angle
0.4

0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Intensity vs Angle
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
-0.02
Theoritical graphs for S polarized and P polarized light

We see that our experimental graph coincides with the P-component of the theoritical
graph by a great extent. Hence, we may confirm that the laser we used in our experiment
is P-polarized laser.
Experiment 5

Angle vs Intensity (θ1 = 0

degrees)
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Angle vs Intensity (θ1 = 20 degrees)

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 50 100 150 200

Angle vs Intensity (θ1 = 20 degrees)

0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 50 100 150 200
 Angle vs Intensity (θ1 = 45 degrees)

0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 50 100 150 200

Angle vs Intensity (θ1 = 60

degrees)
0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 50 100 150 200

Angle vs Intensity(θ1 = 90 degrees)

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 50 100 150 200
 Angle vs Intensity(θ1 = 135 degrees)

0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 50 100 150 200

For all the angles:

20 30 45 90 135 60 0
0.428697 0.317456 0.257539 0.612358 0.296353 0.294694 0.532904
0.457936 0.347297 0.247613 0.59124 0.271651 0.23475 0.520337
0.48643 0.361728 0.240082 0.52992 0.251819 0.174814 0.468996
0.500281 0.389121 0.228572 0.44401 0.233108 0.124812 0.396844
0.467025 0.381013 0.20747 0.330646 0.216698 0.09165 0.289771
0.396287 0.344384 0.217613 0.191785 0.210108 0.069118 0.191516
0.320591 0.329719 0.232455 0.10154 0.199754 0.062473 0.111085
0.231153 0.284931 0.249357 0.044354 0.206019 0.069312 0.049766
0.152988 0.225385 0.268994 0.012329 0.225069 0.093076 0.016302
0.105315 0.182846 0.262651 0.002336 0.256457 0.12927 0.003016
0.072701 0.155369 0.273948 0.011004 0.277431 0.178284 0.006034
0.059394 0.143623 0.287341 0.040203 0.286535 0.23475 0.026833
0.064705 0.136737 0.306078 0.098452 0.29428 0.289365 0.074876
0.089363 0.143421 0.315235 0.184393 0.303937 0.341496 0.155369
0.136737 0.162052 0.31347 0.288149 0.32558 0.378879 0.241434
0.201161 0.198078 0.29886 0.405858 0.342937 0.389667 0.345838
0.276654 0.238403 0.267113 0.502392 0.327873 0.374648 0.447137
0.353694 0.280565 0.246918 0.570049 0.311715 0.338632 0.5218
0.423315 0.321492 0.234092 0.589582 0.286133 0.289771 0.551164
 Angle vs Intensity
0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

20 30 45 90 135 60 0

We notice, that as the angle is increased, the phase of the wave (graph above) shifts a bit.
Moreover, the intensity (amplitude) of the wave decreases, being minimum at angle of 45
degrees.

This graph is reasonable as it matches the theoritical predictions.

Now, we fix the rotation angle of linear polarizer and study the relation between intensity
and rotation angle of quarter waveplate.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180

0 0.532904 0.520337 0.468996 0.396844 0.289771 0.191516 0.111085 0.049766 0.016302 0.003016 0.006034 0.026833 0.074876 0.155369 0.241434 0.345838 0.447137 0.5218 0.551164
20 0.428697 0.457936 0.48643 0.500281 0.467025 0.396287 0.320591 0.231153 0.152988 0.105315 0.072701 0.059394 0.064705 0.089363 0.136737 0.201161 0.276654 0.353694 0.423315
30 0.317456 0.347297 0.361728 0.389121 0.381013 0.344384 0.329719 0.284931 0.225385 0.182846 0.155369 0.143623 0.136737 0.143421 0.162052 0.198078 0.238403 0.280565 0.321492
45 0.257539 0.247613 0.240082 0.228572 0.20747 0.217613 0.232455 0.249357 0.268994 0.262651 0.273948 0.287341 0.306078 0.315235 0.31347 0.29886 0.267113 0.246918 0.234092
60 0.294694 0.23475 0.174814 0.124812 0.09165 0.069118 0.062473 0.069312 0.093076 0.12927 0.178284 0.23475 0.289365 0.341496 0.378879 0.389667 0.374648 0.338632 0.289771
90 0.612358 0.59124 0.52992 0.44401 0.330646 0.191785 0.10154 0.044354 0.012329 0.002336 0.011004 0.040203 0.098452 0.184393 0.288149 0.405858 0.502392 0.570049 0.589582
135 0.296353 0.271651 0.251819 0.233108 0.216698 0.210108 0.199754 0.206019 0.225069 0.256457 0.277431 0.286535 0.29428 0.303937 0.32558 0.342937 0.327873 0.311715 0.286133

Chart Title
0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4 0
10
0.3
20
0.2

0.1

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

We observe the same thing, that intensity decreases until 45 degrees and is maximum at 0
and 90 degrees.
Experiment 6
The plot of Intensity vs angle for various different voltages is as follows:

Angle vs Intensity (0 V)
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0 50 100 150 200

Angle vs Intensity (1 V)
0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
0 50 100 150 200

Angle vs Intensity (3 V)
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0 50 100 150 200
 Angle vs Intensity (5 V)
0.07

0.06

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

0
0 50 100 150 200

Angle vs Intensity (7 V)
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0 50 100 150 200

Angle vs Intensity (10 V)

0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0 50 100 150 200
For all angles:

θ2 0 1 2 3 5 7 9 10
0 0.079758 0.087256 0.084602 0.074981 0.056865 0.013133 0.026311 0.011206
10 0.080095 0.081455 0.081113 0.071086 0.049556 0.008091 0.021226 0.006154
20 0.077008 0.076362 0.070095 0.056945 0.040543 0.005793 0.016932 0.003217
30 0.066454 0.067204 0.05775 0.04718 0.030065 0.00625 0.014287 0.003525
40 0.053534 0.052345 0.040543 0.035432 0.023417 0.009028 0.013659 0.006847
50 0.039476 0.035332 0.028906 0.02217 0.017027 0.014591 0.016211 0.014347
60 0.027753 0.02293 0.016814 0.013412 0.012521 0.0218 0.019375 0.023549
70 0.017439 0.012859 0.008069 0.006953 0.011144 0.029604 0.02293 0.036492
80 0.010258 0.006068 0.003539 0.003754 0.01192 0.03931 0.028145 0.049626
90 0.006365 0.003033 0.001762 0.003564 0.014307 0.05054 0.033828 0.058402
100 0.006162 0.00384 0.008535 0.006094 0.019051 0.056785 0.0392 0.065252
110 0.008877 0.008194 0.008631 0.012004 0.026796 0.059145 0.043921 0.072497
120 0.015219 0.015499 0.017123 0.021586 0.033591 0.060403 0.048797 0.073522
130 0.02505 0.028423 0.028866 0.032025 0.043613 0.05623 0.051039 0.068154
140 0.038061 0.039421 0.041406 0.047247 0.051833 0.046588 0.046392 0.056706
150 0.053234 0.054981 0.056626 0.055369 0.058239 0.040657 0.042705 0.043248
160 0.061171 0.069702 0.069702 0.065252 0.060403 0.029192 0.038061 0.033733
170 0.074248 0.075828 0.075086 0.070292 0.058896 0.02035 0.032891 0.021137
180 0.081341 0.08354 0.079312 0.070391 0.05475 0.012769 0.026985 0.01187

Angle vs Intensity
0.1

0.09

0.08

0.07

0.06

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

0 1 2 3 5 7 9 10
We observe that the phase is changing as the voltage is increased. The amplitude of the
wave also changes with it being minimun at 5 V and maximum at 0 V and 10 V. Also the
wave at 5 V is completely out of phase with wave at 0 V and 10 V.

Conclusion
We studied different affects on a laser light and understood some detailed concepts
regaring polarization of light.

We realised:

1. Intensity of laser α exponential of Voltage

2. Intensity of laser through linear polarizer α cosine2 θ.
3. The Laser we used is P polarized after leaving the resonator because of Brewsters
Window affect.
4. The quarter waveplate makes a linearly polarized laser to circularly polarized.
5. KDP crystal has a similiar effect on laser as quarter waveplate but this time its
dependent on voltage of KDP instead of rotation angle of quarter waveplate.