Digital Electronics

DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
Digital electronics: A field of science which deals with discrete quantities which are
either 0 or 1.
Analogue electronics: Deals with continuously varying quantities with respect to time.
Features of Analogue Electronics:
0 Ӆ 2Ӆ 3Ӆ 4Ӆ
i. Varies continuously with time i.e. amplitude

ii. Mostly typical of nature e.g. speech, light energy
iii. Has been used for over 100 years
iv. It is wavy in nature
Features of Digital Electronics:
0 1 0 1 0 1
0 time
i. They are discrete i.e. they occur in 0’s and 1’s

ii. Typical of technology
iii. Has been used for around 50 years; when transistors came into existence
Advantages of Digital over Analogue:

i. Easier to process information/signal i.e. ease of manipulation
ii. Use of very large scale integration integrated circuits
iii. Take up small space as they are very small in size
iv. They are programmable i.e. Programmable Logic Devices (PLD’s) like PROM
v. Not costly compared to analogue
vi. Durable
vii. More accurate
viii. Portable
ix. More secure
x. Not mechanical
xi. Not affected by noise
Compiled by Omae M. Oteri Page 1 ©2011

Applications of Digital Electronics:
i. Communication and entertainment
ii. Medicine
iii. Industrial applications
iv. Instrumentation
v. Defense
vi. Robotics
vii. Astronomy
viii. Biometrics
Disadvantages of Digital Electronics:

i. Require skills to operate
ii. Initial cost of design is high
iii. Can pose as a health hazard in some cases
Analogue ADC Analogue

DAC
Filter Port filter

NUMBER SYSTEMS:
This is the process of counting using unique symbols.
TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEMS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

1. Decimal Number System
 It has 10 unique symbols which range from 0 – 9
 It is to base 10 (Radix 10)
 Position value of a given digit is important e.g. 555
5 5 5
Hundredths Tens Ones
5 x 102 5 x 101 5 x 100
Decimal weights are in such a way that;

From the decimal to the left we start with 100
and decimal point to the right is started with 10-1
Counting is started from

1st No, 2nd No, …….. 10th No 2nd 1st 2nd 10th 3rd 10th
0 1 9 1 0 1 9 1 9
Maximum
10th 10th 2nd 1st 1st
9 9 1 0 0
2. Binary Number System

 It has 2 unique symbols i.e. 0 and 1
 Its usually to base 2 (Radix 2)
 Position value of a given digit is important e.g. 111
1 1 1
1 x 22 1 x 21 1 x 20

From the binary points to the left 20
and binary points to the right 2-1
e.g. 101.1101
1 0 1. 1 1 0 1
20 2-1
Counting
1st No ……. 2nd No 2nd 1st……2nd 2nd 2nd 1st 1st
0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
Maximum
2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 1st 1st 1st 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

3. Octal Number System
 Has 8 unique symbols
 Its usually to base 8
 Position value of digit is important
 Decimal weights are in such a way that;
o From octal point to the left 80
o Octal point to the right 8-1
e.g. 66.45
6 6. 4 5
80 8-1
Counting
1st No ……. 8th No 2nd 1st……2nd 8th 3rd 1st…. 3rd 8th
0 7 1 0 1 7 2 0 2 7
Maximum
8th 8th 2nd 1st 1st
7 7 1 0 0
4. Hexadecimal Number System

 Has 16 unique symbols i.e. 0 – 9 , A – F
 Base 16 (Radix 16)
 position value of digit is important e.g. 777
7 7 7
7 x 162 7 x 161 7 x 160

From hexadecimal to the left 160
Hexadecimal to the right 16-1
e.g. 689.A73
6 8 9. A 7 3
160 16-1
Counting
1st No ……. 16th No 2nd 1st……2nd 16th
0 15 1 0 1 F
Maximum
16th 16th 2nd 1st 1st
F F 1 0 0

INTERCONVERSIONS
1. Decimal to Binary / Integer Values
a) Weights Method
Procedure
i. Take the binary weights up to slightly more than the number given.
ii. Divide the decimal weight by the number given then indicate how many times
either 0 or 1 and take the remainder to the next weight.
iii. Continue till the remainder is 0
Example 1
Convert 139 to binary
139 139 11 11 11 11 3 3 1
256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
13910 = 100010112
Example 2
156 156 28 28 28 12 4 0 0
256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
15610 = 100111002
b) Divide by 2 Method
Procedure
i. Take the number, divide by 2 and indicate the remainders
ii. The remainders are read from down-up
Example 1
2 139 Remainders
2 69 1
2 34 1
2 14 0
2 8 1
2 4 0
2 2 0
2 1 0
2 0 1
13910 = 100010112

Decimal Pointed Values / Fractional Values
Procedure
i. Multiply the number by 2
ii. Take the integer value as the binary equivalent (carry)
iii. For the pointed value continue multiplying by 2 till the fractional value is 0
iv. The integer values are written up-down to give the result
Example 1
Convert 0.625 to binary
2 0.625 Carry
2 0.25 1
2 0.5 0
2 0.0 1
0.62510 = 0.1012
NB: 0.625 x 2 = 1.25

Where 1 = Integer Value (Carry)
And 0.25 = Pointed Value
Example 2
Convert 0.728 to binary
2 0.728 Carry
2 0.456 1
2 0.912 0
2 0.824 1
2 0.648 1
2 0.296 1
2 0.592 0
0.72810 ~ 0.101112
Binary to Decimal
Integer Values
Procedure
i. Indicate the weights to the corresponding binary digits
ii. Cross out the weights that have zero above them
iii. Sum up the weights that have 1’s above them
Example 10010112
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
64 32 16 8 4 2 1
64 + 8 + 2 + 1 = 75
10010112 = 7510

Procedure
i. Indicate the weights to the corresponding binary digits
ii. Cross out the weights that have zero above them
iii. Sum up the weights that have 1’s above them
Example: Convert 0.11012 to Decimal
NB:
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
2 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 1
4 0 1 0 0
5 0 1 0 1
6 0 1 1 0
7 0 1 1 1
8 1 0 0 0
9 1 0 0 1
A 10 1 0 1 0
B 11 1 0 1 1
C 12 1 1 0 0
D 13 1 1 0 1
E 14 1 1 1 0
F 15 1 1 1 1
Decimal to Octal / Integer Values

Weights Method
Procedure
i. Take the binary weights up to slightly more than the number given.
ii. Divide the decimal weight by the number given then indicate how many times
either 0 or 1 and take the remainder to the next weight.
iii. Continue till the remainder is 0
Example 3010 to Octal

Divide by 8 Method
Procedure
i. Take the number, divide by 8 and indicate the remainders
ii. The remainders are read from down-up
Example: Convert 3010 to Octal

8 30 Remainder
8 3 6
8 0 3
3010 = 368

Procedure
i. Multiply the number by 8
ii. Take the integer value as the binary equivalent (carry)
iii. For the pointed value continue multiplying by 8 till the fractional value is 0
iv. The integer values are written up-down to give the result
Example
Convert 0.3610 to Octal
8 0.36 Carry
8 0.88 2
8 0.04 7
8 0.32 0
2 0.56 2
2 0.48 4
0.3610 ~ 0.270248
Octal to Decimal
Weights Method
Example: Convert 7748 to Decimal
7 7 4
82 81 80
7 x 82 + 7 x 81 + 4 x 80 = 448 + 56 + 4
7748 = 50810

Example: Convert 0.0328 to Decimal
0. 0 3 2
8-1 8-2 8-3
3 x 8-2 + 2 x 8-3
0.0328 = 0.05110
Binary to Octal
Procedure
i. Group the binary digits into groups of 3
ii. Then convert to decimal
iii. Conversion is done integer from point to left whereas for fraction from point
to right
Example: Convert 1110110.1011 to Octal
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0. 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 6 6. 5 4
1110110.1011 = 166.548
Octal to Binary
Procedure
Convert the number to groups of 3 bits
Example: Convert 2107.318 to Binary
2 1 0 7. 3 1
010 001 000 111. 011 001
2107.318 = 010001000111.0110012

Hexadecimal to Decimal
Procedure
i. Put the weights under their respective position value
ii. Cancel the ones under 0 and multiply the rest with their respective numbers
iii. Sum them up after getting the product
Example: Convert 38.9F to Decimal
3 8. 9 F
161 160 16-1 16-2
3 x 161 + 8 x 160 + 9 x 16-1 + 15 x 16-2
48 + 8. + 0.5625 + 0.05859
38.9F = 56.06210910
Decimal to Hexadecimal
Example 89.2510
16 89 Remainder
16 5 9
0 5
89.2510 = 5916
Fractional to Hexadecimal
Example 0.25
16 0.25 Carry
0 4
0.25 = 0.416
Hexadecimal to Binary
Procedure
i. Convert each hexadecimal digit to a group of 4 bits
ii. Then combine them to give a string of bits (binary)
Example: Convert 48.26B16 to Binary
Hexadecimal Binary
4 0100
8 1000
2 0010
6 0110
B 1011
48.26B16 = 01001000.0010011010112

Binary to Hexadecimal
Procedure
i. Group the bits to groups of 4 bits
ii. Convert them to decimal equivalent and combine the digits left
iii. Grouping of integers starts from the binary point to the left whereas fractional
starts from the binary point to the right
iv. Add insignificant bits either to the leftmost
Example: Convert 110110.0101012
0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0. 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
3 6. 5 4
110110.0101012 = 36.5416
Hexadecimal to Octal
Procedure
i. First convert the hexadecimal number to binary
ii. Group the bits in groups of 3 to convert them into Octal
Example: Convert 65D.AC316 to Octal
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1. 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
3 1 3 5. 5 3 0 3
65D.AC316 = 3135.53038
Octal to Hexadecimal
Procedure
i. Convert the Octal number to binary
ii. Thereafter convert it to hexadecimal
Example: Convert 763.548 to Hexadecimal
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1. 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 F 3. B
763.548= 1F3.B16

BINARY OPERATIONS
1) Addition
2) Subtraction
3) Multiplication
4) Division
1. Addition
Binary Addition
 It involves adding two binary numbers
Example: adding a single bit
A B Addition
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0 Carry 1 = 1 0
Example: adding a string of bits
A= 1011101.1101+
B= 1110011.0111
1010001.0100
2. Binary Subtraction
Methods of Subtraction
i) Direct Subtraction
ii) Subtraction using 1’s complements
iii) Subtraction using 2’s complements
iv)
Example: subtracting a single bit
A B Addition
0 0 0
0 1 1 Borrow 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Direct Subtraction
Example 1: subtracting a string of bits
A= 11001.101-
B= 10111.111
00001.110

Example 1: subtracting a string of bits
A= 10000 -
B= 1111
00001
Subtraction using complements

1’s Complement
Procedure
i. Invert the binary number i.e. invert all the bits individually
ii. Where there is 1 change it to 0 and vice versa
1’s Complement
Example: 1 0 1 1 02 01001
2’s Complement
Procedure
i. First obtain 1’s complement
ii. Add a 1 to the Least Significant Bit
Example: 10110010 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1’s Complement

+ 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 2’s Complement
Procedure
i. Take the binary and check for the first 1 from the LSB
ii. Arrange the binary bits the way they appear including the first bit
iii. Complement the rest
Example 1: 10110010
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 2’s Complement
Example 2: 10010000
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 2’s Complement

Subtraction using 1’s Complement
Procedure
i. Complement the subtraend and add it to the minuend
ii. If there is a carry take it round and add it to the LSB
iii. The result will be correct and positive
iv. If there is no carry the result is not correct and will be negative
v. Re-complement and attach a negative
Example 1:
A= 101101-
B= 100011
001010
1’s complement for B = 0 1 1 1 0 0
A= 101101+
B’ = 011100
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 + Result is a POSITIVE so add it
1
001010
Example 2:
B= 100011-
A= 101101
001010
1’s complement for A = 0 1 0 0 1 0
A’ = 010010+
B= 100011
0 1 1 0 1 1 1 + Result is a NEGATIVE so re-complement
001000
Subtraction using 2’s Complement

Procedure
i. Obtain the 2’s complement of the subtraend
ii. Add it to the minuend
iii. If there is a carry discard it; the result is correct and positive
iv. If there is no carry; the result is negative and incorrect
v. Re-complement it (using 2’s complement) and attaché a negative
Example 1:
A= 101101
B= 100011
B’ + 1 = 111101+
A = 101101
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 Discard the carry 1

Example 2:
B= 100011
A= 101101
A’ + 1 = 010011+
B = 100011
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 Result is a NEGATIVE so re-complement
001001
Multiplication
Example 1: Multiplying a single bit
A B Result
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Example 2: Multiplying a string of bits
A 1 1 0 1. 1 0 1
B 1 0 1 1. 1 1
1011 01
1011 01
1011 01
000000
1011 01
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0. 0 0 0 1 1
Division
Whole numbers/integers
Example 1:
Dividend 20 10100
Divisor 5 101
100
101√10100
101
000
Done by subtracting the divisor from the dividend and shifting it to the left until the
remainder is 0

Number with binary points
Example 2:
Dividend 111.101
Divisor 0 .1 1
Procedure
i. First remove the point from both the dividend and divisor by multiplying them
to make them whole numbers (integers).
Dividend 1 1 1 . 1 0 1 x 1000 = 111101

Divisor 0 .1 1 x 1000 110
1010.00101
110√111101
110
110
110
01000
110
1000
11 1.101 ≈ 1010.00101
0.11
Example 3:
Dividend 1 1 1 . 1 1 x 100 = 11111
Divisor 0 .1 x 100 10
1111.1
10√11111
10
11
10
11
10
11
10
10
10
11 1.11 ≈ 1111.1
0.1

BINARY CODES
This is a way of representing symbols using binary numbers
Binary code is given by: -

i. Straight Binary Code
ii. Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
iii. Excess-3
iv. Gray Code
v. ASCII Code
1. Straight Binary Code

 It uses the normal binary representation
 A decimal number is converted to its binary equivalent
Example
1410 11102
Advantages of Straight Binary Code

Easier to deal with
Disadvantages of Straight Binary Code

Prone to more errors
2. Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

 Obtained by converting each individual decimal digit to its binary equivalent in
groups of 4-bits.
 Combine the bits to obtain a string of bits
 Only 0-9 can be converted to binary
 10-15 are invalid cases for BCD
 Also referred to as 8421 representation
NB:
Decimal BCD
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001

Converting from Decimal to BCD
Procedure
i. Convert each individual decimal to binary in groups of 4 and combine them
Example: 45810
4 = 0100
5 = 0101
8 = 1000
45810 = 010001011000BCD
Converting from BCD to Decimal

Procedure
i. Group the given bits in groups of 4-bits
ii. Convert each group to its decimal equivalent
iii. Grouping should be done from Least Significant Bit (LSB) to Most Significant
Bit (MSB)
Example 1: 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 12
2 6 510
10011001012 = 26510
Example 2: 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 02
9 7 210
1001011100102 = 97210
3. Excess-3
 Obtained by adding 3 to each decimal digit and converting to binary in groups
of 4-bits
 Combine them to form a string of bits
Converting from Decimal to Excess-3

Procedure
i. Add 3 to each digit
ii. Convert to binary
iii. If after adding 3 to the digit you obtain a carry ( beyond 10) still convert the
whole number to binary e.g. 7 + 3, 8 + 3 etc

Example: Convert 27 to Excess-3
2 7
3 3
5 10 convert to binary = 0101 1010
2710 = 01011010Excess-3
Converting from Excess-3 to Decimal

Procedure
i. Group the bits in groups of 4 from the Least Significant Bit
ii. Convert each group to decimal equivalent
iii. Subtract 3 from each digit
iv. 0,1,2,13,14, and 15 are invalid values for Excess-3
Example: 0101 1100 1010

5 12 10
- 3 3 3
2 9 710
010111001010Excess-3 = 29710
4. Gray Code
 This represents the numbers in a way that each consecutive number will differ
by 1 in binary form
Example: 1 bit
A
0
1
Example: 2 bits
A B
0 0
0 1
1 1
1 0

Example: 3 bits
A B C
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 1
0 1 0
1 1 0
1 1 1
1 0 1
1 0 0
Example: 4 bits
A B C D
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
Converting from Binary to Gray Code

Procedure
i. Most Significant Bit (MSB) remains the same
ii. 2nd bit is obtained by adding the MSB bit and the 2nd bit of binary then discard
the carry
iii. 3rd bit is obtained by adding 2nd bit to 3rd bit of binary also discard the carry
iv. Continue until all the bits are considered
Example: Convert 10112 to Gray Code
10112 = 1110gray code

Converting from Gray Code to Binary
Procedure
i. Most Significant Bit (MSB) remains the same
ii. 2nd bit is obtained by adding the MSB bit of the binary to the 2nd bit of gray code
then discard the carry
iii. Continue until all the bits are considered
Example: Convert 1110gray code to Binary
1110gray code = 10112
Applications of Gray Code

i. Reduction of errors
ii. Karnaugh Map (K-Map)
5. American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) CODE

 This is an alpha-numeric code
 Represents decimal digits and alphabets in binary and other symbols
 It’s the standard used in the keyboard
 Contains a 7-bit representation
The 7 bit ASCII code
Bit Bit Positions 654

Positions 000(0) 001(1) 010(2) 011(3) 100(4) 101(5) 110(6) 111(7)
3210
0000(0) NUL DLE SP 0 @ P ΄ p
0001(1) SOH DC1 ! 1 A Q a q
0010(2) STX DC2 ” 2 B R b r
0011(3) ETX DC3 # 3 C S c s
0100(4) EOT DC4 $ 4 D T d t
0101(5) ENQ NAK % 5 E U e u
0110)6) ACK SYN & 6 F V f v
0111(7) BEL ETB ’ 7 G W g w
1000(8) BS CAN ( 8 H X h x
1001(9) HT EM ) 9 I Y i y
1010(A) LF SUB * : J Z j z
1011(B) VT ESC + ; K [ k {
1100(C) FF FS , < L \ l |
1101(D) CR GS - = M ] m }
1110(E) SO RS . > N ˆ n ~
1111(F) SI US / ? O — o DEL
Values are read from MSB to LSB
Definition of Abbreviations
NUL Null/Idle SI Shift in
SOH Start of header DLE Data link escape
STX Start of text DC1-DC4 Device control
ETX End of text NAK Negative
acknowledgement
OET End of transmission SYN Synchronous idle

ENQ Enquiry ETB End of transmission block
ACK Acknowledgement CAN Cancel (error in data)
BEL Audible signal EM End of medium
BS Backspace SUB Special sequence
HT Horizontal tab ESC Escape
LF Line feed FS File separator
VT Vertical tab GS Group separator
FF Form feed RS Record separator
CR Carriage return US Unit separator
SO Shift out DEL Delete/Idle
Example: Letter A = 100 0001

Letter J = 100 1010
Arsenal = 1000001 1110010 1110011 1100101 1101110 1100001 1101100

LOGIC GATES
Definition Logic: A way of reasoning to make a decision
In electronics logic stands for a way of representing convention using binary
Types of Logic Conventions:

i. Positive Logic Convention
ii. Negative Logic Convention
1. Positive Logic Convention
0 1
Off On
No Yes
Negative Positive
False True
Low High
Absence Presence
2. Negative Logic Convention
1 0
Gate: A device which makes logic decisions

 It gives output depending on the different inputs
 Its constructed by using diodes, switches and transistors
 It’s the basic building blocks for all digital systems
Truth table
 Has inputs and outputs
 The output usually depends on different combinations of input
 They are used to analyze different gates
Example 1: 1 input and 1 output
Input Output
A F
0 1
1 0
F = A’
Example 2: 2 inputs and 1 output
Inputs Output
AB F
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
F=A+B

Example 3: 3 inputs and 1 output
Inputs Output
AB C F
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
F=A+B+C
BOOLEAN EXPRESSION
 This is an equation which represents an output for different inputs
 It contains output variables and input variables using the alphabet
 It is used to analyze logic gates
 It can be obtained from the truth tables
Examples
F = A’
F=A+B
F = AB + CD
TYPES OF GATES
i. Inverter – NOT
ii. OR
iii. AND Basic Gates
iv. XOR
v. XNOR
vi. NOR Universal Gates
vii. NAND
i) Inverter – NOT gate

It is a device that complements an input
Symbol:
Input (A) Output (F)
Features:
 It has a bubble as an output
 Has 1-input and 1-output
 It inverts an input

Construction using diode
D
I/P ov
4.4V O/P
5V
0.6V R
I/P O/P
5V 0.6V
R
Construction using transistors

5v
RC 5v high
C 2v low
O/P
I/P 5V high
B
Ov low RO E
0V
SWITCHES
A B
off
Truth table
Input Output
A F
0 1
1 0
ii) OR Gate
A gate which gives an output of 0 only when all inputs are 0

Symbol:
Features:
 It has 2 or more inputs
 Has 1-output
Construction using diodes
D1
0v 5v
I/ P A A
5 v - h ig h
0v F
0v 5v
I /P B B
5v
5 v lo w D2
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B VO
Low Low Low
Low High High
High Low High
High High High
Construction using switches
SA
VS SB
Bulb
INPUTS OUTPUT
SA SB Bulb
Off Off OFF
Off On ON
On Off ON
On On ON

Truth table
Inputs Output
AB F
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Boolean expression:
F=A+B
iii) AND Gate

A gate which gives a high only when both inputs are high
Symbol:
A
F
B
Features:
 Has 1-output
 Gives an output of 1 when both inputs are 1
 Behaves like a multiplexer
D1 sv
VA
low
o/p
R
VB
low
D2
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B VO
Low Low Low
Low High Low
High Low Low
High High High

SA SB
bulb
VS
INPUTS OUTPUT
SA SB Bulb
Open Open OFF
Open Closed OFF
Closed Open OFF
Closed Closed ON
Truth table
Inputs Output
AB F
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Boolean expression:
F=AB
iv) XOR Gate

A gate which gives a high only when either of the inputs is high
Symbol:
A
F
B
Features:
 Gives out only 1-output
 Gives an output of 1 when either inputs are 1

D1
I/P
Out put
5v R
D2
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B VO
Low Low Low
Low High High
High Low High
High High High
SA
SB
Bulb
VS
INPUTS OUTPUT
SA SB Bulb
Off Off OFF
Off On ON
On Off ON
On On OFF
Truth table
Inputs Output
AB F
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Boolean expression:
F= A B
F = A’B + AB’
v) XNOR Gate
A gate which gives an output of 1 only when both inputs are the same
Symbol:
A
F
B
Features:
 Gives an output of 1 when either inputs are 0 or 1
VS
SA
Bulb
Selenoid
SB
INPUTS OUTPUT
SA SB Bulb
Off Off ON
Off On OFF
On Off OFF
On On ON

Truth table
Inputs Output
AB F
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Boolean expression:
F= AʘB
F = AB + A’B’
vi) NOR Gate

A gate which gives an output of 1 only when all inputs are 0
Symbol:
A
F
B
Features:
 Gives an output of 1 when all inputs are 0
VS
SA
Bulb
Selenoid
SB
INPUTS OUTPUT
SA SB Bulb
Off Off ON

Off On OFF
On Off OFF
On On OFF
Demorgan’s Theorem
Procedure:
i. Remove the overbar
ii. Change the OR gate to an AND gate or vice versa
iii. Complement individual variables/literals
Hence F=A+B
Will be same as F = A.B
Equivalent to a Bubbled AND Gate
Truth table
Inputs Output
AB F
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Boolean expression:
F=A+B
vii) NAND Gate

A gate which gives low output only when all inputs are high
Symbol:

A
F
B
Features:
 It has a bubble
 Gives an low output only when all inputs are high
VS
Bulb
SA
Selenoid
SB
INPUTS OUTPUT
SA SB Bulb
Off Off ON
Off On ON
On Off ON
On On OFF
Demorgan’s Theorem
F=A+B
Equivalent to a Bubbled OR Gate
A
F
B

Truth table
Inputs Output
AB F
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Boolean expression:
F=AB
NB:
NOR & NAND GATES
 These are universal gates
 Hence they can be used to implement all the other gates
Exercise
1.
a) Implement all the other gates using the NOR Gate
b) Implement all the other gates using the NAND Gate
c) Implement the following using NOR gates and NAND gates
F = AB + BC + CD
F = ABC + ABC
2. Design a logic diagram for the following Boolean expression
F = ACD + BC + AC
F = ABC + AB + BD
3. Obtain expression for the following logic diagram

A B C

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
 Invented by Boole George

 Expression which are used to analyze digital circuits
 Used to minimize the number of logic gates used to implement a circuit
LAWS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
OR LAWS
A+0=A
A+1=1
A+A=A
A+A=1
AND LAWS
A.0 = 0
A.1 = A
A.A = A
A. A = 0
COMPLEMENTING LAWS
0=1
1=0
A=0 A=1
A=1 A=0
COMMUTATIVE LAWS
A+B=B+A
AB = BA
ASSOCIATIVE LAWS
(A+B) + C = A + (B+C)
A(BC) = (AB)C
DISTRIBUTIVE LAWS
(A+B) (A+C) = A + BC
A + AB = A+B
A +AB = A +B
ABSORPTIVE LAWS
A(A+B) = A
A + AB = A
A(A +B) = AB

Prove of Distributive Laws
1. (A+B) (A+C) = A + BC
= AA + AB + AC + BC
= A + AB + AC + BC
= A (1 + B) + AC + BC
= A + AC + BC
= A (1+C) + BC
= A + BC
2. A + AB = A + B
= A.1 + AB
= A (1 + B) + AB
= A + AB + AB
= A+ B (A + A)
=A+B
3. A + AB
= A.1 + AB
= A (1+B) + AC + BC
= A + AB + AB
= A + B (A + A)
=A+B
Using Boolean algebra, simplify the following expressions and implement them using
the minimum number of gates
i) F = AB + AC + ABC
ii) F = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC +ABC
iii) F= (x+ y) x (y+z) + xy + xz
Proof the following using Boolean algebra
i) F = AB + A + AB = 0
ii) F = AB + AC + ABC (AB+C) = 1

STANDARD FORM OF BOOLEAN EXPRESSION
They are of two types namely:
i. Sum of Products (SOP)
ii. Product of Sum (POS)
1. Sum of Products (SOP)

 A combination of literals in multiplication form e.g. ABC, AB, ABCD
 Literals in every product appear in complement or non complement form
 No single bar can cover more than one literal e.g. ABC
 Every product will give 1-output for only 1-input combination, the rest will
result to 0
 Thus this product is called a Min-term
 A product domain represents all the literals/variables at the input
Example
F(A,B,C) = ABC + ABC is a domain of 3 variables A, B & C
SOP is a combination of several products OR’ed together
Example
F(A,B,C) =AB + AC + C
2. Product of Sum (POS)

 A combination of literals in summation/addition form e.g. (A+B) (A+C)
 Literals in every sum appear in complemented or non complemented form
 No single bar can cover more than 1 literal
 Every sum will give a 0-output for only 1-input combination; the rest will give
or result to 1
 Thus the sum is called a Max-term
 A sum domain represents all the literals/variables at the output
Example
F(A,B,C) = (A+B+C)(A+B+C)
POS is a combination of several sums AND’ed together
Standard/Canonical for SOP

 Referred to as the Standard Sum of Products (SSOP)
 All the literals in the domain must appear in every product
Example:
F(A,B) = AB + AB
F(A,B,C) = ABC + ABC

This form is important in developing the truth table or K-Map for simplification
purposes.

Conversion from SOP to SSOP
Procedure
i. Identify the SOP domain
ii. Identify the missing literal in each product
iii. AND or multiply the literal summed with its complement and expand
E.g. AB(C+C)
iv. Continue till all the literals appear in each product

v. Eliminate the repeated products
vi. Represented using ∑m
Example:
F(A,B,C) = A + BC + BC
= A(B+B) + (A+A)BC + (A+A)BC
= AB + AB + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
= AB(C+C) + AB(C+C) + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
= ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
= ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
Standard/Canonical for POS

 Referred to as the Standard Product of Sums (SPOS)
 All the literals in the domain must appear in every sum
E.g. F(A,B) = (A+B)(A+B)

Represented by Πm
Conversion from POS to SPOS

Procedure
i. Identify the POS domain
ii. Identify the missing literal in each term
iii. OR or add the literal multiplied with its complement and expand
E.g. F(A+B) = (A+B+CC)
iv. Continue till all the literals appear in each term or sum
v. Eliminate the repeated sums

Example:
F(A,B,C) = A(B+C)
= (A+BB) (AA+B+C)
= (A+B) (A+B) (A+B+C) (A+B+C)
= (A+B+CC) (A+B+CC) (A+B+C) (A+B+C)
= (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C)
= (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C)
TRANSFERRING STANDARD FORM OF EXPRESSION TO A TRUTH

TABLE
1. Standard Sum of Product
Procedure
i. Identify the SSOP domain
ii. 2 to the power of the number of literals in the expression will give the number
of combination in the truth table
E.g. 2 literals 22 =4
3 literals 23 = 8
4 literals 24 = 16
iii. Change the literals to their binary equivalent by using the following
A barred literal =0
A non-barred literal =1
iv. At the output of each combination obtained indicate a 1
Example:
Transfer the following to a truth table
F(A,B,C) = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC

Convert to binary 111 101 011 100 000

Truth table
A B C F
0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1
2 0 1 0
3 0 1 1 1
4 1 0 0 1
5 1 0 1 1
6 1 1 0
7 1 1 1 1
F(A,B,C) = ∑m (0,3,4,5,7)
2 Standard Product of Sum

Procedure
i. Identify the SPOS domain
ii. 2 to the power of the number of literals in the expression will give the number
of combination in the truth table
E.g. 2 literals 22 =4
3 literals 23 = 8
4 literals 24 = 16
iii. Change the literals to their binary equivalent by using the following
A barred literal =1
A non-barred literal =0
iv. At the output of each combination obtained indicate a 0
Example:
Transfer the following to a truth table
F(A,B,C) = (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C)

Convert to binary 000 010 101
Truth table
A B C F
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
2 0 1 0 0
3 0 1 1
4 1 0 0
5 1 0 1 0
6 1 1 0
7 1 1 1
F(A,B,C) = Πm (0,2,5)

Changing from a truth table to SSOP and SPOS
 Wherever there is an output of 1 the combination will give a product and 0
will give a sum
 Combine the combinations of 1’s using addition to from SSOP
 Combine the combinations of 0’s using addition to from SPOS
Example
Convert the following to SSOP and SPOS using the table below
Truth table
A B C D F
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1
2 0 0 1 0 1
3 0 0 1 1 0
4 0 1 0 0 0
5 0 1 0 1 0
6 0 1 1 0 0
7 0 1 1 1 1
8 1 0 0 0 1
9 1 0 0 1 1
10 1 0 1 0 1
11 1 0 1 1 0
12 1 1 0 0 1
13 1 1 0 1 0
14 1 1 1 0 1
15 1 1 1 1 1
SSOP
F = (A,B,C,D)
= ∑m(1,2,7,8,9,10,12,14,15)
= (ABCD) + (ABCD) + (ABCD) + (ABCD) + (ABCD) + (ABCD) + (ABCD)

0001 0010 0111 1000 1001 1010 1100
(ABCD) + (ABCD)
1110 1111
SPOS
F = (A,B,C,D)
= Πm(0,3,4,5,6,11,13)
= (A+B+C+D) (A+B+C+D) (A+B+C+D) (A+B+C+D) (A+B+C+D)

0000 0011 0100 0101 0110
(A+B+C+D) (A+B+C+D)
1011 1101

INTERCONVERSIONS
From SSOP to SPOS
i. Obtain truth table equivalent for SSOP combinations
ii. The remaining are automatically 0’s which can be obtained as SPOS
From SPOS to SSOP

i. Obtain truth table equivalent for SPOS combinations
ii. The remaining are automatically 1’s which can be obtained as SSOP
Exercise
1. Using the following equations:
i) Obtain SSOP
ii) Convert to SPOS using a truth table
F(A,B,C,D) = AB + CD +BC
F(A,B,C,D) = BCD + A + CD
2. Using the following expressions:

i) Obtain SPOS
ii) Convert to SSOP using a truth table
F(A,B,C,D) = (B+C) (A+D)
F(A,B,C,D) = AB(C+D)
K-MAP SIMPLIFICATION
Karnaugh Map
 It’s a representation which uses squares to represent SSOP or SPOS
 The number of squares depends on the number of input variables
Example
2-input variables 22 squares
 Generally the number of squares = 2 to power the number of input variables
 The binary equivalent of the input variables is represented using the gray code
format to get the adjacent squares
 The 1’s for SSOP are called Min-terms or Prime Implicants

SSOP Representation
Procedure
i. Identify the min-term
ii. Change the input variables to their binary equivalent
iii. In the table indicate a 1 to correspond with the binary equivalent of the min-
term
General Representation
1. 2-Variable K-Map
A A A
B 0 1
0 2
B 0 AB AB
00 10
1 3
AB AB
B 1 01 11
2. 3-Varible K-Map
AB
AB AB AB AB
C 00 01 11 10
0 2 4 6
C 0 ABC ABC ABC ABC
000 010 100 110
1 3 5 7
ABC ABC ABC ABC
C 1 001 011 101 111
3. 4-Variable K-Map
AB
AB AB AB AB
CD 00 01 11 10
0 4 12 8
CD 00 ABCD ABCD ABCD ABCD
0000 0100 1100 1000
1 5 13 9
ABCD ABCD ABCD ABCD
CD 01 0001 0101 1101 1001
3 7 15 11
ABCD ABCD ABCD ABCD
CD 11 0011 0111 1111 1011
2 6 14 10
ABCD ABCD ABCD ABCD
CD 10 0010 0110 1110 1010

Example:
Represent the following expression using K-Map
F(A,B,C) = ∑m(0,2,4,5,7)
AB AB AB AB AB
C 00 01 11 10
0 2 4
C 0 1 1 1
7 5
C 1 1 1
SPOS Representation
Procedure
i. Identify the max-term
ii. Change input variables to their binary equivalent
iii. In the table indicate a 0 to correspond with the square with the binary equivalent
of the max-term
1. 2-Variable K-Map
A
A A
B 0 1
0 2
B 0 A+B A+B
00 10
1 3
A+B A+B
B 1 01 11
2. 3-Varible K-Map
AB AB AB AB AB
C 00 01 11 10
0 2 4 6
C 0 A+B+C A+B+C A+B+C A+B+C
000 010 100 110
1 3 5 7
A+B+C A+B+C A+B+C A+B+C
C 1 001 011 101 111

3. 4-Variable K-Map
AB AB AB AB AB
CD 00 01 11 10
0 4 12 8
CD 00 A+B+C+D A+B+C+D A+B+C+D A+B+C+D
0000 0100 1100 1000
1 5 13 9
A+B+C+D A+B+C+D A+B+C+D A+B+C+D
CD 01 0001 0101 1101 1001
3 7 15 11
CD 11 0011 0111 1111 1011
2 6 14 10
CD 10 0010 0110 1110 1010
Example:
Represent the following expression using K-map
F(A,B,C,D) = Πm (1,2,3,5,7,8,12,14)
AB AB AB AB AB
CD 00 01 11 10
12 8
CD 00 0 0
1 5
CD 01 0 0
3 7
CD 11 0 0
2 14
CD 10 0 0
Simplification using K-map

SSOP
Procedure
i. Indicate 1’s in the corresponding min-term squares
ii. Group the 1’s in groups of 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 taking the maximum combination
iii. The 1’s to be grouped are those which are adjacent to each other
iv. Obtain the minimum expression from the different groups (prime implicant)
Procedure for obtaining a minimized prime implicant

i. Take those variables which do not change in binary as you move from one
square to the other in the group
ii. The changing variables are omitted
iii. The final expression is obtained by summing the minimized products

Example
Obtain a minimized expression from the following Boolean expressions
i) F(A,B,C) = ∑m(1,3,4,6,7)
AB
AB AB AB AB
C 00 01 11 10
6 4
C 0 1 1
1 3 7
1 1 1
C 1
F(A,B,C) = AC + AB + AC
ii) F(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,11,12,13)
AB AB AB AB
CD 00 01 11 10
CD 00 1 1 1
CD 01 1 1 1 1
CD 11 1 1 1
CD 10 1 1
F(A,B,C,D) = AC + BD + BC + AC
Simplification using K-map

SPOS
Procedure
i. Indicate a 0 in the corresponding max-term squares
ii. Group the 0’s in groups of 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 taking the maximum possible
combination
iii. The 0’s to be grouped are the ones which are adjacent to each other
iv. Obtain the minimum expression from the different groups (prime implicant)
Procedure for obtaining a minimized prime implicant

i. Take those variables which do not change in binary as you move from one
square to the other in the group
ii. The changing variables are omitted
iii. The final expression is obtained by summing the minimized products

Example:
Obtain a minimized expression from the following Boolean expressions
i) F(A,B,C) = Πm(2,3,5,6,7)
AB AB AB AB AB
C 00 01 11 10
C 0 0 0
C 1 0 0 0
F(A,B,C) = B(A + C)
ii) F(A,B,C,D) = Πm(4,6,8,9,11,12,14,15)
AB AB AB AB AB
CD 00 01 11 10
CD 00 0 0 0
CD 01 0
CD 11 0 0
CD 10 0 0
F(A,B,C,D) = (B+D) (A+B+C) (A+C+D)
Don’t care steps

i. They are represented using x
ii. They can be either 0’s or 1’s
iii. They are used to minimize expressions
iv. They can’t be grouped on their own
v. For min-terms they are given by ∑x
vi. And for max-terms they are given by Πx

Example:
i) F(A,B,C) = ∑m(1,3,4,6,7) + ∑x(0,5)
AB AB AB AB AB
C 00 01 11 10
C 0 1 1 1
C 1 1 1 1 X
F(A,B,C) = (C + A)
ii) F(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,11,12,13) + ∑x
AB AB AB AB AB
CD 00 01 11 10
CD 00 X 1 1 1
CD 01 1 1 1 1
CD 11 1 1 1
CD 10 1 1 X
F(A,B,C,D) = A+C+B
Exercise:
From the following expressions:
i) Obtain the minimized expressions
ii) Draw the logic diagrams for the obtained equation
F(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(0,1,2,3,5,10,11,13) + ∑x(4,14,15)
F(A,B,C,D) = Πm(1,2,5,7,8,10,11) . Πx(0,3,6,14,15)

COMBINATIONAL LOGIC CIRCUITS
 These are logic diagrams where the output depends on only present inputs
 Made from a combination of gates
Types include:
i. Adders
ii. Subtractors
iii. Multiplexers
iv. Demultiplexers
v. Encoders
vi. Decoders
1. Adders
 They add inputs to obtain a sum and a carry out
Types of adders
i. Half Adder
 Has 2 inputs and 2 outputs
Block Diagram
A
S
Half - adder
B
Cout
S
A
B 0 1
0 0
1 1
CO
A
B 0 1
1 1

Logic Diagram
A B
CO
Truth table
A B S CO
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
ii. Full Adder

Block Diagram
A S
B Full - adder
Cin Cout
S
A
B 00 01 11 10
0 1 1
1 1 1
CO
A
B 00 01 11 10
1
0
1 1 1 1

Truth table
A B Ci S CO
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1
Logic Diagram
A B CO
S0
2. Subtractors
 They subtract inputs to obtain a difference and a borrow out
Types of subtractors
i. Half Subtractor
Block Diagram
A D
Half -
subtractor
B
bo
Truth table
A B D BO
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0

D(AB)
A
B 0 1
0 1
1 1
𝐷 = 𝐴̅𝐵 + 𝐴𝐵̅
 A B
b0(AB)
A
B 0 1
1 1
̅𝑩
𝒃𝟎 = 𝑨
Logic Diagram
A
D
B
bo
ii. Full Subtractor

Block Diagram
A D
Full -
B subtractor
bi b0

Truth table
A B Bi D BO
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1
D(A,B,bi)
AB
C 00 01 11 10
0 1 1
1 1 1
bi(A, B, bi)
AB
C 00 01 11 10
0 1
1
1 1 1
̅ 𝒃𝒊 + 𝑨
𝑨𝒊 = 𝑨 ̅ 𝑩 + 𝑩𝒃𝒊
Logic Diagram
A
B
D
bi
bi
Full-subtractor

Multiplexers
 A device which has several inputs, 1-output and some select lines
 It channels only one of the several inputs to the output
Block Diagram
I0
I1
MUX F
n to 1
In-1
S0 S1
SM-1
Number of inputs = n
Number of outputs =1
Number of select lines = m
The relationship between the select lines and inputs is given by:
Inputs – n = 2m
Design a 2 to 1 MUX block diagram
I0
MUX F
2 to 1
I1
S0 I1 I0
Truth table
Inputs Output
S0 I1 I0 F
0 X 0 0
0 X 1 1
1 0 X 0
1 1 X 1

F = S0 I0 + S0 I1
When S0 = 0; Io is selected
When S0 = 1; I1 is selected
I1 and I0 can either be 0 or 1
Design a 4 to 1 MUX block diagram
I0
I1
4 to 1
F
I2 MUX
I4
S0 S1
Truth table
Inputs Output
S1 S0 I3 I2 I1 I0 F
0 0 X X X 0 0
0 0 X X X 1 1
0 1 X X 0 X 0
0 1 X X 1 X 1
1 0 X 0 X X 0
1 0 X 1 X X 1
1 1 0 X X X 0
1 1 1 X X X 1
F = S1 S0 I0 + S1 S0 I1 + S1 S0 I2 + S2 S0 I3
S S0 I3 I2 I1 I0
1
Exercise
i) Design a 8 to 1 MUX
ii) Design a 8 to 1 MUX using 2 to 1 MUX
iii) Design a 8 to 1 MUX using 4 to 1 MUX

3. Demultiplexers
Block Diagram
F0
Output
Input
EN DEMUX F1
FM-1
S0 S 1 S 2 Sm-1
Select lines
Number of inputs = 1
Number of outputs =n
Number of select lines = m
The relationship between the select lines and inputs is given by:
2m = n
Design a 1 to 2 Demux
Block Diagram
1 to 2 F0
I Demux
F1
SO
Truth table
Inputs Output
S0 I F1 F0
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0
F0 = S0 I
F1 = S0 I

EN S0
F0
F1
Design a 1 to 4 Demux
Block Diagram
1 to 2 F0
I Demux F1
F2
F3
SO i0 I1
Truth table
Inputs Output
S1 I0 I F3 F2 F1 F0
0 0 I 0 0 0 1
0 1 I 0 0 1 0
1 0 I 0 1 0 0
1 1 I 1 0 0 0
F0 = S1 S0 I
F1 = S1 S0 I
F2 = S1 S0 I
F3 = S1 S0 I
Exercise
i. Design a 1 to 8 Demux
ii. Design a 1 to 8 Demux using 1 to 2 Demux
iii. Design a 1 to 8 Demux using 1 to 4 Demux
Encoders
 Direct several inputs to a few outputs using the following relation
n = 2m
Where n = inputs
and m = ouputs

Block Diagram
I0 F0
I!
ENCODER F1
In-1
FM-1
Design a 2 to 1 encoder
Block Diagram
I0
2 to 1 F0
I1 encorder
Truth table
Inputs Output
I1 I0 F
0 1 0
1 0 1
F=I
EN I0
F0
F1
Block Diagram
I0 F0
I1 4 to 2
I2 encorder
I3 F0

Truth table
Inputs Output
I3 I2 I1 I0 F1 F0
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 1
F0 = I1 + I3
F1 = I2 + I3
An octal to binary encoder.
Solution
D0
A
D1
D2
D3
B
D4
D5
D6 C
D7
(2 marks)
It has 8 inputs, one for each of the eight digits of the octal system, and
three outputs which will generate corresponding equivalent binary
numbers. It is constructed by using three OR gates.
A=D4+D5+D6+D7
B=D2+D3+D6+D7
C=D1+D2+D5+D7
Decoders
 Direct a few inputs to several outputs using the following relation
2m = n
Where m = inputs
and n = outputs
Block Diagram
EN F0
I0
DECODER F1
In-1
FM-1

Block Diagram
F0
EN
DECODER
I0 F1
Truth table
Inputs Outputs
I F1 F0
0 0 1
1 1 0
F0 = I
F1 = I
Block Diagram
I0 F0
2 to 4 F1
Decoder F2
I1 F3
Truth table
Inputs Output
I1 I0 F3 F2 F1 F0
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0
F0 = I1 I0
F1 = I1 I0
F2 = I1 I0
F3= I1 I0

Example:
If we have three input lines, such a decoder is referred to as a 3 – 8 decoder. A decoder
translates each possible combination of values at its input to different output line. It can
be thought of as a min term generator, since each input is decoded using the function
for the min terms of decided input variables. Some of them have an enable input.
EN A B C D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7
1 X X X 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

D0
A
D1
D2
B
D3
D4
C
D5
D6
D7
A decoder is used to decode the binary information in a digital system into some other
type of number system, preferably decimal or hexadecimal number system. For the
one above 3 bit binary information is decoded into eight outputs. The three NOT gates
on input side give the complement of the inputs and eight AND gates are used, so that
the outputs are active ‘high’. It can also be referred to as a binary to octal decoder or a
1 to 8 decoder. It is applied in binary to octal converter. The input variables will
represent the three digit binary number and output will represent the eight digits in the
octal number system, as only one of the eight outputs is activated at a time.

SEQUENTIAL LOGIC CIRCUITS
Inputs Outputs
Combinational
circuit
Memory
elements
 A logic circuit whose output depends on the present inputs and past outputs
 Made of combinational logic circuits and memory elements
 Have feedback
 Can store a 1 or a 0
 Mostly they have two outputs complementing each other
Outputs Q and Q
If Q = 1; then Q = 0
 They can be timed using a clock

There are of 2 types:
i. Synchronous
ii. Asynchronous
1. Synchronous
 All the sequential circuits are controlled by a common clock
 The propagation delay of the whole system is equivalent to the propagation
delay of the constituent parts of the system
 They are stable
Q Q
clk
2. Asynchronous
 Not controlled by a common clock
 Have a large propagation delay (time shift between input and output)
 They are unstable
 They are prone to many errors

Q Q
clk
Flip Flop
 These are circuits which can change state according to the inputs
Block Diagram
SET
J Q
inputs outputs
K CLR Q
 It has 2 inputs and 2 outputs

Outputs Q and Q
 They have feedback
 Can also be clocked
Types of Flip Flops

i. RS Flip Flop
ii. JK Flip Flop
iii. D Flip Flop
iv. T Flip Flop
1. RS (Reset Set) Flip Flop

Block Diagram
SET
S Q
R CLR Q
Logic Diagram using NOR gates
R Q
S Q

Truth table
S R Qn+1
0 0 No change
0 1 0 Reset
1 0 1 Set
1 1 Invalid/unstable/racing
NB:
Q Present state
Qn+1 Next state
Racing Changing state continuously
Logic Diagram using NAND gates
R Q
S Q
Operation
S R Qn+1
0 0 Invalid
0 1 0 Reset
1 0 1 Set
1 1 No change
Clock signal/Timing signal

 It is a signal waveform (digital) used to synchronize the operation of sequential
circuits
Level one
Level zero
Rising edge Falling edge
 It triggers circuits to start operating

Types of triggering
i. Edge triggering
ii. Level triggering
A. Edge triggering
Where a circuit is triggered by a rising (leading) or a falling (trailing) edge

CLK
CLK
B. Level triggering
Triggering is done by either a 1 or 0
CLK
CLK
Clocked RS Flip Flop

Block Diagram
SET
S Q
clock
R CLR Q
Logic diagram
R
Q
clk
S Q
Truth table
Clk S R Qn+1
0 0 0 No change
0 0 1 No change
0 1 0 No change
0 1 1 No change
1 0 0 No change
1 0 1 0 Reset
1 1 0 1 Set
1 1 1 Invalid
2. JK (Jump Kill) Flip Flop

Block Diagram
SET
J Q
clock
K CLR Q
Logic Diagram
K
Q
clk
J
Q
Truth table
Q J K Qn+1
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
3. D (Data Latch) Flip Flop

Block Diagram
SET
D Q
clock
CLR Q
Logic diagram
D
Q
clk

Truth table
Q D Qn+1
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 1
4. T (Toggle) Flip Flop

Block Diagram
T Q
clk
Ǭ
Logic diagram
T
Q
clk
Truth table
Q T Qn+1
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
TRANSITION TABLE AND DIAGRAMS

 Used in designing of counters
JK Flip Flop
 Used in designing of counters
Transition table
Inputs
Q Qn+1 J K
0 0 0 X

0 1 1 X
1 0 X 1
1 1 X 0
Transition Diagram
1/X
O/X
0 1 X/O
X/1
5. D Flip Flop
Transition table
Input
Q Qn+1 D
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 1
Transition Diagram
O
0 1 1
O
T Flip Flop
Transition table
Input
Q Qn+1 T
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Transition Diagram

1
O
0 1 0
1
REGISTERS
 Device used to store data
 Mostly constructed using flip flops particularly D Flip Flops
 Can be used to shift data serially or in parallel
 Use a common clock
Types of Registers
i. Serial Input Serial Output (SISO)
They are used to obtain a single bit input and single bit output
ii. Serial Input Parallel Output (SIPO)

They obtain a single input bit and transfer it as several outputs
iii. Parallel Input Serial Output (PISO)

Obtains several input bits and channels them as a single output
Works as a multiplexer
iv. Parallel Input Parallel Output (PIPO)

Obtains several input bits and transfers them to several outputs
Works as a decoder or encoder
Serial Input Parallel Output (SIPO)

They are of 2 types:
i. Shift right register
 Moves data/bits from left to right
 Mostly they are converted using D Flip Flops
Diagram
QA QB
QC
Input SET SET SET
D Q D Q D Q
CLR Q CLR Q CLR Q

Operation
 Information/data is transferred with every clock pulse from left to right.
 If for instance there is an input of 1011 after each clock pulse the bits will be
transferred from one flip flop to another.
E.g. Input 1011

QA QB QC QD
st
1 Clock Pulse 1 X X X
2nd Clock Pulse 1 1 X X
3rd Clock Pulse 0 1 1 X
4th Clock Pulse 1 0 1 1
5th Clock Pulse X 1 0 X
ii. Shift left register

 Moves data/bits from right to left
 Constructed using D Flip Flops
 Clocked
Diagram
QD QC QB QA
SET SET SET SET

Input
Q D Q D Q D Q D
D3 D2 D1 D0
Q CLR Q CLR Q CLR Q CLR
Operation
 Information/data is transferred with every clock pulse from right to left.
 If for instance there is an input of 1100 after each clock pulse the bits will be
transferred from one flip flop to another.
E.g. Input 1100

Q D QC QB QA
1st Clock Pulse X X X 1
2nd Clock Pulse X X 1 1
3rd Clock Pulse X 1 1 0
4th Clock Pulse 1 1 0 0
5th Clock Pulse 1 0 0 X

COUNTERS
A logic circuit which goes through a sequence and repeats the sequence
E.g. counting from
0 1 2 3 0 1
3 1
Constructed using flip flops

Has a clock
Types of Counters
i. Synchronous
Features
 Have a common clock
 Have less propagation time (PT) i.e. time it takes for data to move in circuit
from input to output
 Stable
 Has very few errors
ii. Asynchronous
Features
 Don’t have a common clock
 Have more propagation time (PT)
 Not stable i.e. in terms of reliability
 More prone to errors compared to the synchronous
Synchronous
Design
Procedure
i. Determine the number of steps the counter goes through.
ii. Determine the number of flip flops to be used using a number of states
Formula
2n = N; Number of states
Where n = Number of flip flops

Log2n = Log N
n = Log N
Log 2
iii. Round off to the higher number all the time even if you obtain < point 5.
iv. Use transition diagram to obtain inputs to the flip flops to be used
v. Document in a truth table
vi. Draw the logic diagram
Example:
Design a BCD counter
Synchronous and asynchronous using T flip flops
Synchronous
BCD 0 9 goes through
0
1
9 2
8
3
7 4
6 5
Number of states = 10 states

Number of flip flops n = Log N = log 10 ≈ 3.32 ≈ 4 flip flops
Log 2 log 2
Truth table
Present State Next State Flip flop inputs
A B C D A B C D TA TB TC TD
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1

1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1
AB
CD 00 01 11 10
00 X
01 1 1 X
11 1 1 X X
10 X
X
𝑇𝐶 = 𝐴̅𝐷
TD
AB
CD 00 01 11 10
1 1 X 1
00
01 1 1 X 1
11 1 1 X X
10 1 1 X
X
𝑇𝐷 = 1
TB
AB
CD 00 01 11 10
00 X
01 X
11 1 1 X X
10 X
X
𝑇𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷

TB
AB
CD 00 01 11 10
00 X
01 X 1
11 1 X X
10 X
X
𝑇𝐴 = 𝐵𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴𝐷
SET
D Q
A
CLR Q
SET
D Q
B
CLR Q
SET
D Q
C
CLR Q
SET
D Q
‘I’ D
CLR Q
Truth table
Present State Next State Flip flop inputs
A B C D A B C D CA CB CC CD
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1
AB
CD 00 01 11 10
00 X
01 X 1
11 1 X X
10 X
X
𝐶𝐴 = 𝐵𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴𝐷
AB
CD 00 01 11 10
00 X
01 X
11 1 1 X X
10
X
𝐶𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷
AB
CD 00 01 11 10
00 X
01 1 1 X
11 1 1 X X
10 X
X
𝐶𝐶 = 𝐴̅𝐷
𝐶𝐷 = 1

SET
D Q
A
CLR Q
SET
D Q
B
CLR Q
SET
D Q
C
CLR Q
SET
D Q
D
CLR Q

Digital Electronics

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Digital Electronics

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DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

Features of Analogue Electronics:

i. Varies continuously with time i.e. amplitude

Features of Digital Electronics:

i. They are discrete i.e. they occur in 0’s and 1’s

Advantages of Digital over Analogue:

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Disadvantages of Digital Electronics:

Analogue ADC Analogue

Filter Port filter

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TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEMS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Decimal weights are in such a way that;

Counting is started from

2. Binary Number System

Decimal weights are in such a way that;

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4. Hexadecimal Number System

7 x 162 7 x 161 7 x 160

Decimal weights are in such a way that;

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1. Decimal to Binary / Integer Values

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NB: 0.625 x 2 = 1.25

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Example: Convert 0.11012 to Decimal

Decimal to Octal / Integer Values

Example 3010 to Octal

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Example: Convert 3010 to Octal

Decimal Pointed Values / Fractional Values

Example: Convert 7748 to Decimal

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Example: Convert 0.0328 to Decimal

8-1 8-2 8-3

Example: Convert 1110110.1011 to Octal

Example: Convert 2107.318 to Binary

010 001 000 111. 011 001

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Example: Convert 38.9F to Decimal

161 160 16-1 16-2

3 x 161 + 8 x 160 + 9 x 16-1 + 15 x 16-2

Example: Convert 48.26B16 to Binary

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Example: Convert 110110.0101012

Example: Convert 65D.AC316 to Octal

Example: Convert 763.548 to Hexadecimal

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Example: adding a single bit

Example: adding a string of bits

Example: subtracting a single bit

Example 1: subtracting a string of bits

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Subtraction using complements

Example: 10110010 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1’s Complement

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1’s complement for B = 0 1 1 1 0 0

1’s complement for A = 0 1 0 0 1 0

Subtraction using 2’s Complement

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Example 1: Multiplying a single bit

Example 2: Multiplying a string of bits

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Dividend 1 1 1 . 1 0 1 x 1000 = 111101