Topic1 LTI PDF

ELEC264: Signals And Systems
Topic 1: LTI Systems

 Introduction
 Types of signals
 CT Signals
 Sinusoidal and exponential signals
 Periodic and aperiodic signals
 Signal energy and power
 Transformation of the independent variable
 Even and odd signals
 Special signals
 CT Systems & basic properties
 DT Signals
Aishy Amer
Concordia University  Transformation of the independent variable
Electrical and Computer Engineering
 Special signals
 DT systems & basic properties
Figures and examples in these course slides are taken from the following sources:
• A. Oppenheim, A.S. Willsky and S.H. Nawab, Signals and Systems, 2nd Edition, Prentice-Hall, 1997
• M.J. Roberts, Signals and Systems, McGraw Hill, 2004
• J. McClellan, R. Schafer, M. Yoder, Signal Processing First, Prentice Hall, 2003
Signals and Systems
 A signal is any physical phenomenon which
conveys information (e.g., human voice)
 Systems respond to signals and produce new
signals (e.g., Aircraft, human body)
 Excitation signals are applied at system inputs
 Response signals are produced at system outputs
2
Signals & Systems
 Representation, transformation and

manipulation of signals and
information they contain
 Modifying and analyzing information
with computers
3
What is a signal ?
 A flow of information
 Mathematically, x(t)
 a function of independent variables
such as time (e.g. speech signal),
position (e.g. image)
 t : a common convention is to refer to
the independent variable as time,
although may in fact not
4
Example signals
 Speech: 1-Dimension signal as a function of time s(t)

 Grey-scale image: 2-Dimension signal as a function of
space I(x,y)
 Video: 3 x 3-Dimension signal as a function of space and
time {R(x,y,t), G(x,y,t), B(x,y,t)}
5
Signals: Examples
 Example signals
6
Continuous to discrete?
t
4
x(t ) e
x[n] [0.5 2.4 3.2 4.5]
 Computers and other digital devices are restricted to
discrete time
 Take samples of the continuous signal => discrete
 Analog to digital conversion (ADC)
7
Continuous to discrete?
From http://www.ece.rochester.edu/courses/ECE446
Key History of Signals &Systems
 Prior to 1950’s: analog signal processing using

electronic circuits or mechanical devices
 1950’s: computer simulation before analog
implementation, thus cheap to try out
 1965: Fast Fourier Transforms (FFTs) by
Cooley and Tukey – make real time digital
signal processing (DSP) possible
 1980’s: IC technology boosting digital signal
9 processing (DSP)
Typical system components
Transducers Analog-to-digital
e.g. microphones converters
Physical signals Analog signals Digital signals
Output devices Digital-to-Analog

10
converters
Applications of Signals &Systems
 Speech processing
 Enhancement – noise filtering
 Coding, synthesis and recognition
 Image processing
 Enhancement, coding, pattern recognition (e.g.
OCR)
 Multimedia processing
 Media transmission, digital TV, video conferencing
 Communications
 Biomedical engineering
 Navigation, radar, GPS
11
 Control, robotics, machine vision
Pros and cons of DT Signals
&System
 Pros
 Easy to duplicate
 Stable and robust: not varying with temperature,
storage without deterioration
 Flexibility and upgrade: use a general computer or
microprocessor
 Cons
 Limitations of ADC and DAC
 High power consumption and complexity of a DSP
implementation: unsuitable for simple, low-power
applications
12
 Limited to signals with relatively low bandwidths
Outline
 Introduction
 CT Signals
 Special signals

 DT Signals
 Special signals
13
Types of signals
 A variable (or multiple variables) that changes in time
 Speech or audio signal: Amplitude that varies in time
 Temperature readings at different hours of a day
 Stock price changes over days
 …
 More generally, a signal may vary in time, 1D, and/or in space,
2-D
 A picture: the color varies in a 2-D space
 A video sequence: the color varies in 2-D space and in time
14
Types of signals
 The independent variable may be either continuous or discrete

 Continuous-time signals: The time varies continuously
 Discrete-time signals are defined at discrete times
• Represented as sequences of numbers
• Discrete ~ Countable
 The signal amplitude may be either continuous or discrete

 Analog signals: both time and amplitude are continuous
 Digital signals: both are discrete
 Signal processing systems classification follows the same

lines
15
Types of signals
 Signals are functions x(t) = et/4

to manipulate them we apply
 calculus on Continuous-Time (CT) signals
 algebra on Discrete-Time (DT) signals
 CT Signal x(t) is a continuous-value function

 DT signal x[n] is a sequence of real or
complex numbers
 x[n] = [0.5 2.4 3.2 4.5]
• x[0] =0.5, x[1]=2.4,…
16
Basic Signals
 Sinusoidal x(t ) cos( 0t ) , 0 2 f0
 Exponential x (t ) e j 0t
1 t 0 (t )dt 1
 Unit Impulse (t )
0 t 0
1 t 0
 Unit Step u (t )
0 t 0
17  An arbitrary signal can be expressed as a sum of many
sinusoidal signals with different frequencies, amplitudes
and phases
Periodic CT Signals
 A CT signal is periodic if there is a positive value
for which
 The fundamental period of is the smallest positive

value of for which the equation above holds
 Examples:
is periodic with fundamental period
x(t ) cos( t ), 0 t 3
3
18
Sinusoidal Signals
f0 = 1000Hz
f0 = 2000Hz
 Sinusoidal signals: important because they can be used to synthesize any signal
 Phase shift: how much the sinusoidal signal is shifted away from t=0
 Music notes are essentially sinusoids at different frequencies
19
Constant Signal
Case: o 0
• Let the fundamental frequency be zero,
i.e.,constant signal (d.c) has zero f=0
rate of oscillation
• x(t) is periodic with period T for any positive

value of T 1
Thus fundamental period is undefined T0 f
20
Illustration of Frequency
21
Frequency content in signals
 A constant : only zero frequency (DC) component
 A sinusoid : Contain only a single frequency component
 Slowly varying : contain low frequency only
 Fast varying : contain very high frequency
 Sharp transition : contain from low to high frequency
 Music: :
 contain both slowly varying and fast varying
components
22
What is frequency of an
arbitrary signal?
 Sinusoidal signals have a distinct (unique) frequency
 An arbitrary signal x(t) does not have a unique frequency
 x(t) can be decomposed into many sinusoidal signals
with different frequencies, each with different magnitude
and phase
3
x(t ) cos( t ) 7 cos( t ) 
4 2 3
23
Deterministic vs. random
signals
 A deterministic signal is a signal in which each value of
the signal is fixed and can be determined by a
mathematical expression, rule, or table x(t ) e at
 Future values of the signal can be calculated from
past values with complete confidence
 A random signal cannot be described by a
mathematical formula
 has a lot of uncertainty about its behavior
 Future values of a random signal cannot be
accurately predicted
 Future values can usually only be guessed based on
the averages of sets of signals
24
Random Signals
25
Types of Signals:
Continuous-Time (CT) vs. Discrete-time (DT)
Analog vs. digital
Periodic vs. non-periodic
26
Types of Signals
(Discrete ~ countable)
27
Outline
 Introduction
 CT Signals
 Special signals

 DT Signals
 Special signals
28  DT systems & basic properties

Sinusoidal & Exponential
• Play a central role in signals &

systems
• Serve as building block for many

other signals
29
Periodic Complex Exponential
& Sinusoidal Signal Src: Wikipedia
•Sinusoidal signal
x(t ) A cos( 0 t )
A : Signal Amplitude A CT sinusoidal signal
x : Signal 1. has one unique frequency
 Two signals with different
t : time instant frequencies are never
x(t) : value of the signal at t identical
2. is always periodic for any 0
0 : Angular frequency 0 2 f0
2
f0 1 / T0 Fundementa l Frequency 0
T
T0 : Fundementa l Period
: Phase angle
• Complex exponential signal:
30 They can be written in terms of sinusoidal
signals j t
e o
cos o t j sin o t
Complex numbers
Cartesian or rectangula r for :
z a jb,
where j 1 and a and b are real numbers,
Polar form : -
z re j where r 0 is the magnitude of z,
and is the angle or phase of z,
r | z |, z.
Euler ' s relation :
ej cos j sin
31
ej e j
2 cos
ej e j
2 j sin
& Sinusoidal Signal
The sinusoidal signal, with
fundamenta l period, can be
written in terms of periodic
complex exponentia l :
A j j ot
A j j ot
A cos( o t ) e e e e
32
2 2
Periodic Complex Exponential & Sinusoidal Signal
It follows :
j ( ot )
A cos( o t ) A. Re{e }
j ( ot )
or A sin( o t ) A. IM {e }
wit h
To t hefundamental period
o 2 fo fundamental angular freq. in radians/second

33
fo t hefundamental frequencyin Hert zor cycles/second
j ( t T0 ) j t j T0
e e .e
A necessary condition for a complex
exponential e j t to be periodic with
j To
period To is e 1
which implies that To is a multiple
of 2 . i.e. To 2 k, k 0, 1, 2,...
34
Harmonically Complex
Exponential Signals
2
If we define o ,
To
then must be an integer multiple of o i.e. k o ang
T0
T
K
xk (t ) e jk 0t
: A set of periodic
exponentials with fundamenta l
frequencies k that are multiples of a
35
single positive frequency o , i.e, k k 0
Exponential Signals
jk ot
xk (t ) e , k 0, 1, 2,...
For k 0, xk (t ) is a constant.
k 0, xk (t ) is periodic with fundamenta l
frequencie s | k | o and fundamenta l periods
To
36
T
|k|
Exponential Signals
The kth harmonic xk (t ) is still periodic

with period To as well, as it goes through
exactly | k | of its fundamenta l periods during
any time interval of length To .
37
General Complex Exponential
Signals
x(t ) Ce at , where both ' C' and ' a' are complex
numbers.
If C is expressed in polar form and
a in cartesian form :
C | C | e j and a j o .
at
Then x(t ) Ce
j ( j o )t t j( ot )
|C|e e |C |e e .
38
General Complex Exponential
Signals
Using Euler's relation,
x(t ) Ce at | C | e t cos( ot ) j | C | e t sin( ot )
If 0,
the real & imaginary parts are sinusoidal.
If 0,
x(t) is sinusoidal signals multipled by growing exponential.
If 0,
x(t) is sinusoidal signals multipled by decaying exponential.
39
Growing & Decaying
Sinusoidal Signals
σ>0
σ<0
40
Matlab Program for
Growing & Decaying Sinusoids
pi=3.142; sigma=-0.1;
t=-10:.1:10; x=zeros(size(t));
f=2000; x=exp((sigma+w*i)*t);
w=2*pi*f; theta=pi/4;
sigma=0.1; c=1*exp(i*theta);
x=zeros(size(t)); y=c*x;
x=exp((sigma+w*i)*t); subplot(2,1,2);
theta=pi/4; plot(t,y);
c=1*exp(i*theta); grid;
y=c*x; end;
subplot(2,1,1);
41
plot(t,y);
grid;
Outline
 Introduction
 CT Signals
 Special signals

 DT Signals
 Special signals

42
Periodic Signals: Examples
 Planet and satellite orbital positions

 Phases of the moon
 Firing pattern of spark plugs in a car
traveling at a constant speed
 Blinker lights in automobiles
 Angular position of a pendulum in
antique clocks
 Migration pattern of birds
43
Periodic Signals:
Sinusoidal Signals
 Sinusoidal signal:
 Unique frequency e.g., 10Hz
 An arbitrary x(t):
 No unique frequency
 x(t) = summation of sine or cosine
functions at different frequencies
44
Periodic CT Signals
45
Example: ,
Periodic CT Signals:
Examples
46
Sum of CT periodic signals
 The period of the sum of CT periodic functions is the

least common multiple of the periods of the individual
functions summed
 If the least common multiple is infinite, the sum is aperiodic
47
Periodic CT Signals:
Examples
48
Aperiodic CT Signals
 A function that is not periodic is called

aperiodic
 Aperiodic signal x(t ) x(t nT )
 Examples:
cos( t ) 0 t 3
x(t ) 3
0 otherwise
49
Outline
 Introduction
 CT Signals
 Special signals

 DT Signals
 Special signals

50
Signal Power and Energy
 Signal: A function of a time-varying amplitude
 Signal: Many different physical entities
 No unit for energy/power
 Often, a signal is a function of varying amplitude over time
A good measurement of the strength of a signal would
be the area under the function
 But this area may have a negative part which does not
have less strength than a positive signal of the same size
This suggests either squaring the signal or taking its
absolute value, then finding the area under that curve
 Energy/power: strength of the signal
51
Energy of CT Signals
52
Energy of
CT Signal
53
Signal Energy and Power
 A signal with finite signal

energy is called an energy
signal
 If the signal does not
decay infinite energy
 A signal with infinite signal
energy and finite average
signal power is called a
power signal
54
Energy of
CT Signal: Example
55
Energy of
CT Signal: Example
56
Signal Power
57
Signal Power
58
Signal Power: Example
59
Outline
 Introduction
 CT Signals
 Special signals

 DT Signals
 Special signals

60
Transformations of CT
signals
 Modifying a signal x(t) through

1. Transformation of the independent
variable t e.g., x(t/2)
2. Combination of signals:
 y(t) = x(t) w(t)
 y(t) = x(t)/w(t)
 y(t)=sin(t)x(t)
61
 y(t)=dx/dt
Transformations of CT signals:
Combination of Signals
62
Transformation of CT Signals:
Differentiation d
dt x
x (t t ) x (t )
t
63
Transformation of CT
Signals: Integration
64
Transformation of Independent
Variable or Modification of
independent variable t
 Modifying signals through elementary
transformations
 Examples of elementary transformation
 time shift, x(t-t0)
 time reversal, x(-t)
 time scaling, x(0.5t)
65
Shifting right or lagging
signal x(t)
X(t)
0 t
X(t-t0)
t
66
0 t0
is a positive value
Shifting left or leading signal
x(t)
X(t)
0 t
X(t+t1)
t
67
-t1 0
Folded or Flipped x(t)
=x(-t), time reversal
68
Time scaling of continuous
signal
x(t)
x(2t) t
Compression a>1
t
x(t/2)
69
Linearly stretching a<1
Variable: Applications
 Play music at faster or slower speed

 Aircraft control system:
 Input correspond to pilot action
 Actions are transformed by electrical &
mechanical system of the aircraft to
changes to aircraft trust or position control
surfaces such as the rudder & ailerons
 Finally these changes affect the dynamics
& kinematics such as the aircraft velocity
70
and heading
Time Shifting Applications
 Time-shifting occurs in many real physical
systems:
 Listening to someone talking 2m away
 Received signal will be delayed, but the delay won’t
be noticeable
 Satellite communication systems (delay can be
noticeable if ground stations are not directly below
the satellite)
 Radar systems:
• Transmitted signal Ax(t)
• Received signal Bx(t-to), with B<A, due to attenuation
71
Time Scaling Applications
 Examples:
 Playing an audio tape at a faster or slower speed
 Doppler effect: standing by the side of a road
while a fire truck approaches and then passes by
72
Modification of independent
variable (time axes)
y (t ) x( t )
x : a function of t
t : is the independent variable of x
, : are parameters of x
t : is the argument of x
for a fixed what is x(t )
for a fixed what is x( t )
• Recommended approach:
o Sketch y(t) for a selected set of t until y(t) becomes clear
o Steps:
1. Rewrite: y(t) = x(α(t+β/ α))
2. Scale by |α|: x(|α|t)
3. Invert x(|α|t) if α<0
73 4. Shift to the LEFT by |β/ α| if β/ α>0
5. Shift to the RIGHT by |β/ α| if β/ α<0
74
Transformation of CT Signals
75
Transformation of CT Signals
76
Signals
77
Signals
78
Signals: Examples
x(t)
1
0 1 2 t
x(t+1), x(t) shifted left by 1sec
1
79
-1 0 1 2 t
Tables of x(t) & x(t+1) & x(-t+1)
t x(t) x(t+1) x(-t+1)

-2 0 0 0
-1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1
2 0 0 0
3 0 0 0
80
Example
x(t+1) is x(t) shifted left by 1
1
-1 0 1 2 t
x(-t+1) is x(t+1) flipped about t=0
1
81
-1 0 1 2 t
Example: Alternative 1
x(t-1) is x(t) shifted right by 1sec
1
0 1 2 t
1 x(-t+1)=x(-1(t-1))
Flip about axis t=1
82
-1 0 1 2 t
Example , Method 2
x(-t), flip about axis t=0
1
-1 0 1 2 t
x(-t+1), shift right (because -t) by 1
1
83
-1 0 1 2 t
Example
x(t)
1
0 1 2 t
x(t+1), x(t) shifted left by 1sec
1
84
-1 0 1 2 t
Example
x(3t/2), x(t) compressed by 2/3
1
-1 0 2/3 1 4/3 2 t
x((3/2)*(t+2/3)),
1 x(t) compressed by 2/3
& shifted left by 2/3
85 -1 -2/3 0 2/3 1 t
signals: Examples
86
signals: Examples
87
Signals: Examples
88
Outline
 Introduction
 CT Signals
 Special signals

 DT Signals
 Special signals

89
Even and Odd Signals
 An even signal is identical to its time reversed
 Example:
 An odd signal has the property
90
Even and Odd CT Signals
91
Even and Odd Parts of CT
Signals
 The even part of a CT function is
 The odd part of a CT function is

 A function whose even part is zero is odd and a
function whose odd part is zero is even
 The derivative of an even CT function is odd and the
derivative of an odd CT function is even
 The integral of an even CT function is an odd CT
function, plus a constant, and the integral of an odd CT
function is even
92
Even and Odd Signals:
Example
93
Products of Even and Odd CT
Functions
94
Product of 2 Odd Functions
95
Integrals of Even and Odd CT
Functions
96
Outline
 Introduction
 CT Signals
 Special signals

 DT Signals
 Special signals

97
Singularity Functions
 In engineering, we often deal with the idea

of an action occurring at a point
 Whether it be a force at a point in space or
a signal at a point in time, it becomes worth
while to develop some way of quantitatively
defining this
 This leads us to the idea of a unit impulse
 Unit impulse & complex exponential
functions are the two most important
functions in systems and signals courses
98
 Many useful signals are not continuous or

differentiable at every point in time.
 For instance, describe the operation of switching on
or off a signal at some specified time
 Singularity functions are a set of functions that
are related to one another via integrals/derivatives
and can be used to mathematically describe signals
with discontinuities.
 Example:
(t ), u(t ),...
99
100
CT Unit Impulse
 The CT unit impulse function is represented as

1 t 0
(t )
0 t 0
 The area under the CT unit impulse is equal to 1
(t )dt 1
101
Properties of CT Impulse
 Sampling (Shifting) Property:

 the value of the function at a point
 Scaling Property
1
(at b) |a| (t b / a)
102
Properties of CT Impulse
 Equivalence Property
103
CT Unit Step
104
Relationship: CT unit step and
unit impulse
 The CT unit impulse is the first derivative of the
continuous-time unit step
 The area under the CT unit impulse is equal to 1

 The CT unit impulse function is represented as
105
unit impulse
 Example: consider a mass with zero velocity. Assume
that a force is applied to it to change its velocity from
zero to 1 on a surface with no friction. The acceleration
of the mass will be a unit impulse
 It can be easily verified that
106
unit impulse
 The CT unit step is not differentiable at t=0
 One can use continuous approximation to the unit
step
 Corresponding unit impulse
107
The CT Signum
108
The CT Unit Ramp
109
The CT Unit Rectangle
110
The CT Unit Triangle
111
The CT Unit Sinc Signal
112
Outline
 Introduction
 CT Signals
 Special signals

 DT Signals
 Special signals

113
Introduction to Systems
 To get the output y(t)
 Apply the system S{} on input x(t)
 y(t) is the response of S{} to x(t)
 A system: An integrated whole composed of
diverse, interacting, specialized parts
 System performs a function not possible with
any of the individual parts
 Any system has objectives
 Systems respond to particular signals by
producing other signals or some desired
behavior
114
Introduction to Systems:
Examples
115
a Communication System
 A communication system has an information
signal plus noise signals
 This is an example of a system that consists of
an interconnection of smaller systems
 Cellphones are based on such systems
116
Image System to Aid
Perception
117
Sound Recording
118
Interconnections of Systems
 Systems can be interconnected in series (cascade),
parallel, feedback, or combination
119
Response of Systems
 Systems respond to signals and produce new
signals
 Real signals are applied at system inputs and
response signals are produced at system outputs
 Example: What is the response of a system to a

unit impulse?
120
Response of systems
 The response of a system to an impulse is

called "impulse response" h(t)

 The impulse response h(t) completely

characterize a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI)
system
121
Basic System Properties
 Linearity or superposition property
 Linear system
 possesses the property of superposition
any constant values a and b, the following equation is
satisfied
 It can be easily verified that for linear systems:

an input which is zero for all time,
results in an output which is zero for all time
122
123
Basic System Properties:
Examples
 Linearity:
Is y (t ) x 2 (t ) linear?
Let x(t ) a x1 (t ) b x2 (t )
Then y (t ) [a x1 (t ) b x2 (t )]2 a y1 (t ) b y2 (t )
a 2 x12 2abx1 x2 b 2 x22
y1 (t )  y2 (t )
2
 Time Invariance: Is y (t ) x (t ) TI?
x(t) ~ (x(t))2
124
x(t-t0) ~ (x(t-t0))2 = y(t-t0)
 Memory:
 System is memoryless if its output for each
value of the independent variable at a given
time is dependent only on the input at that
same time
 Memoryless CT system: the input-output
relationship of a resistor v(t ) Ri(t )
 Examples: y(t) = x(t-1); y(t) = x(t/2);
125
x(t) y(t) INV x(t)
S S
 Invertibility:
 System is invertible if distinct inputs lead to
distinct outputs
 If a system is invertible
• inverse system exists, when cascaded with the
original system, yields an output equal to the input
to the first system.
 Example
 x(t)  MP3  y(t) MP3  x(t) ?

126
 Causality:
 A system is causal (or non-anticipative) if the output
at any time depends only on values of the input at
the present time and in the past
 All memoryless systems are causal
 Examples of causal systems
 Examples of non-causal systems

 Causal signals are zero for all negative t
 Anti-causal signals are zero for all positive t
 Non-causal signals have non-zero values in both
127 positive and negative t
 Stability:
 Stable system: small inputs lead to responses that do
not diverge
 BIBO stable system: bounded input results in a

bounded output. If |x(t)|<∞  |y(t)|<∞
 Stable system is always BIBO stable but a BIBO

stable system is not necessarily stable
 Is the accumulator system stable?
 Examples:
128
CT Systems: Example
y(t ) sin(t / 2) x(t / 2)
 A system is defined by the following relationship:
 Is this system: BIBO Stable; Casual; Linear; Memoryless; Time-Invariant;
Invertible?
 All answers must be justified (i.e. a simple “Yes” or “No” is not sufficient).
 The system is Stable: 1 sin(t / 2) 1
So, for any bounded input, the output is bounded.
 The system is Casual: Output at time t depends on input at time t/2 - which is
the past.  The system is Casual.
 The system is Linear: Consider:
y1 (t ) sin(t / 2) x1 (t / 2)
y 2 (t ) sin(t / 2) x 2 (t / 2)
let x3 (t ) ax1 (t ) bx2 (t )
129 y 3 (t ) sin(t / 2) x3 (t / 2) sin(t / 2)(ax1 (t / 2) bx2 (t / 2))

a sin(t / 2) x1 (t / 2) b sin(t / 2) x 2 (t / 2) ay1 (t ) by2 (t )
CT Systems: Example
 The system is not Memoryless: Output does not

solely depend on current input values (i.e. depends
on past input values).
 The system is not Time-invariant:
y (t ) sin(t / 2) x(t / 2)
y (t _ t 0 ) sin((t t 0 ) / 2) x((t t 0 ) / 2)
let x1 (t ) x(t t 0 )
y1 (t ) sin(t / 2) x1 (t / 2) sin(t / 2) x(t / 2 t 0 )

130
y (t _ t 0 )
CT Systems: Example
 The system is not Invertible: There

are Different Inputs which lead to the
same Outputs
y (t ) sin(t / 2) x(t / 2)
x1 (t ) (t )
y1 (t ) sin(t / 2) x1 (t / 2) sin(0) x1 (t / 2) 0
x 2 (t ) (t 2 )
y1 (t ) sin(t / 2) x 2 (t / 2) sin( ) x 2 (t / 2) 0
131
Outline
 Introduction
 CT Signals
 Special signals

 DT Signals
 Special signals

132
Discrete-time signals
x[0]
 Sequences of numbers x[-1] x[1] x[n]

x {x[n]}, n
x[2]
where n is an integer
 Periodic sampling of an
analog signal
x[n] xa (nT ), n
where T is called the sampling period.
ADC
133
DT Signals: Examples
134
Periodic DT Signals
135
Basic DT Signals
 Sinusoidal x[n] cos( 0 n) , 0 2 f0
 Exponential x[ n] e j 0n
1 n 0
 Unit Impulse [ n]
0 n 0
1 n 0
 Unit Step u[n]
0 n 0
136
DT Sinusoidal signals
A DT sinusoidal signal
x[n] A sin( 0 n ) 1. is NOT always periodic
** Periodic only if its frequency
A : Signal Amplitude is a rational number
x : Signal 2. Two signals with different
frequencies maybe identical
n : time index
e j( o 2 )n
ej on
x[n] : value of the signal at n

0 : Angular frequency 0 2 F0
F0 1 / N 0 : Fundementa l Frequency
N 0 : Fundementa l Period
137
: Phase angle
Sinusoidal sequences
x[n] A cos( 0 n ), for all n
138
Discrete-time Sinusoidal
Signals
x[n] cos( 2 n / 12)
x[n] cos(8 n / 31)
x[n] cos(n / 6)
139
DT Sinusoidal Signals
DT signals possess:
1) Infinite total energy
2) Finite average power
140
Decaying or
Damped Sinusoids
x[n] = eσn.cos(ω0n)
σ>0 : grows
Examples: σ<0 : decays
oResponse of RLC circuits
oMechanical systems having both

damping & restoring forces e.g.
141
automotive suspension system
Growing Real Exponential Signal
n
x[n] A * n
where 1 e.g. x[n] 2 *1.1
142
Decaying Real Exponential Signal
n
x[n] A * n
where 0 1 x[ n ] 2 * 0.9
143
Real Exponential Signal
Real-valued discrete exponentials

are used to describe:
1) Population growth as function of
generation
2) Total return on investment as a
function of day, month or
quarter
144
x[n] A * n
where -1 0 x[n] 2 * ( 0.9) n
145
x[n] A * n
where 1 x[n] 2 * ( 1.1) n
146
n n
x[n] A * where 1 x[n] 2 * ( 1)
147
Complex exponential signals
 Exponential Signal
x[n] Ae n , let A 1 & j o ( purely imaginary)
x[n] e j o n
 This signal is closely related to sinusoidal signal :
x[n] A cos( o n )
 Taking n as dimensionl ess, then both
o and have units of radians
From Euler' s relation : e j on
cos o n j sin o n
148
A j j on
A j j on
A cos( on ) e e e e
2 2
General Complex
Exponential Sequence
n
 x[n] A ,
where A and are in general complex numbers.
j
 If | |e 0
and A | A | e j ,
x[n] A n
| A|ej | |n e j 0n
| A || |n e j ( 0n )
| A || |n cos( 0n ) j | A || |n sin( 0 n )
149
General complex exponential
signals
150
sequence
When | | 1,
x[n] | A | e j ( 0n )
| A | cos( 0 n ) j | A | sin( 0 n )
 By analogy with the continuous-time case,

the quantity 0 is called the frequency of
the complex sinusoid or complex
exponential and is the phase
 n is always an integer
  differences between discrete-time and
151
continuous-time
signals
1
152
Periodicity Properties of DT
Complex Exponentials
j ot
Two properties of CT counterpart e
1)The larger is o , the higher is the rate of oscillation
2) e j ot
is periodic for any value of o
There are differences in each of the

above properties for the discrete-time
j on
case of e
153
 Consider t he DT complex exponentia l with frequency o 2 :

e j( o 2 )n
e j 2 ne j on
ej on
the exponentia l at frequency o 2 is the same as that at o
 Similarly at frequencie s o 2 , o 4 , and so on

 This is very different from the CT case whereby
the signals are all distinct for all distinct v alues of o
Because of this periodicit y of 2 , we need only to consider

frequency interval of 2 for DT signals
154
Because of this implied periodicit y of DT signal,

the signal e j o n does not have a continuall y increasing rate of oscillatio n
as o is increased in magnitude
Increasing o from 0 (d.c., constant sequence, no oscillatio n)
the oscillatio n increases until o , thereafte r the oscillatio n
will decrease to 0 i.e. a constant sequence or d.c. signal at o 2
155
Fundamenta l frequency range of 2 :
0 2 or
Therefore,
1. low frequencie s occurs at o 0, 2 ,
even multiple of
2. High frequencie s are at o , 3 , odd multiple of
j n j n n
Note : for o , odd multiple of , e (e ) ( 1) ,
the signal oscillates rapidly, changing sign at each point in time
156
e j( o 2 k )n
ej on
; k is an integer
j n
e
has a fundamenta l frequency range of 2 :
0 2 or
All frequencies k o 2 k; - o
are the same (or give the same e j k n )

Examples : cos( 9.6πn cos( 0.4πn )
9.6πn o 2 k 9.6π 0.4π 2 5
157

0 2 or
1) 0 0 q appears the same as 0 2 q

2) 0 q appears the same as 0 q
3).....
158
0 0 q appears the same as 0 2 q
159
x[n] cos(0n) 1 x[n] cos( n / 8) x[n] cos( n / 4)
x[n] cos( n)
x[n] cos( n / 2)
x[n] cos(3 n / 2)
160
x[n] cos(7 n / 4) x[n] cos(15 n / 8) x[n] cos( 2 n)

In order for e j on
to be periodic with period N 0,
ej o (n N)
ej on
, or equivalent ly e j oN
1.
o N must be a multiple of 2
m o
i.e. o N 2 m, or equvalentl y ,
2 N
This means that the signal e j o n is periodic if o /2
is a rational number and is not periodic otherwise
This is also true for the DT sinusoids

161
Fundamental Period & Frequency of
DT complex exponential
j on
If x[n] e is periodic with fundamenta l period N,
2 o
its fundamenta l frequency is ,
N m
The fundamenta l period is written as
2
N m( )
o
162
DT Sinusoidal Signals
x[n] cos( 2 n / 12)

periodic because o 2 / 12,
o 1
2 12
x[n] cos(8 n / 31)

o 4
periodic because o 8 / 31,
2 31
x[n] cos( n / 6)
not periodic because o 1 / 6,
o
rational number
163
2
Periodic & Aperiodic
DT sinusoidal signals
164
DT Sinusoids
165
DT Sinusoids
166
DT Sinusoids
167
DT Periodic Sinusoids
168
j ot j on
Comparison of the signal e and e
ej ot
ej on
Distinct signals for distinct Identical signals for values of o
values of o
separated by multiples of 2
2 m
Periodic only if o ,
Periodic for any choice of o
N
for some integers N 0 and m
0
Fundamenta l frequency o Fundamenta l frequency
Fundamenta l period m
Fundamenta l period
o 0 : undefined o 0 : undefined
169
2 2
o 0: o 0 : m( )
o o
CT vs. DT : Frequency
 Consider a frequency ( 0 2 )
x[n] Ae j ( 0 2 )n
Ae j 0n
e j2 n
Ae j 0n
 More generally ( 0 2 r ), r being an integer,

x[n] Ae j ( 0 2 r )n
Ae j 0n
e j2 rn
Ae j 0n
 Same for sinusoidal sequences

x[n] A cos[( 0 2 r )n ] A cos( 0 n )
 So, only consider frequencies in an interval of 2
170
such as
0 or 0 0 2
CT vs. DT: Frequency
 For a CT sinusoidal signal

x(t ) A cos( 0 t ),
as 0 increases, x(t ) oscillatesmore and more rapidly
 For the DT sinusoidal signal

x[n] A cos( 0 n ),
as 0 increases from 0 towards , x[n] oscillatesmore and more rapidly
as 0 increases from towards 2 , the oscillations become slower
171
CT vs. DT: periodicity
 CT case: a sinusoidal signal and a complex

exponential signal are both periodic
 DT case: a periodic sequence is defined as
x[n] x[n N ], for all n
where the period N is necessarily an integer.
 For sinusoid,
A cos( 0 n ) A cos( 0 n 0 N )
which requires that 0 N 2 k or N 2 k/ 0
172 where k is an integer

CT vs. DT: periodicity
 For complex exponential sequence

e j 0 (n N ) e j 0n ,
which is true only for 0 N 2 k
 Complex exponential and sinusoidal sequences
 are not necessarily periodic in n with period (2 / 0 )
 depending on the value of 0 , may not be periodic at
all
 Consider
x1[n] cos( n / 4), with a period of N 8
x2 [n] cos(3 n / 8), with a period of N 16
173
Increasing frequency  increasing period!
Outline
 Introduction
 CT Signals
 Special signals

 DT Signals
 Special signals

174
Periodic DT Signals
 A periodic DT function is one which is invariant to the
transformation , nn+mN , where N is a period of the
function and m is any integer
 A DT signal is periodic with period where is a
positive integer if
 The fundamental period of is the smallest positive

value of for which the equation holds
DT sinusoid is periodic if o /2
 Example: is a rational number
175
Is periodic with fundamental period
2 2 8
N m( ) m( 4) m( )
o 3 3
Outline
 Introduction
 CT Signals
 Special signals

 DT Signals
 Special signals

176
Energy of DT Signals
177
Energy of
DT Signal
178
Energy of
DT Signal: Example
179
DT Signal Power
180
DT Signal Power
181
Outline
 Introduction
 CT Signals
 Special signals

 DT Signals
 Special signals

182
Transformations of DT
signals
 Modifying a signal x[n] through

1. Transformation of the independent
variable t e.g., y[n]=x[2n+1]
2. Combination of signals:
 y[n] = cos[wn](x[n]
 y[n]=x[n]-x[n-1]
183
Combination of signals
 The product & sum of two sequences x[n] and y[n]:

z[n] = x[n]+y[n]
sample-by-sample production and sum
 Multiplication of a sequence x[n] by a number

:multiplication of each sample value by
184
Combination of signals::
Differencing
185
Combination of signals::
Accumulation
186
Summation Operation of x[n]
187
Variable or Modification of
independent variable n
 Modifying signals through elementary
transformations
 Examples of elementary transformation
 time shift, x[n-n0)
 time reversal, x[-n]
 time scaling, x[n/2]
188
y ( n) x ( n )
x : a function of n
n : is the independent variable of x
, : are parameters of x
n : is the argument of x
n : must be an integer
for a fixed what is x(n )
• Recommended approach: for a fixed what is x( n)
o Sketch y[n] for a selected set of n until y[n] becomes clear
o Steps:
1. Rewrite: y(n) = x(α(n+β/ α))
2. Scale by |α|: x(|α|n)
3. Invert x(|α|n) if α<0
189 4. Shift to the LEFT by |β/ α| if β/ α>0
5. Shift to the RIGHT by |β/ α| if β/ α<0
Signal Flip about y- axes
x[-n], time reversal
190
Signal delay
x[n]
x[n-5]
191
Example of Delayed Signal
192
Signal advance
x[n]
x[n+5]
193
Signal shift and reversal
x[n]
x[-n+5]
194
Transformation of DT
Signals
195
signals: Time Shifting
196
signals: Time Scaling
197
signals: Time Scaling
198
Outline
 Introduction
 CT Signals
 Special signals

 DT Signals
 Special signals

199
Even and Odd DT Signals
 An even signal is identical to its time reversed
 An odd signal has the property
 Example :
200
Even and Odd DT Signals
201
Outline
 Introduction
 CT Signals
 Special signals

 DT Signals
 Special signals

202
DT Unit Impulse
203
DT Unit Impulse
 Unit sample sequence

(discrete-time impulse, impulse)
0, n 0,
[ n]
1, n 0,
 Any sequence can be represented as a sum of

scaled, delayed impulses
x[n] a 3 [n 3] a 2 [n 2] ... a5 [n 5]
 More generally
204
x[n] x[k ] [n k ]
k
DT Unit Step
205
Relationship: DT unit impulse
and unit step
 Defined as
1, n 0,
u[n]
0, n 0,
 Related to the impulse by
u[n] [ n] [n 1] [n 2] ...
or
u[n] u[k ] [n k ] [n k ]
k k 0
 Conversely,
206
[n] u[n] u[n 1]
Relationship: DT unit
impulse and unit step
 It can be shown that
207
Exponential
 Extremely important in representing and analyzing LTI

systems
x[ n] 2 (0.5) n
 Defined as n
n x[ n] 2 ( 0.5)
x[n] A
x[ n] 2 2 n
 If A and are real numbers, the sequence is real

 If 0 1 and A is positive, the sequence values
are positive and decrease with increasing n
 If 1 0 , the sequence values alternate in sign,
but again decrease in magnitude with increasing n
 If | | 1 , the sequence values increase with
208
increasing n
Combining basic sequences
 An exponential sequence that is zero for n<0

n
A , n 0,
x[n]
0, n 0
n
x[n] A u[n]
209
Outline
 Introduction
 CT Signals
 Special signals

 DT Signals
 Special signals
210
DT Systems
 To get the output y[n]
 Apply the system S{} on input x(n)
 y[n] is the response of S{} to x[n]
 A system: An integrated whole composed of diverse,

interacting, specialized parts
 System performs a function not possible with any of

the individual parts
 Any system has objectives

211  Systems respond to particular signals by producing
other signals or some desired behavior
DT systems
 A transformation or operator that maps input into

output
y[n] T {x[n]}
x[n] T{.} y[n]
 Examples:
 The ideal delay system
y[n] x[n nd ], n
 A memoryless system
212
y[n] ( x[n]) 2 , n
 Linearity:
 A Linear system possesses the property of superposition
any constant values a and b, the following equation is
satisfied
 It can be easily verified that for linear systems:

an input which is zero for all time,
results in an output which is zero for all time
213
 A system is linear if and only if

additivity property
T {x1[n] x2 [n]} T {x1[n]} T {x2 [n]} y1[n] y 2 [n]
and
T {ax[n]} aT {x[n]} ay[n] scaling property
where a is an arbitrary constant
 Combined into superposition

T {ax1[n] bx2 [n]} aT {x1[n]} aT {x2 [n]} ay1[n] ay 2 [n]
214
Examples
 Accumulator system – a linear system

n
y[n] x[k ]
k
n n
y1[n] x1[k ], y2 [ n ] x2 [k ]
k k
n
y3[n] (ax1[k ] bx2 [k ]) ay1[n] by2 [n]
k
 A nonlinear system
y[n] log10 (| x[n] |)
215
Consider x1[n] 1 and x2 [n] 10
y 3[ n ] log(1 10 ) log(1) log(10 )
o A TI system is a system for which a time shift or delay of the input
sequence causes a corresponding shift in the output sequence
216
Basic System Properties:
Example
 Accumulator system
x1[n] x[n n0 ] y1[n] y[n n0 ]
n n0
y[ n n0 ] x[ k ]
k
n n
y1[ n] x1[ k ] x[ k n0 ]
k k
n n0
x[ k1 ] y[ n n0 ]
k1
217
Basic System Properties:Causality
 The output sequence value at the index

n=n0 depends only on the input sequence
values for n<=n0
 Example
y[n] x[n nd ], n
 Causal for nd>=0

 Noncausal for nd<0
218
Basic System Properties: Stability
 A system is stable in the BIBO sense if

and only if every bounded input sequence
produces a bounded output sequence
 Example
y[n] ( x[n]) 2 , n
stable
219
Outline
 Introduction
 CT Signals
 Special signals

 DT Signals
 Special signals

220
Summary: Major sub-topics:
Transformation of signals and
Properties of systems
221

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ELEC264: Signals And Systems

Topic 1: LTI Systems

 Representation, transformation and

 Speech: 1-Dimension signal as a function of time s(t)

 Take samples of the continuous signal => discrete

 Analog to digital conversion (ADC)

 Prior to 1950’s: analog signal processing using

Physical signals Analog signals Digital signals

Output devices Digital-to-Analog

 CT Systems & basic properties

 The independent variable may be either continuous or discrete

 The signal amplitude may be either continuous or discrete

 Signal processing systems classification follows the same

 Signals are functions x(t) = et/4

 CT Signal x(t) is a continuous-value function

 Sinusoidal x(t ) cos( 0t ) , 0 2 f0

 The fundamental period of is the smallest positive

is periodic with fundamental period

• x(t) is periodic with period T for any positive

 CT Systems & basic properties

28  DT systems & basic properties

• Play a central role in signals &

• Serve as building block for many

o 2 fo fundamental angular freq. in radians/second

The kth harmonic xk (t ) is still periodic

 CT Systems & basic properties

 DT systems & basic properties

 Planet and satellite orbital positions

 The period of the sum of CT periodic functions is the

 A function that is not periodic is called

 CT Systems & basic properties

 DT systems & basic properties

 A signal with finite signal

 CT Systems & basic properties

 DT systems & basic properties

 Modifying a signal x(t) through

 Play music at faster or slower speed

t x(t) x(t+1) x(-t+1)

 CT Systems & basic properties

 DT systems & basic properties

 An odd signal has the property

 The odd part of a CT function is

 CT Systems & basic properties

 DT systems & basic properties

 In engineering, we often deal with the idea

 Many useful signals are not continuous or

 The CT unit impulse function is represented as

 The area under the CT unit impulse is equal to 1

 Sampling (Shifting) Property:

 The area under the CT unit impulse is equal to 1

 It can be easily verified that

 Corresponding unit impulse

 CT Systems & basic properties

 DT systems & basic properties

 Example: What is the response of a system to a

 The response of a system to an impulse is

 The impulse response h(t) completely

 It can be easily verified that for linear systems:

 Examples: y(t) = x(t-1); y(t) = x(t/2);

 x(t)  MP3  y(t) MP3  x(t) ?

 Examples of non-causal systems

 BIBO stable system: bounded input results in a

 Stable system is always BIBO stable but a BIBO