Recommendations For The Design of Bridges To BS EN 1993: Published Document

PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
Incorporating
Incorporating Corrigendum No. 1
Corrigendum No. 1
Copy, (c) The British Standards Institution 2012
PUBLISHED DOCUMENT
Recommendations for
the design of bridges to
BS EN 1993
11:40,©Uncontrolled
ICS 91.080.01; 91.100.01; 93.040

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ISBN 978
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580 97402 19
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The following BSI references relate to the work on this standard:
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The following
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reference B/525/10 relate to the work on this standard:
Standards
Committee reference B/525/10

Publication history
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11:40,
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PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
Contents
Foreword iii
1 Scope 1
2 Normative references 1
3 Terms and definitions 1
4 Global analysis 2
5 Non-dimensional slenderness for beam segments between
effective lateral restraints 3
6 Non-dimensional slenderness for beams without intermediate
restraints between support positions 7
7 Non-dimensional slenderness for cantilever beams without
intermediate lateral restraints 10
8 Non-dimensional slenderness for beams with intermediate
torsional restraints 12
9 Simplified method for verification of lateral buckling of truss
chords and flanges in compression 17
10 Restraints at supports – effects due to restraint of main
beams 18
11 Intermediate restraints – effects due to restraint of main
BSI
beams 25
12 Buckling resistance of plates with out of plane loading 27
13 Resistance of members with flanges curved out of plane 29
Copy,
14 Design of flanges and webs with large openings 31

15 Design of intermediate transverse web stiffeners 31
16 Design of bearing stiffeners 32

British StandardsUncontrolled
17 Connections – design of beam splices 35

18 Connections – design of gusset plates 37
19 Bolted connections 38
20 Welded connections 38
21 Cross beams and other transverse members in flanges 40
22 Shape limitations for stiffener outstands 41
23 Box girders – the effects of torsion and distortion 43
24 Box girders – the design of plated diaphragms 51
13/05/2016,
25 Box girders – the design of internal cross frames 83

26 Web breathing 85
Bibliography 86
List of figures
Jacqueline Burman,
Figure 1 – Slenderness factor for variation in bending moment 6

Consulting,
Figure 2 – Effective length parameter kf – effect of rotational end

restraint 9
Figure 3 – Effective length parameter for beams with discrete torsional
restraints 15
Figure 4 – Rotations of paired beams subject to unit torques 15
Figure 5 – Restraint forces – continuous beams 22
Licensed Copy: Ms
Figure 6 – Restraint of compression flange by U-frames or deck or end

Licensed copy:Hyder
torsional restraint 23
Figure 7 – Gusset plates 38
Figure 8 – Welds with packings 39
Figure 9 – Notation for angles and tees 42
Figure 10 – Distribution of torsional warping stresses 44
Figure 11 – Longitudinal stresses due to distortional warping 46
Figure 12 – System of diagonal forces 48
© BSI2013
© The British Standards Institution • ii
2010 •
2012
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
Figure 13 – Transverse distortional moments 50

Figure 14 – Geometric notation for diaphragms 52
Figure 15a – Openings in stiffened diaphragms – twin bearings 55

Figure 15b – Openings in stiffened diaphragms – single central bearing
and positioning of bearings 55
Figure 16 – Coefficient Kc for plate panels under direct
compression 60
Figure 17 – Reference point and notation for unstiffened
diaphragms 61
Figure 18 – Load effects and notation for stiffened diaphragms 67
Figure 19 – Parameters for the design of stiffeners 72
Figure 20 – Stresses on panels 80
Figure 21a – Buckling coefficients K1, K2, Kq and Kb 81
Figure 21b – Values of Kq 82
Figure 21c – Values of Kb 83
List of tables
Table 1 – Diaphragm stiffness, S 49
Consulting,
Licensed Copy: Ms
Summary of pages
This document comprises a front cover, an inside front cover,
pages i to iv, pages 1 to 86, an inside back cover and a back cover.
ii
ii •• ©
© BSI
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British Standards Institution 2013
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
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PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
1 Scope
This Published Document contains non contradictory complementary

information and additional guidance for use in the UK with
BS EN 1993-2, BS EN 1993-1-5, BS EN 1993-1-7, BS EN 1993-1-8 and
their UK National Annexes in the design of components of steel bridges.
This document only covers bridges which are executed in accordance
with BS EN 1090-2.
The information in this document relates only to static design of steel
bridges covering slenderness parameters, buckling and bending
resistance of diaphragms, bridge restraints and a few other selected
topics. In some circumstances it may also be appropriate to the steel
elements of composite bridges but such use needs to take full account
of BS EN 1994.
This Published Document does not cover the detailing of components
for seismic design or the design of parapets, safety fences and other
ancillary items. It also does not fully cover cable-supported bridges in
respect of strength and stiffness of cables, testing, etc., for which
designers can refer to BS EN 1993-1-11. Guidance on fatigue and brittle

fracture resistance on these can be obtained from PD 6695-1-9 and
BSI
PD 6695-1-10 respectively.
2 Normative references
Copy,
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the

application. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For
undated references, the latest edition of the referenced document

(including any amendments) applies.
BS EN 1090-2, Execution of steel structures and aluminium
structures – Part 2: Technical requirements for steel structures
BS EN 1990, Eurocode – Basis of structural design
BS EN 1993-1-1:2005, Eurocode 3 – Design of steel structures –
13/05/2016,
Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings

Part 1-5: Plated structural elements
BS EN 1993-1-7, Eurocode 3 – Design of steel structures –
Jacqueline Burman,
Part 1-7: Plated structures subject to out of plane loading

Consulting,
Part 1-8: Design of joints

BS EN 1993-2:2006, Eurocode 3 – Design of steel structures –
Part 2: Steel bridges
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3 Terms and definitions

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For the purposes of this Published Document, the terms and definitions
given in BS EN 1990 apply.
© BSI2013
© The British Standards Institution 2012 • 1
2010 • 1
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
4 Global analysis
4.1 General
This Published Document gives guidance to complement the
requirements of BS EN 1993-2 for global analysis with respect to the
modelling of joints and imperfections. Guidance on analysis for fatigue
is given in PD 6695-1-9.
4.2 Joint modelling

Semi-rigid joints should not be used for bridges that are subjected to
cyclic loadings.
4.3 Truss connections

The global load effects for trusses should be calculated in accordance
with elastic theory, based on the assumption that all members are
straight, and, providing joints are not semi-continuous as defined in
BS EN 1993-1-8:2005, Clause 5, that either:

BSI
a) all members are pin jointed and each joint lies at the intersection
of the centroidal axes of the relevant members and all loads,
including the self-weight of members, are applied at the joints; or
Copy,
b) the joints are stiff.

When considering the limit state of serviceability, either method b)

should be used, or method a), modified by the inclusion of flexural
stresses due to axial deformation, self-weight of the members and the

stiffness of joints. If, at a joint, the centroidal axes of the adjacent
members do not meet at a single point, the resulting flexural stresses in
the members should be taken into account.
For members with loads not applied at truss joints, account should be
taken of the following:
13/05/2016,
a) the resulting stresses when a load is applied to a member in the

plane of a truss other than at a joint;
b) torsion and lateral flexure effects when the applied load is not in
the plane of the truss. Where the load is applied to a cross
member, the effect of interaction between the cross member so
Jacqueline Burman,
loaded and the truss and adjacent cross members should be taken
into account.
Consulting,
The stiffnesses in BS EN 1993-2:2006, Table D.3, make no allowance

for joint flexibility in semi-continuous joints in U-frame construction. In
such cases, the flexibility of the joints should be included in the
calculation of the stiffness C in accordance with BS EN 1993-1-8.
Licensed Copy: Ms
Supplementary guidance on the assessment of fatigue of bridges has

been given in PD 6695-1-9.
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2
2 •• ©
© BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
4.4 Main beam splices and bracing member

connections
Slip of bolts need not be considered at main beam splices in global

analysis, but slip at connections of bracing systems should be
considered in the design unless all connections are Category C, in
accordance with BS EN 1993-1-8.
4.5 Imperfections
Imperfections in common planarity of bearings should be allowed for in
the analysis of torsional moments and reactions for torsionally stiff
superstructures, and should be compatible with tolerances, which the
designer should specify, and the construction method and sequence
used.
Where restraint forces are to be transmitted to end supports by a
combination of plan bracing and discrete torsional bracing, the plan
bracing system should also be designed to resist the forces FEd in
accordance with BS EN 1993-2:2006, 6.3.4.2(5) from each torsional

restraint within a length equal to the half wavelength of buckling.
BSI
5 Non-dimensional slenderness for

beam segments between effective
Copy,
lateral restraints
5.1 General
BS EN 1993-1-1 requires that a reduction factor (χLT) be applied to the
moment resistance of the cross-section to give the lateral torsional
buckling moment resistance (Mb,Rd). χLT is determined from a factor
(ΦLT) and the non-dimensional slenderness factor ( λ LT ). The
expression given for λ LT is:
13/05/2016,
Wy fy
λ LT = ;
Mcr
where:
Wy fy is the moment resistance for the section;
Jacqueline Burman,
Mcr is the elastic critical moment for lateral torsional buckling used as
Consulting,
the basis for the methods given in design codes for determining the
slenderness of a section;
This section presents a method for determining λ LT without explicit
determination of Mcr for segments of beams that are of uniform section
between effective lateral restraints. The method takes account of
Licensed Copy: Ms
section geometry and bending moment distribution.

Licensed copy:Hyder
The method is appropriate only to steel beams that are unrestrained

over the length of the segment; i.e. where there is no connection to a
deck or other lateral restraint, either continuous or discrete, at any level
in the cross-section over the length of the segment.
© BSI2013
2010 • 3
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008
Slenderness
5.2 5.2 Slenderness
Slenderness
5.2 5.2 Slenderness
For straight
For straight
segments
segments
of beams
of beams
with effective
with effective
laterallateral
restraints
restraints
to the to the
Licensed Copy: Ms Jacqueline Burman, British Standards Institution, 21/02/2012 11:40, Uncontrolled Copy, (c) The British Standards Institution 2012
Slenderness
5.2 5.2 Slenderness
compression
compression
flangeflange
at bothatends
both of
ends
the of
segment,
the segment,
the value
the of λ of λ
value For straight
For straight
segments segments
of beams
beams
of beams
beams
with effective
with effective
lateral
segments segments
of of , other , other
than thanlateral
those restraints
with arestraints
those with toa the
closed toLT
closed the LT
2012
2012
 
For required
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compression
straight
For required
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or by
EN
at aof
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1993-2:2006,
beams
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of
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λ LT
theeffective
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λ LT
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required
required
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theby
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atEN
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bothatends
both
compression 6.3.2.2
of
flangeends
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at boththe be
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value
ends
the the
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value
segment,
the LTof theλ LT the
Institution
Institution
1 1 λz λz
required
value of λby
required
valueLTof= λby
BS EN
LT BS
required =UVD
1993-2:2006,
EN
required
by BSUVD β wBS
1993-2:2006,
by
EN β w ;1993-2:2006,
;1993-2:2006,
6.3.2.2
EN 6.3.2.2
may 6.3.2.2
be
maytaken
bemay
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as: be
6.3.2.2 as:
maytaken
be taken
as: as:
Institution
Institution
1 1 λCz1 λCz1λ1 λ1
λ LT = λ LT =UVD UVD βw ; βw ;
1
C1 =UVD
λ LT = λ LT C1λUVD
1 z λz
where:where:β w 1; β w ;
1
Standards
Standards
C1 C1λ1 λ1
where:where:
Standards
Standards
C1 is aCparameter
1 is a parameter
dependent
dependent
on theon shape
the shape
of the of
bending
the bendingmoment moment
where:
C where:
is aC diagram,
parameter diagram,
such
is a parameter that
such
dependent the
that
onvalue
dependent the
theon of
value for
of
M shape
shape
the of Mthe
the offor
segment
the
bending
the segment
withmoment
bending
moment the
withactual
the actual
1 1 cr cr
diagram, bending
C1 is adiagram,
such
Cparameter
1 is
bending
moment
that
such
a parameterthe moment
that
dependentdiagram
value
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of
value
dependent M theisof
cr equal
for
on M isfor
the
shape
the
cr to
equal
Cthe
segment
shape
of to
1 timesCthe
segment
of that
times
with
bending
1 for
the that
with
bending the for
actual
moment thesame
momentthe segment
same segmen
actual
British
British
bending
diagram, with
suchawith
bending
moment
diagram, uniform
that
suchathe
moment uniform
diagrambending
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that
value
the bending
is equal
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is to
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cr CM
for
of 1moment
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for its
that length.
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with full
for
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the length.
the
with Values
segment
same
actual Values
of 1/ of
segment
the actual C1 1/ C1
British
British
with awith
bending are
bendingagiven
uniform
moment are
uniformgiven
in Figure
bending
moment
diagram in isFigure
bending
moment
diagram1. Rigorous
moment
equal 1.
isalong
to
equalRigorous
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C1along
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to
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C1 its may
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are given
are
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in
uniform
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aD in
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1.
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1.
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moment
to allow toalong
allow analysis
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along
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full length.
destabilizing
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Values to obtain
effectValues
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of 1/
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1 of
the C
of C
1 1/ ;
1 C
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are given
are
D is a D given
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parameterFigure
loading. inDFigure
is a parameter 1. Rigorous
to=allow
loading. 1,2
D 1. Rigorous
=allow
toif the
1,2the
for analysis
load
iffor
the analysis
isload may
applied
destabilizing
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is applied
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destabilizing used be
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ofthe
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to
flange
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of obtain
C
flange
applied
theand1 ; C
both ;
andthe
applied 1 both the
(c) (c)
(c) (c)
loading.
D flange
parameter
is flange
and
D a=parameter
D is a loading. 1,2
D the
=tothe
if 1,2and
ifload
load
allow the
tothe isare
allow
for load
load free
isare
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thefor tofree
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applied toto
the
destabilizing
the move
laterally.
topthe laterally.
flange
destabilizing top
effect Otherwise
offlange
and
effect Otherwise
both
the of and D
thethe
applied = 1,0;
both D = 1,0;
the
applied
Copy,
Copy,
flange flange
loading.and = a1,2
the
loading.
D is andD = athe
load
the
if are
1,2load free
load
if theare to free
isload move
appliedto move
laterally.
is applied
tothe laterally.
theon
to Otherwise
topthe Otherwise
flange
top D
flange
and = 1,0;
both
andD =
the1,0;
both the
BSI Copy,
Copy,
U Uparameter
is parameter
dependent dependent
on section
the section
geometry.
geometry.
Conservatively,
Conservatively,
flange flange
U is a Uand
U the
and
is amay
parameter load
Ube the
may
parameter are
load
taken free
are
bedependent
dependent taken
as 1,0to free
onas move
or,
the to
1,0 move
for
on laterally.
or, laterally.
doubly
section
the for Otherwise
doubly
symmetric
section
geometry. symmetric
geometry. =
Otherwise
D 1,0;
D = 1,0;
hotConservatively,
rolled
hot rolled
Conservatively, sections,
sections,
©Uncontrolled
Uncontrolled
U may
is a U U
bemaya= parameter
parameter0,9;
is taken
be =dependent
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or,1,0
foron
or,
doubly
dependent foron
the doubly
symmetric
section symmetric
the section hot
geometry.rolled
hot rolled
geometry. sections,
sections,
Conservatively,
Conservatively,
Uncontrolled
Uncontrolled
U= 0,9;
U
may be V=
may0,9;
taken
is abe
V taken
asa1,0
parameter
is as
or,related
1,0
foror,
parameter doubly
for
relateddoubly
to thesymmetric
to thesymmetric
slendernesshotand
rolled
hot
slenderness rolled
sections,
section
and sections,
section
geometry,
geometry,
given give
U = 0,9;
U =
by:
V is 0,9;
V is a parameter by:relatedrelated
a parameter to the to
slenderness
the slenderness
and section
and section
geometry,
geometry,
given given
by: by:
V is a parameter
V is a parameter relatedrelated to the to slenderness
the slenderness and section
and section
geometry,
geometry,given given
11:40,
11:40,
−0,5 −0,5
⎡
{
⎡
{ } }
22 0,5 2 0,5⎤ ⎤
Copy,
by: by:V = ⎢ V 4 =(1⎢a −4 )(1 +aa

−0,05 ) +λaF0,05
2
+ ψλaF +−0,5 ψ+aψ −a0,5 +ψ a ⎥in which:in which:
11:40,
11:40,
⎤ ⎥⎦
V=⎢ V
⎡
4 =(1⎢a{ ⎡ ⎣
−4 )(1 {
+aa ⎣ ) +λa20,05
−0,05 F + ψ }
λ + }
22 0,5 2 0,5⎤
ψ +
aF 0,5 a 0,5 ψ a⎥ − + ψ
0,5 in
a⎥ − which:
0,5
⎦
in which:
{ { } }
21/02/2012
21/02/2012
⎡
⎣ ⎡
⎣ ⎤
⎦ ⎤
⎦
V=⎢ V 4a= ψ(1a⎢= −4a
–a ψ)(+
2a +a−a=
1 12a
−0,05
0,
a ) +λ−aF0,05
when 2
1+ when22
λaF<+IIψ
Iψz,c 2
ψ< aI⎥z,tψ
+aand
z,t
z,c aψ=
+ and ⎥ψwhich:
0,8
ain = in
a (2a0,8− (2a − 1) when
1) when
which: Iz,c W Iz,t
z,c; W Iz,t;
21/02/2012
21/02/2012
⎣ ⎣ ⎦ ⎦
Uncontrolled
ψ a = 2aψ a−=12a − 1 when

when I < IIz,tz,cand < Iz,tψand
a = 0,8ψ a (2a= 0,8− (2a − 1) when
1) when Iz,c W Iz,tz,c; W Iz,t;
L tf z,c L tf
ψ a = 2aψ aλ −=F12a=whenλ
−×F1=when ; ×
Iz,c < IIz,tz,c
; and< Iz,tψand
a = ψ
0,8 a =
(2a −
0,8 (2a
1) −
when1) when
I z,c W I z,c; W Iz,t;
z,t
L t L i t hi h
λ F = λ ×F =f ; ×z f ; z
Institution,
Institution,
L t L thf
λ F = izλ ×Fh=hfisi;z the
×h is depth
; the depth of the of cross-section;
the cross-section;
Institution,
Institution,
iz h iz h
h is theh isdepth
the
L is the depth
of
L is the of
distancecross-section;
the
the distance cross-section;
between between
pointspoints of restraint
of restraint
to the to compression
the compression flangeflang
h is the
L is theh
L isis
depth
the
(the
distance depth
thelengthof
(the the
distance of
cross-section;
length
of the
between the ofcross-section;
segment);
between the points
points segment);
of restraint
of restraint
to the to compression
the compression flangeflange
Standards
Standards
(the length
L is the(the
L is length
tf isof
distance
the tthe
the of
segment);
distance the
between segment);
between
points points
ofthe
restraint
ofthe
restraint
to the to
compression
theIofcompression
I orflangeflange
f is
mean
the mean
thickness
thickness
of of
two flanges
two flanges
of an oranchannel channel
section,
section,
or o
13/05/2016,
Standards
Standards
(the length
t is the(the
the
t is
mean length
of the
themean
mean of
segment);
the mean
thickness the segment);
thickness
thickness
thickness
of ofof
the the
twotheof
table
the of
flanges
two table
a tee,
anofIof
flanges
of aortee,
anlegI or
of channel
channel leg
ansection,
angle
of ansection,
angle
section;
or section;
or
f f
tthe
f is mean
tthe
the f is
meanmean
thickness
the
Iz,c thickness
, Iz,tmean
thickness
are
Iz,c ofare
, Iz,t
the the of
thicknesstable
ofthe the
the
second of
twoof
table
the
second a two
tee,
of of
flanges
moments aorof
tee,
leg
flanges
moments or
of
anof
area Iof
ofleg
oran
an
area angle
of an
channel
the Iof
or angle
section;
channelsection;
section,
compression
the section,
or tension
compression
and or tensio
and
British
British
the mean
the
I , I I are mean
thickness
flanges,
, I theare thickness
flanges, of the of
respectively,
second table
the of
table
respectively,
the second
moments about
moments a tee,
of
about
their
of area aortee,
Z–Zleg
their
ofofarea
the or
of
axis;
of Z–Zleg
an angle
of an angle
section;
section;
axis; and tension
compression
the compression and tension
z,c z,t z,c z,t
British
British
Iflanges, flanges,
z,c, Iz,tI are
z,crespectively,
, Iz,t
theare respectively,
second about
the second
moments about
theirofZ–Z
their
moments areaaxis;
ofZ–Z
ofareaaxis;
the of
compression
the compression
and tension
and tension
I z,c I z,c
Burman,
Burman,
flanges, a
flanges, = a
respectively, =
respectively, ; about
about ; Z–Z
their theiraxis;
Z–Z axis;
I z,c I Iz,cz,c + I z,cI z,t + I z,t
Burman,
Burman,
a= a= ; ;
Consulting,
I + I +
a = I z,c a = I z,c I z,t ; I z,t ;
z,c z,c
I z,c λ+ I=z,c L + I z,t
I z,t L
λ, in = which:
, in which:
Jacqueline
Jacqueline
L z L iz z iz
λ z = λ,z in = which:, in which:
Jacqueline
Jacqueline
L iLz
λ z = izλ,z iin = iswhich:
, iin is
the which:
radius
the radius
of gyration
of gyration
of the ofgross
the gross
cross-section
cross-section
of the of
beam
the beam
about abou
iz z iz z
iz is theiz isthethe
radius Z–Zthe
ofaxis;
radius Z–Zofaxis;
gyration gyration
of the of
gross
the gross
cross-section
cross-section
of the of
beam
the beam
about about
MsMs
MsMs
the
iz isZ–Z
thethe
iz isaxis;
Z–Z
the axis;
radius radius
of gyration
W of gyration
W of the of
gross
the gross
cross-section
cross-section
of the of
beam
the beam
about about
y y
copy:Hyder
Copy:
Copy:
the Z–Z β wZ–Z

theaxis; βw = ;
= axis; ;
Wy WW y Wpl,y
Copy:
Copy:
β w = βW = ; W pl,y ;
Wwpl,y y W y
β w = β w = ; pl,y ;
Licensed
Licensed
Wpl,y Wpl,y
LicensedLicensed
Licensed
4 • 4© BSI• 20© 10
BSI 2010
4 • 4
© BSI
•
4 • 4 © The20
©
• © 10
BSI 20
British 10
Standards
The British Institution
Standards 2013
Institution
2012 2012
4 • 4© BSI• 20
© 10
BSI 2010
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
Wy is the modulus used to calculate Mb,Rd: PD 6695-2:2008

for Class 1 and 2 sections Wy = Wpl,y;
2012 2012
Wy isfor
the modulus
Class used to
3 sections Wycalculate
= Wel,y; M
PD :
6695-2:2008
b,Rd
Institution
for Class 1
4 and 2 sections
sections Wy = W y =; Wpl,y;
Weff,y
for Class 3 sections Wy = Wel,y; 5.2 Slenderness
E
λ1 = π , in which fy is the yield strength appropriate to the thickness
Institution
For straight segm
fy
for Class 4 sections Wy = Weff,y; compression flan
British Standards
of the steel. required by BS E

E
1 λ
NOTEfy For beams with a closed cross-section or a solid rectangular section, λ LT = UVD
(c) TheStandards
C λ
5.3 of
canthe steel. restraints
be determined
Effective using the generalized method given in 5.1.  1
where:
A discrete lateral restraint, or a plan bracing system, may be taken Cas 1 is a paramete
5.3 Effective
fully restraints
effective provided that it has a stiffness such that δR < L3/(40 EIdiagram,
z,c) such th
The British
where L and Iz,c are as defined in 5.2 and δR is the displacement of bending the moment
A discretedue
restraint lateral restraint,
to a unit or a plan
force acting bracing
laterally system,
to the beam.may be taken
Where as a uniform b
with
restraint
fully effective provided that it has a stiffness such that δ < L3/(40 EIare )given in Figu
Copy,
is provided by a plan bracing system between two beams, two unit z,c
R
where should
forces L and Ibe
z,c are as defined
applied, one toineach and δRinissuch
5.2beam, the displacement ofgive
directions as to
Dtheis a parameter
Copy, (c)
restraint due to a unit force acting laterally to the beam. Where loading. D = 1,2
restraint
the greatest value of δR. Where a plan bracing system restrains several flange and the lo
is provided
positions by aaplan
along beam,bracing system between
the displacement shouldtwobebeams, two unit
determined relative
U is a parameter
forces should berestraint
applied,positions.
one to each beam, in such directions as to give
BSI
to the adjacent U may be taken a

Uncontrolled
the greatest value of δR. Where a plan bracing system restrains several U = 0,9;
positions along a beam, the displacement should be determined relative
V is a parameter
to the adjacent restraint positions.
Copy,
by:
V
= {
⎡
⎢ 4a (1 − a ) +
21/02/2012
11:40,
⎣
Uncontrolled
ψa = 2a − 1 when
21/02/2012
L tf
λF = × ;
iz h
Institution,
h is the depth of
L is the distance
Institution,
(the length of the

British Standards
tf is the mean thic

13/05/2016,
the mean thickne

Iz,c, Iz,t are the se
Standards
flanges, respectiv
I z,c
a= ;
I z,c + I z,t
Burman,Burman,
British
L
λz = , in which
Consulting,
iz
iz is the radius of
Jacqueline
the Z–Z axis;

Wy
βw = ;
Jacqueline
Wpl,y
Ms
copy:Hyder
Copy:
Copy: Ms
Licensed
4 • © BSI 2010
Licensed
Licensed
© BSI2013
2010 • 5
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
Figure 1 Slenderness factor for variation in bending moment

1,00 1,00 MA
+1,0
MM
-
0,95 0,95 +0,5
MA -0,25 0
MM +1,0 -0,5
0,90
0,90 -0
,6
+0,5
-50
0 0,85
0,85 -0,25
-0
-
-5
-0,5
,7
0,80
0,80
-50
-5
-0
-1,25
-0,9
,6
-0,8
1 1 0,75
-2,0
0,75
C1 C1
-2.0
-1,0
0,70
-1,5
-2,0
-1,5
-0,8
-0,7
0,70
BSI
0,65
-0,9
-1,0
-1,5
0,65
-5
0,60
5
Copy,
-1,2
-1,25
-1,5
25
-2,0
-1,
-5
0,60
0,55
,9
-0
0
-1,
0,55 0,50
,0
,8
-1 9
-0
,
-0
0,50 0,45
-1,0 -0,5 0 +0,5 +1,0 -1,0 -0,5 0 +0,5 +1,0
MB MB
MA MA
13/05/2016,
a) Applied loading substantially concentrated within the b) Applied loading other than for a).
middle fifth of the half wavelength of buckling.
NOTE 1 The procedure for using Figure 1 is as follows:
a) all hogging moments should be considered positive;
b) the ends A and B should be chosen such that MA W MB regardless of sign;
Jacqueline Burman,
c) MM is the mid-span moment on a simply supported span equal to the half wavelength of buckling.
Consulting,
NOTE 2 Examples of the use of Figure 1 are as follows:

Licensed Copy: Ms
Licensed copy:Hyder
6
6 •• ©
© BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008
Figure 1 Slenderness factor for variation in bending moment (continued)
Figure 1 Slenderness factor for variation in bending moment (continued)
2012

2012
Institution
MA MB MB 0
MM = 10 MA
-MM
Institution
MA MB MB MM = 10 MA
-MM
Standards
Standards
Half wavelength Half wavelength

of wavelength
Half buckling of wavelength
Half buckling 
of buckling
Example 1. Use Figure 1a. Example 3. Use Figureof
1abuckling
or b.
British
Example 1. Use Figure 1a. Example 3. Use Figure 1a or b.

British
Span
(c) The
10
Span
(c) The
MM MA MB
10 -MM
MA
Copy,
MB MM MB -MM
BSI Copy,
MB -MA
©Uncontrolled
-MA Half wavelength

Uncontrolled
of wavelength
Half buckling
Half wavelength
of wavelength
buckling of buckling
Half
of buckling
Example 2. Use Figure 1a. Example 4. Use Figure 1b.
11:40,
Copy,
Example 2. Use Figure 1a. Example 4. Use Figure 1b.

11:40,
21/02/2012

21/02/2012
Uncontrolled
6 Non-dimensional slendernessre-
beams without intermediate for
beams
straintswithout
betweenintermediate re-
support positions
Institution,
straints between support positions

Institution,
6.1 General
6.1 General
Standards
The method outlinedPD 6695-2:2008

in 6.2 takes account of section geometry and
13/05/2016,
Standards
bending moment
The method distribution
outlined and of
in 6.2 takes torsional
account flexibility
of section at the supports.
geometry and
In bridges,
bending unrestrained
moment beams
distribution andare
ofusually found
torsional duringatthe
flexibility theconstruc-
supports.
tion stage, before
In bridges, the deck
unrestrained of theare
beams bridge hasfound
usually been fixed
duringorthe
cast.
construc-
British
tion stage, before the deck of the bridge has been fixed or cast.
British
6.2 Slenderness
Burman,
6.2 Slenderness
For aa straight
For For abeam
straight uniform
uniform straight
beam  ,uniform
with other beam
than
effective withand
those
lateral effective
with a closed
torsion-
Burman,
Consulting,
lateral and torsional

cross-section
al-restraints atorboth restraints
a solid
ends of theatspan,
rectangularboth ends
section,
the of the
value
 λ LTspan,
with
of the by
effective
required lateral
value of λz
andEN
BS torsional restraints
1993-2:2006, at both
6.3.2.2 mayends
beof the span,
taken as: λthe value of =λ
LT required by LT
βw
Jacqueline
required by BS EN 1993-2:2006, 6.3.2.2 may be taken as: λ1

BS EN 1993-2:2006, 6.3.2.2 may be taken as:
Jacqueline
1 λ
λ LT = UVD z β w ;
1
C1 λ
λ LT = UVD 1z β w ;
where: C1 λ1
Ms Ms
copy:Hyder
where:
Copy:
C1 , D, U, V, h, t are as defined in 5.2. However in the derivation of V,

f
λ
Copy:
C1F, should
D, U, V,beh,defined
tf are asasdefined
follows:in 5.2. However in the derivation of V,
Licensed
λ F should be defined as follows:

kL t f
λF= ;
LicensedLicensed
×
kL
i z thf
λF= × ;
iz h
© BSI2012
2010 • 7
© BSI 2010 • 7
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008 where:
L is the span of the beam;
2012 2012
where:
tf, h, iz is as defined in 5.2;
Institution

λz = kL , in which:
tf, h, iizz is as defined in 5.2;
Institution
k is an effective length parameter, given by 6.3;

λz = kL , in which:
British Standards
izW
y
βw = ;
k is an
Weffective length parameter, given by 6.3;
TheStandards
pl,y
Wy modulus used to calculate Mb,Rd:
W is the
βwy= ;
Wpl,y
for Class 1 and 2 sections W = W ; y pl,y
PD 6695-2:2008
British
Wy isfor
the modulus
Class used to
3 sections Wycalculate
= Wel,y; Mb,Rd:
The (c)
for Class 1
4 and 2 sections
sections Wy = W y =; Wpl,y;
Weff,y
5.2 Slenderness
Copy,
for Class
E 3 sections Wy = Wel,y;
λ1 = π , in which fy is the yield strength appropriate to the thickness For straight segment
Copy, (c)
fy
for Class 4 sections Wy = Weff,y; compression flange a
of the steel. required by BS EN 1

E
λ1 = π , in which fy is the yield strength appropriate to the thickness 1
BSI
λ
NOTEfy For beams with a closed cross-section or a solid rectangular section, λ LT = UVD z β
Uncontrolled
can be determined using the generalized method given in 5.1. C 1 λ1

of the steel.
6.3 Effective length parameter where:
Copy,
C1 is a parameter de
6.3.1
6.3
With a halflength
Effective wavelength over the span
parameter diagram, such that th
21/02/2012
bending moment diag

11:40,
The value of the effective length parameter k is the product of two with a uniform bendi
6.3.1 With a half wavelength over the span
parameters:
Uncontrolled
are given in Figure 1

21/02/2012
k = kvalue
The fke; of the effective length parameter k is the product of two
D is a parameter to a
loading. D = 1,2 if th
parameters:
Institution,
where: flange and the load a

kf =iskafkparameter
e; that allows for the in-plane restraint of the U is a parameter dep
U may be taken as 1
compression flange at the supports; and
Institution,
where: U = 0,9;
British Standards
k is aa parameter
kef is parameter that
that allows
allows for
for the
thetorsional flexibilityofofthe
in-plane restraint the restraints
V is a parameter rela
13/05/2016,
at the supports.
compression flange at the supports; and by:
The parameter k may conservatively be taken as 1,0 or a more accurate = ⎢{4a (1 − a ) + 0,0
⎡
Standards
k e is a parameterf that allows for the torsional flexibility of the restraints

V
value, allowing for the degree of restraint in plan, may be obtained from ⎣
at the supports.
Figure 2. ψ a 2a − 1 when Iz,c
=
The parameter kf may conservatively be taken as 1,0 or a more accurate
L t
Burman,Burman,
value, allowing for the degree of restraint in plan, may be obtained from λF = × f ;
British
iz h
Figure 2.
Consulting,
h is the depth of the

L is the distance betw
Jacqueline
(the length of the seg

tf is the mean thickne
Jacqueline
the mean thickness o

Iz,c, Iz,t are the second
Ms
flanges, respectively
copy:Hyder
Copy:
I z,c
a= ;
Copy: Ms
I z,c + I z,t
Licensed
L
λz = , in which:
iz
Licensed
iz is the radius of gyr

Licensed
the Z–Z axis;

Wy
βw = ;
Wpl,y
8
8 •• ©
© BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
Figure 2 Effective length parameter kf – effect of rotational end restraint

0,9
0,8
kf 0,7
0,6
0,5
ts of beams with effective lateral restraints to the 0,4

at both ends of the segment, the value of λ LT 0 5 10 15 20 25
1993-2:2006, 6.3.2.2 may be taken as: k0 L

BSI
EIZ,C
βw ;
where:
ko is the smaller value, at either end, of the rotational stiffness to lateral bending
Copy,
ependent on the shape of the bending moment of the compression flange, due to transverse beams or bracing systems;
he value of Mcr for the segment with the actual
gram is equal to C1 times that for the same segment

ing moment along its full length. Values of 1/ C1 Iz,c is as defined in 6.3.2.
1. Rigorous analysis may be used to obtain C1;

allow for the destabilizing effect of the applied
he load is applied to the top flange and both the The parameter ke is given by:
are free to move laterally. Otherwise D = 1,0;
pendent on the section geometry. Conservatively, 1
ke = ;
1,0 or, for doubly symmetric hot rolled sections, 60Etfmax β δ t Rv
1− 3
⎛ L⎞
ated to the slenderness and section geometry, given W⎜ ⎟ V4
13/05/2016,
⎝ iz ⎠
−0,5
where:
}
0,5 ⎤
05λF2 + ψ a2 +ψ a ⎥ in which:
⎦
tfmax is the maximum thickness of the compression flange in the span;
c < Iz,t and ψa = 0,8 (2a − 1) when Iz,c W Iz,t;
δt is the larger relative lateral deflection at a support, at either end of the
Jacqueline Burman,
span under consideration, of the centroid of one flange of the beam with
respect to the centroid of the other flange which would occur when
Consulting,
cross-section; equal and opposite unit forces act laterally on the torsional restraint at
ween points of restraint to the compression flange a support only at the same levels as shown in Figure 6. Where the end
gment); restraint to two or more beams is provided by a common lateral member
ess of the two flanges of an I or channel section, or interconnecting their ends, the value of δt should be calculated for equal
of the table of a tee, or leg of an angle section;
and opposite unit forces applied at the end of each beam applied in
d moments of area of the compression and tension directions to produce the greatest value of δt at the end of any of the
Licensed Copy: Ms
y, about their Z–Z axis;

beams;
Licensed copy:Hyder
β is 1,0 for a simply supported beam, or for an internal support to a

continuous beam without restraint in plan to the compression flange at
the support; or 2,0 for an internal support to a continuous beam with
restraint in plan at that support;
ration of the gross cross-section of the beam about W is the total vertical load on the span;
Rv is the vertical reaction at the support under consideration;
© BSI2013
2010 • 9
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
V is the value of V calculated in accordance with 6.2, which may be

derived using k = 1,0 in calculating λF;
iz is as defined in 5.2.
NOTE 1 ke should be taken as the greater of the values obtained for either
support.
NOTE 2 The restraint should be such that the denominator has a positive
sign.
6.3.2 With a half wavelength over two spans

Where spans are continuous and the flexibility of the torsional restraints
at the supports is relatively high, a greater effective length and a lower
overall slenderness may occur when the mode of buckling is such that
the half wavelength extends over two spans. For buckling in this mode,
the effective length kL to be used in the calculation of λF in 6.2 is given
by:
1
kL = kf ΣL ;
( ΣL )3
1+ 2
⎛ δe⎞
π 4 EIz,c ⎜ δ i + ⎟
BSI
⎝ 2 ⎠
where:
kf is as defined in 6.3.1;
Copy,
ΣL is the sum of the two adjacent spans;

Iz,c is the second moment of area of the compression flange about its
centroidal axis parallel to the web of the beam at the point of maximum
bending moment;
δi is the value of δt (as defined in 6.3.1) for middle support;
δe is the average value of δt (as defined in 6.3.1) for the supports at the
opposite ends of the adjacent spans.
NOTE When this mode is being considered, the value of the parameter C1
in 6.2 should be taken as 1,0, irrespective of the shape of the bending
13/05/2016,
moment diagram.

cantilever beams without
Jacqueline Burman,
intermediate lateral restraints

Consulting,
7.1 General
The method takes account of section geometry and restraint conditions
at the support and at the cantilever tip. Unrestrained cantilever beams
Licensed Copy: Ms
may occur during construction, before the deck is fixed or cast, but may
Licensed copy:Hyder
also occur as a permanent detail, supporting other structural elements

of the bridge. The tip of the cantilever may or may not be restrained
laterally, in either case.
10 • ©
10 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
5.2 Slenderne
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008
For straight se
compression f
7.2 Slenderness PD 6695-2:2008
required by BS
7.2 Slenderness
For straight segments of cantilever beams, the λ
other thanLTthose with by
value of required a
2012
1
BSclosed
For EN 19932:2006,
cross-section
straight segmentsor 6.3.2.2,
solidmay
ofa cantilever be takensection,
rectangular
beams, as: value
the  ofthe
λ LTvalue of λ LT
required by = C UV
2012 2012
7.2 Slenderness
required by BS EN 1993-2:2006,
6.3.2.2, may6.3.2.2, mayas:be taken as:
1
Institution
BS EN 1993-2:2006,
λz be taken
λ LT straight
= UV segments βw ; where:
Institution
For λ1z of cantilever beams, the value of λ LT required by

BSλ LTEN = UV 1993-2:2006,β w ; 6.3.2.2, may be taken as: C1 is a parame
where: λ1
Institution
Standards
λz diagram, such
U,where:
λ LTV =isUV as defined β w ;in 5.2; bending mome
Standards
λ1
U, V is as with a uniform
I z,cdefined in 5.2;
where:
a= ; are given in Fi
Standards
I z,c I+
British
z,c I z,t
U,a =V is as defined ; in 5.2; D is a paramet
+
British
I z,c t I z,t
kc L f loading. D = 1
λF = × ;
I z,c
(c) The
a = ki zL th ; flange and the

c +
λ F = I z,c × If z,t;
(c)British
The
h is thei z depth h of the cross-section; U is a paramet

Copy,
kc L t f U may be take
λ
h Fis=the depth × ; of the cross-section;
(c) The
L length of the cantilever; U = 0,9;

iz h
Copy, Copy,
tLf is the mean thickness

is the length of the cantilever; of the two flanges of an I or channel section, or
©Uncontrolled
the
h is mean
the depth thickness
of theof the table of a tee or leg of an angle section; V is a paramet
cross-section;
tf is the mean thickness of the two flanges of an I or channel section, by:or
Uncontrolled
BSI
Lz,cis, mean
Ithe z,t islength
Ithe as defined
thicknessof theofincantilever;
5.2;table of a tee or leg of an angle section;
the
Itfz,cis, Ithe mean thickness of the two flanges of an I or channel section,V or
⎡
= ⎢ 4 (1 a − {
Uncontrolled
is as defined in 5.2;
λthe z =mean
z,t
kc L thickness of the table of a tee or leg of an angle section;
, in which:
⎣
11:40,
Copy,
kiczL ψ a = 2a − 1 wh
Iλz,c
z ,=Iz,t is ,as indefined
which: in 5.2;
11:40,11:40,
i
kc is an effective length parameter (see 7.3);
z
21/02/2012
L t
λcz is
= an
kc L
, in which: λF = × f ;
k Weffective length parameter (see 7.3); i h
21/02/2012
Uncontrolled
y z
β w = iz ;
W Wpl,y
y h is the depth
kβcwis= an effective ; length parameter (see 7.3);
21/02/2012
Wpl,y
Wy is the modulus used to calculate Mb,Rd: L is the distan
Institution,
Wy
β =
Wwy isfor the ;
modulus1 andused to calculate
Wy = M : (the length of
Institution,
Class
Wpl,y 2 sections pl,y;
Wb,Rd
tf is the mean t
for Class 1 3 and 2 sections
sections Wy = W y =
Wel,y ; Wpl,y;
Wy is the modulus used to calculate M : the mean thick
Institution,
PD 6695-2:2008
Standards
b,Rd
for Class 4 3 sections Wyy = Weff,y el,y;;
13/05/2016,
for Class 1 and 2 sections Wy = Wpl,y; Iz,c, Iz,t are the

Standards
for ClassE 4 sections Wy = Weff,y; flanges, respec

λ 1 = forπ Class , in3which fy isW
sections they =yield
Wel,ystrength
; 5.2 Slenderness
appropriate to the thickness
fEy
Standards
λ = for π Class , in4which fy isWthe=yield strength appropriate to the thickness I z,csegm

British
sections Weff,y ; For straight

n, 21/02/2012 11:40, Uncontrolled Copy, (c) The British Standards Institution 2012
of1 the steel.

fy y =
acompression
I z,c + flan
I z,t
British
of the steel. E required by BS E

Burman,
fy L1 λ
7.3 Effective
NOTE For beams length with aparameter
closed cross-section or a solid rectangular section,λλ LT= = , inUVD
British
whiλ
Burman,
of the steel. z
Consulting,
can be determined using the generalized method given in 5.1. C

iz 1
7.3 Effective
The value of the length
effectiveparameter
length parameter kc is dependent on the where:
Jacqueline
is the radius
welliCzas
Burman,
restraint
The valueconditions of the effectiveat supports
lengthand the tip of
parameter kc the cantileveron
is dependent as the
1 is a paramete
7.3 Effective oflength parameter thenoZ–Z axis;
Ms Jacqueline
the position
restraint conditionsthe load, i.e.
at supportswhether
and on thetension
tip of the flange where there
cantilever as wellisdiagram,
as such th
lateral
theTheposition restraint
value ofof thetheto load or flange
load, i.e.length
effective whetheror any other
on tension
parameter location
kc isflange in the
where on
dependent section
there of
bending
no Wy
theiswith
moment
β = a uniform; b
Jacqueline
the
lateral beam.
restraint The
restraint value
conditions should
to load be obtained
or flangeand
at supports or any from
the other specialist
tip of location literature
in the as
the cantilever or
section text
wellarew
asofgiven
Wpl,y
Ms
in Figu
books.
the beam. position The of value should
the load, i.e. be obtained
whether from specialist
on tension literature
flange where thereoristext
no
copy:Hyder
Ms Copy:
D is a parameter
books.
lateral restraint to load or flange or any other location in the sectionloading. of D = 1,2
Copy:
the beam. The value should be obtained from specialist literature or text and the lo flange
Licensed
books. U is a parameter
Copy:
Licensed
U may be taken a
U = 0,9;
V is a parameter
Licensed
Licensed
4 • © BSI 2010 by:
⎡
V=⎢ 4
⎣
{ (1 a− ) +
© BSI2012
© The British Standards Institution 2013 • ψ 11
2010 • 11
a = 2a − 1 when
© BSI 2010 • 11 L t
λF = × f ;
PD PD
PD PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
6695-2:2008+A1:2012
6695-2:2008
6695-2:2008
PD PD
6695-2:2008
6695-2:2008
8 8Non-dimensional
Non-dimensional slenderness
slenderness
forfor
8 8beams
Non-dimensional
Non-dimensional
beamswith
with slenderness
slenderness
intermediate
intermediate forfor
torsional
torsional
2012
beams
beamswith
with
restraints
restraints intermediate
intermediate
torsional
torsional
2012
restraints
restraints
Institution
Institution
8.1 8.1General
General
8.1 8.1General
General
The The
method
method
takestakes
account
account
of section
of section
geometry
geometryand and
bending
bending
moment
moment
Standards
distribution.
The distribution.
The
method
method PD
Such
takesSuchPD
6695-2:2008
takes 6695-2:2008
torsional
torsional
account
account
ofrestraint
restraint
section
of normally
section normally
geometry only
geometryandonly
occurs
and occurs
bending during
bending during
momentthe the
moment
Standards
construction
construction
distribution. stage,
distribution.
Such stage,
Suchbefore
before
torsional the
torsional deck
the deck
restraintisnormally
fixed
restraintisnormally
fixed
or only
cast,
or only
cast,
when when
occurs beams
occurs beams
during are
theare
during the
restrained
restrained
construction by stage,
constructionpairing
by stage,
pairing
them
before them
together
before
the together
deck
the with
deck
is with
“channel”
fixed
is or“channel”
fixed cast, or
or cast,“triangulated”
or
when “triangulated”
when
beamsbeams
are are
British
bracing
bracing
at intervals
restrained byatpairing
restrained intervals
along
by pairing along
them the
them span.
the
togetherspan.
together
withwith
“channel”
“channel”
or “triangulated”
or “triangulated”
British
bracing
bracing
at intervals
at intervals
alongalong
the span.
the span.
8.2 8.2Slenderness
Slenderness
TheThe
Slenderness
8.2 8.2For Slenderness
straight
For straight
For For uniform
straight uniform
straight beams
uniform beams
, 
uniform other
beams , other
beamsthanthan
those
withwith those
withwith
equally a closed
equally a closed
spacedspaced
torsional
torsional
restrai
restrai
(c) (c)
cross-section
nts cross-section
b-t
nts
For For without
b-t
straight or
without
straight a
uniformor
solid
laterala
uniform solid
rectangular
lateral
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restraints,
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beams the
withwith section,
λ
value
the
equally section,
λ
value
equally of with
required
spaced
 of with
equally
required
spaced by
torsional
 equally
by
torsional spaced
spaced
restraints
restraints
but but
Copy,
LT LT
torsional
BS ENtorsional
BS
without restraints
restraints
1993-2:2006,
EN
without but
1993-2:2006,
lateral
lateral without
but
6.3.2.2,
restraints, without
6.3.2.2,
restraints, lateral
lateral
mayvalue
the value
the may
be restraints,
λbe
of taken restraints,
λrequired
LT taken
of the
as:required =
value
the =
as: by by λ λ LT
value
of of
LT
BSI Copy,
LT
required
BS required
EN
BS by1993-2:2006,
BS
byEN
1993-2:2006,
EN BS 1993-2:2006,
EN6.3.2.2,
1993-2:2006,
may6.3.2.2,
6.3.2.2, be 6.3.2.2,
may be may
taken as:may
taken beas:
taken
be taken
as: as:
©Uncontrolled
1 1 λz λz
PP λ LT λ=LT = UVDUVD β w ;βQ ; Q
Uncontrolled
w
1 1 λ1z λ
PP λ LT λ=LT C=1 UVD
C1 UVD β1zw ;βQw ;Q
C C λ λ
where:where: 1 1 1 1
where:
C where:
isC asispreviously
as previously
defined
defined
in 5.2
in except
5.2 exceptthat that
it relates
it relates
to the
to half
the half
11:40,
1 1
Copy,
wavelength
C1 iswavelength
Cas as of buckling;
of buckling;
1 ispreviously
previously
defined
defined
in 5.2
in except
5.2 except
that that
it relates
it relates
to the
to half
the half
11:40,
wavelength
NOTE wavelength
NOTE of buckling;
of buckling;
Conservatively,
Conservatively,
C mayC may
be taken
be taken
as 1,0.
as 1,0.
21/02/2012
1 1
NOTE
P NOTE
U,
P VU,Conservatively,
, DVareConservatively,
, D as C1 may
arepreviouslyC1defined
may
bedefined
as previously taken
bein
taken
asin1,0.
5.2; as
5.2;
Q 1,0.
Q
Uncontrolled21/02/2012
P U, PVU, , DVare , D as arepreviously

as previously
defined
defined
in 5.2;
in 5.2; Q
Q
I z,c I z,c
a=a= ; ;
I z,c II+
z,c
z,c II+z,c I z,t
z,t
a=a= ; ;
Institution,
I z,c I+z,cI + z,t I z,t

Institution,
Lw Ltwf t f
λ F =λ F = × ;× ;
L Lt t
λ F =λ Fi wz= ×ihwzf ;× hf ;
i z ihz h
Standards
Lw isLwthe is half
the half
wavelength
wavelength
of buckling
of buckling
(see(see
8.3);8.3);
13/05/2016,
Standards
L is
L the
h wis hthe is half
the
wis depth half
wavelength
the depth wavelength
of the of buckling
of buckling
of cross-section; (see
the cross-section; (see
8.3);8.3);
{ { } }
⎡ ⎡ 0,5 0,
is tthe
thf is htheis depth
the mean
depth
of the
of cross-section;
theofcross-section;
f is mean
the thickness
thickness the
of two
the two
flanges
flanges
of anofI anor Ichannel⎢ 4 ⎢(14a
Vor=channel
V =section,(1)a−+or
−section, ) +or
a0,05 λF2 +λψF2a2+ ψ a2 + ψ
a0,05
⎣angle
⎣ section;
British
the
tf is mean
the
tf is mean
thickness
the mean of the
thickness of Table
thickness the Table
theoftwo
of two a of
teea or
flanges tee
ofleg
flanges or
anofof
leg anof
I an
or angle
anchannel
Ichannel
or section;
section,
section,
or or
British
the mean
the mean
thickness
thickness
I , I ,isI asisdefined of
as defined the
of
in 5.2; Table
the
in 5.2; Table
of a of
teea or
teeleg
or of
leg anof angle
an angle
section;
section;
z,c z,t
z,c z,t
Burman,
Iz,c, Iz,t
z,c,isIz,t
asisdefined
as definedin 5.2;in 5.2; L tLf tf
k L k Lw × ;× ;
λ z =λ zt= w t, in
Burman,
which:
, in which: iz ihz h
Consulting,
ktiL w kt iL w
λ z =λ z =z ,zin which: , in which:
iz iz
by 8.5;h is hthe is depth
the depth of theof cross-section;
the cross-sectio
Jacqueline
kt is kant iseffective
an effective lengthlength
parameter,
parameter, given given
by 8.5;
Jacqueline
kt is kant iseffective
an effective lengthlength
parameter,
parameter, given given
by 8.5;by 8.5;L is Lthe is distance
the distance between
between
points
points
of r
Wy Wy
β w =β wW = W; ; (the(thelength length
of the of segment);
the segment);
W yW y
β w =β w =pl,y pl,y ; ; tf is tthe
Wpl,yWpl,y f is mean
the mean thickness
thickness
of the
of two
the tw
fl
MsMs
Wy is Wthe y is modulus
the modulus usedused to calculate
to calculate Mb,Rd M: b,Rd: the mean
the mean thickness
thicknessof the
of table
the table
of a
copy:Hyder
Copy:
Wy is W the
y is modulus
the modulus
1used used
2tosections
calculate
to W
calculate Mb,Rd M;: b,Rd :
for Class
for Class
1 and and
2 sections y = WW y = W pl,y; Iz,c, Iz,t
z,c,are
Iz,t the
are second
the second
moments
momentsof a
pl,y
Copy:
for Class
for Class
for Class
for Class
1 sections
3 and1 sections
3 and
2 sections
2Wsections
=W WW=y W =W
; Wy =; W
pl,y ; pl,y; flanges,
flanges, respectively,
respectively,aboutabout
their
thei
Z–
y y el,y el,y
Licensed
for Class
for Class
3 sections
3 sectionsW
Wyy =WW=
W W = W ; ;
for Class
for Class 4 sections
4 sections y =eff,y; eff,y;
y el,yW el,y
LicensedLicensed
I z,c I z,c
for Class
for Class 4 sections
4 sectionsWy =WW =eff,y
W; eff,y; a=a= ; ;
E E y I z,c I+z,cI z,t
+ I z,t
λ 1 = λπ1 = π , in which , in which
fy is fthe
y is yield
the yield
strengthstrengthappropriate
appropriate
to the to thickness
the thickness
E fEy
λ 1 = λπ1 = fπy , in which
, in which
fy is fthe
y is yield
the yield
strengthstrengthappropriate
appropriate
to L Lthe thickness
the
to thickness
of the fy steel.
of steel.
the fy λ z =λ z =, in which:
, in which:
of theof steel.
the steel. iz iz
12 iz is ithe
z is radius
the radius
of gyration
of gyration
of the
of gro
the
12 12
• ©
12
• • BSI
•
© ©
©2010
The BSI
The2010
British
British
Standards
Standards
Institution
Institution 2013
20122012
12 12• ©• BSI
© 2010
BSI 2010 the Z–Z
the Z–Zaxis;axis;
W W
5.2 Slenderness
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
For straight segm
compression flan
required by BS E
1 λ
PD 6695-2:2008
NOTE For beams with a closed cross-section or a solid rectangular section, λ LT = UVD
can be determined using the generalized method given in 5.1. C1 λ
where:
8.3 Half wavelength of buckling C1 is a paramete
diagram, such th
With the form of restraint described in Clause 8, the mode of buckling
bending moment
is usually with a single half wave over the span. However, in some with a uniform b
are given in Figu
circumstances the particular combination of flexibility of the torsional
restraints and their spacing may mean that a higher mode, with twoDor is a parameter
loading. D = 1,2
more half waves, may have a lower elastic critical moment. The beam flange and the lo
should therefore be verified for at least the first two modes.
U is a parameter
Thus Lw = L, L/2, L/3, depending on the mode, where L is the span Uofmay be taken a
the beam. U = 0,9;
V is a parameter
λ LT by:
8.4 Effective length parameter
= ⎢{4a (1 − a ) +
⎡
V
When a beam without lateral restraints is provided with a central ⎣
torsional restraint or a number of equally spaced torsional restraintsψaof
= 2a − 1 when
the same stiffness in a span, the effective length parameter kt may be
L t
derived from Figure 3 as appropriate, using the restraint parameter: λF = × f ;
i h z
© BSI
4 3
Veq Lw h is the depth of
;
Uncontrolled
EIz,cθ R df2 (1 − a ) L is the distance

(the length of the
21/02/2012 11:40,Copy,
C1 but for beams with multiple restraints, kt should not be less than: tf is the mean thic
the mean thickne
(1,7 − 0,7Veq ) Lr
; Iz,c, Iz,t are the se
Lw flanges, respectiv
Uncontrolled
where: a=
I z,c
;
I z,c + I z,t
df is the vertical distance between the centroid of the compression and
tension flanges respectively at the position of the torsional restraint; L
λ = , in which z
iz
Lw is the half wavelength of buckling (see 8.3);
Standards Institution,
iz is the radius of
θR is the greatest value of the rotation of a restraint about the the Z–Z axis;
longitudinal axis of the beam, due to a torque equal to a unit torque
Burman, British13/05/2016,
Wy
,5 −0,5 multiplied by 1/n, applied to each restraint. When restraint is provided
βw = ;
⎤ Wpl,y
+ψ a ⎥ by uniform diaphragms interconnecting beams, the value of θR should
⎦
be taken as θR1 + θR2 where:
• θR1 is the rotation due to the flexibility of the diaphragm calculated
as the greatest rotation about the longitudinal axis of a beam at a
connection between the diaphragm and the beam under unit
Consulting,
moments in the plane of the diaphragm

4 • © BSImultiplied
2010 by 1/n, applied
on; to each connection, in the same sense on each beam
s of restraint to the compression flange (see Figure 3);
• θR2 is the greatest value of rotation of a beam at the middle of a
Copy: Ms Jacqueline
wo flanges of an I or channel section, or half wavelength of buckling due to the vertical deflections of the
of a tee, or leg of an angle section; beams. A unit torque multiplied by 1/n should be applied to each
Licensedcopy:Hyder
beam at each diaphragm connection, the diaphragms being

of area of the compression and tension
assumed to be rigid for this calculation, in directions of opposite
ir Z–Z axis;
sense in consecutive waves and the same sense on each beam
(see Figure 3);
n is the number of discrete restraints in the half wavelength of buckling
(= 1,0 for a single restraint at the centre of a half wavelength);
Licensed
e gross cross-section of the beam about

2012 • 13
© The British Standards Institution 2013
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
Veq is a parameter that takes account of warping properties of the

section and is calculated as follows:
a) for sections symmetrical about both their major and minor axis,
Veq = V where the value of V is determined in accordance with 8.2;
b) for sections symmetrical about their minor axis only;
0.25
⎡ ⎤
2 aχ
Veq = ⎢⎢ ⎥
2⎥
;
⎢⎣ ( 4 + τχ +ψ i )
χ ⎥
⎦
where:
τ = 4a (1 − a ) +ψ a2 ;
a and ψi are as defined in 5.2;
π2 df2 EIz
χ= ;
GI T L2w
Iz is the second moment of area of the beam about its minor axis;
IT is the St Venant torsional constant.

BSI
When such restraint is provided by diaphragms interconnecting two or

more beams the rotations should be calculated assuming the above
torque to be applied in the same rotational direction by equal and
opposite horizontal forces on the diaphragms. In such cases the
Copy,
restraining torques must be resisted by equal and opposite vertical

forces on the connected beams, equal to the value of the torque divided
by the beam spacing, and account should be taken of the deflections of
the beams due to all the restraining torques, wR being taken as that at
the restraint where there is the greatest total rotation.
Lr is the spacing of the torsional restraints (= L/(1 + n));
Iz,c is the second moment of area of the compression flange about the
z–z axis.
13/05/2016,
NOTE 1 The effective length relationships in Figure 3 do not apply when

considering buckling with a half-wavelength equal to Lr. In such a case, the
slenderness should be determined assuming that there is fully effective
intermediate lateral restraint.
NOTE 2 For beams with a single central restraint, Lw should be taken as
Jacqueline Burman,
equal to L, unless the restraint parameter derived from that value is such
that it is to the right of the diagonal arrow on the appropriate curve for the
Consulting,
value of Veq, in which case either:

a) ktL and Lw should be taken as L/2;
or
b) Lw should be taken as L and kt should be derived from Figure 3,
Licensed Copy: Ms
whichever gives the lower moment of resistance.

Licensed copy:Hyder
NOTE 3 Where, for multiple restraints, the value of

Veq4Lw3/[EIz,cθRdf2(1 − a)] exceeds the maximum value shown in Figure 3,
the procedure given in 8.5 may be used to derive the appropriate value
of kt.
NOTE 4 When only pairs of beams are interconnected by diaphragms,
θR2 may be taken as (n + 1)Lw3/24nEIyB2 where Iy is the second moment of
area of each beam about its major axis, B is the spacing of the beams.
14 • ©
14 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
Figure 3 Effective length parameter for beams with discrete torsional

restraints
0,9
0,8
0,7
Kt
Central restraints Veq = 0,5
0,6
Veq = 0,75
0,5
Distributed restraints (all values of V eq ) Veq = 1,0

0,4
0 500 1 000 1 500 2 000 2 500
BSI
Veq 4 lw 3 /EIz,c R df 2 (1 - a)
Copy,
Figure 4 Rotations of paired beams subject to unit torques

R2
R1
NOTE Unit torque in the same sense.

13/05/2016,
8.5 Equations for deriving kt

8.5.1 Relationship for multiple torsional restraints
Jacqueline Burman,
The value of kt is given by:

Consulting,
−0,25
⎡ Veq4 3
Lw ⎤
kt = ⎢1 + 4 ⎥ ;
⎢⎣ π EI z,c df2θ R (1 − a ) ⎥⎦
where the parameters are as defined in 8.4.

Licensed Copy: Ms
Licensed copy:Hyder
© BSI2013
2010 • 15
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
8.5.2 Relationship for single central torsional restraint

The relationships kt, Veq and Veq4Lw3/[EIz,cθRdf2(1−a)] can be derived
from the following equation:
⎡ ⎛ 3 nL 3 mL ⎞ ⎤
⎢ α ⎜ 2μ ( nL ) cosh 2 − ( mL ) cos 2 ⎟ ⎥ 4 3
Veq Lw
2π 2
( 4
1 − Veq ) ⎢
⎢
⎝
⎛ mL nL ⎞
⎠ ⎥=
⎥ θ R EI z,c df2 (1 − a )
;
⎢⎣ ⎜ sin + 2μ sinh ⎟ ⎥⎦
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
where:
mL = −
1
+
1
+
π 2 c2 1 + π 2α ( ) and
2α 4α 2 α
nL =
1
+
1
+
π 2 c2 1 + π 2α (
, in which:
)
2α 4α 2 α
4
Veq
α= for Veq u 0.999 or otherwise = 25;

(
π 2 1− Veq
4
)
BSI
1
c= ;
kt
Copy,
⎛ mL ⎞
mLcos ⎜ ⎟
μ =− ⎝ 2 ⎠
;
⎛ nL ⎞
2 nLcosh ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
and the other parameters are as defined in 8.4.

These expressions may be used directly to derive the restraint stiffness
parameter kt required to achieve a given effective length for buckling
with a half wavelength equal to L.
13/05/2016,
The value of the effective length at which the critical buckling moment
for a beam with a central restraint and a half wavelength equal to L
equals that for buckling in the second mode with a half wavelength
equal to L/2 is given by:
0.25
⎡ ⎤
Jacqueline Burman,
1 + π2α
kt = ⎢ ⎥ .
(
⎢ 4 1 + 4π2α
) ⎥
Consulting,
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
The values of kt for three values of Veq (0,5, 0,8 and 1,0) are shown on
Figure 3.
Licensed Copy: Ms
Licensed copy:Hyder
16 • ©
16 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
9 Simplified method for verification of

lateral buckling of truss chords and
flanges in compression
Additional guidance is given on the use of BS EN 1993-2:2006, 6.3.4.2,
for cases where there are flexible intermediate restraints. It also
provides guidance on design where there are flexible end restraints,
which is not specifically covered by BS EN 1993-2:2006, 6.3.4.2, other
than through direct global analysis of the structure.
Where the connections are “semi-continuous” in accordance with
BS EN 1993-1-8, the stiffness of the joint should be calculated in
accordance with BS EN 1993-1-8 or determined by tests and included
in the calculation of spring stiffness Cd. The spring stiffness may be
determined from:
Cd = 1/δR;
where:
δR is equal to the lateral deflection which would occur in any

intermediate U-frame at the level of the centroid of the flange being
BSI
considered, when a unit force acts laterally to the U-frame only at this
point and simultaneously at each corresponding point on the other
flange or flanges connecting to the same U-frame. The direction of each
Copy,
unit force should be such as to produce the maximum aggregate value

of δR. The U-frame deflection should be calculated allowing for joint
flexibility between the cross member and the verticals as required

above.
In the absence of specific calculation of joint stiffness, the following

joint rotational flexibilities, f, between the cross member and the
verticals of the U-frame may be used, expressed in radians per unit
moment:
a) 0,5 × 10–10 rad/Nmm when the cross member is bolted or riveted
through unstiffened end-plates or cleats; or
13/05/2016,
b) 0,2 × 10–10 rad/Nmm when the cross member is bolted or riveted

through stiffened end plates; or
c) 0,1 × 10–10 rad/Nmm when the cross member is welded right round
its cross-section or the connection is by bolting or riveting
between stiffened end-plates on the cross member and a stiffened
Jacqueline Burman,
part of the vertical.

Consulting,
The above values are generally conservative as they were derived from
studies of shallow members.
The effects on U-frame stiffeners and main beam compression flanges
caused by local loading on cross members should be considered. A
method for calculating these effects is provided in Clause 11.
Licensed Copy: Ms
If the end supports defining the length L as defined in

Licensed copy:Hyder
BS EN 1993-2:2006, 6.3.4.2(6) are not fully rigid in accordance with

BS EN 1993-2:2006, 6.3.4.2, expression (6.5), either the
slenderness should be determined in accordance with
BS EN 1993-2:2006, 6.3.4.2(3), or the definition of m as required in
BS EN 1993-2:2006, 6.3.4.2(6), may be modified as follows:
© BSI2013
2010 • 17
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
γ
m= 2
;
⎛ π 0,69 ⎞
⎜ + ⎟
© BSI Copy, (c) The British Standards Institution 2012
⎝ 2 X + 0,5 ⎠
0,25
C ⎛ l3 ⎞
with X = e ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ and Ce is the stiffness of the end support
2 ⎝ Cd EI ⎠
determined in the same way as the stiffness of intermediate supports,
Cd, other terms are as defined in BS EN 1993-2:2006, 6.3.4.2.
If a deck slab in steel-concrete composite construction is assumed to
contribute to c (as defined in BS EN 1993-2:2006, 6.3.4.2), the main
beam web, shear studs and deck slab should be checked for the
moments and forces commensurate with this assumption.
10 Restraints at supports – effects due

to restraint of main beams
11:40, Uncontrolled
10.1 General
Simplified guidance on torsional restraints at supports is provided
because BS EN 1993 does not cover the subject other than through the
carrying out second order analysis of the bracing system with modelled
21/02/2012Copy,
imperfections. In undertaking this method designers should use the

critical distribution of imperfections.
The design of restraints provided to beams to prevent lateral torsional
Uncontrolled
buckling should be compatible with the assumptions made in the beam

buckling verification.
All beams, including cantilever beams, should be restrained against
British Standards Institution,
rotation about their own axes at each support in accordance with the
appropriate provisions and 10.2 and 10.3.
10.2 Restraining forces

Jacqueline Burman,13/05/2016,
10.2.1 General
The restraining system should be capable of resisting, in addition to the
co-existent effects of wind, frictional and other applied forces, two
equal and opposite forces Fs applied normal to the beam and in the
Copy: Ms Consulting,
planes of its two flanges.

Where two or more beams are restrained by a common lateral member
interconnecting their ends, pairs of such forces, from the beam being
considered and from one adjacent beam, should be taken at the end of
each beam, applied such as to produce the most severe effect in the
restraining member.
copy:Hyder
The value of each force Fs in a direction normal to the longitudinal axis

of the beam should be taken as follows:
Fs = Fs1 + Fs2 + Fs3 + Fs4
LicensedLicensed
where:
Fs1, Fs2, Fs3 and Fs4 are as given by 10.2.2 to 10.2.4 below.
18 • © The British Standards Institution 2013

18 • ©
18 • © BSI
The2010
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
10.2.2 Force due to bow of compression flange

The force Fs1 on a support due to the end torque on the beam resulting
from the initial bow of the compression flange may be taken as:
M
Fs1 = 0,006 .
⎛ ⎛ ⎞
2⎞
df ⎜ 1 − ⎜ σ fc ⎟ ⎟
⎜ ⎝ σ crit ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
10.2.3 Force due to non verticality of web at supports
The force Fs2 on the support due to magnification resulting from
compressive force in the flange of the initial departure from verticality
of the supports may be taken as:
β ( Δ e1 + Δ e2 ) σ fc
.
(σ crit − σ fc ) ∑ δ
10.2.4 Force due to eccentricity of bearing reaction

The force Fs3 at a support due to the eccentricity of the lateral location
of the centre of the applied loading relative to the centre of bearing
BSI
reaction resulting from initial out of verticality of the support combined

with that due to change in slope of an end of a beam bearing on a skew
may be taken as:
Copy,
RdL [ Δ D + θ L tan α ]
.
D
10.2.5 Force due to twist at skew supports

The force Fs4 at a support due to twisting of a beam without
intermediate restraints caused by changes in longitudinal slope of the
beam on bearings aligned with skew supports may be taken as follows:
a) For a simply supported non composite beam:
GI T (θ LA tanα A + θ LB tanα B )
13/05/2016,
Fs4 = .
GI T
df L(1 + 2
)
Adf
b) For an end support to a two span continuous non-composite beam
without intermediate restraints or one side of a support adjacent to
Jacqueline Burman,
an internal support in a multi span non-composite continuous

Consulting,
beam without intermediate restraints,

either:
KEI z,c df (θ LA tan α A +θ LB tanα B )
Fs4 = ;
3(1 + GI T )
L
Adf2
Licensed Copy: Ms
or
Licensed copy:Hyder
CGI T (θ LA tanα A +θLB tan α B )

Fs4 = .
GI T
df L(1 + )
Adf2
NOTE 1 The two expressions for Fs4 give the same values and either may
be used.
© BSI2013
2010 • 19
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
c) For beams rigidly attached to a composite deck by shear

connectors the force to be resisted by an end support due to skew
support should be taken as:

Dθ LA tan α A
Fs4 = .
λδ 'R
When the flanges not connected to the composite deck are restrained
against plan rotation, the value of Fs4 should be doubled.
NOTE 2 When there is a flexible intermediate restraint only at midspan,
the restraint should be ignored for the purposes of deriving the value of FS4
according to the given expression.
d) For an internal support in a continuous beam Fs4 is the algebraic
difference between the values of Fs4 on each side of the support,
where:
L
A= for a simply supported beam; or
(δ e1 +δ e2 )
L
A= for a continuous beam;

(2δ i + δ e )
BSI
Δ is the initial lateral deflection of the compression flange relative to the

tension flange at the support, which should be taken as D/200 or to
BS EN 1090-2;
Copy,
Δe1, Δe2 are the values of Δ in opposite directions at the supports at each
end of a simply supported span or at the end and internal supports or

restraints respectively for a continuous beam;
δe1, δe2 are the values of δe for an end support or for an internal support,
as appropriate, as defined in 6.3.2;
Σδ = δt1+δt2 for a simply supported span;
= δe+2δi for a continuous beam;
L is the distance between the support considered and either the support
at the other end of the span considered or any effective intermediate
13/05/2016,
torsional restraint within that span, whichever is the lesser;

dL is the vertical distance between the levels of the bearing support and
the applied loads respectively. For composite beams the levels of the
applied loads should be taken as those of the tops of the steel beams.
Jacqueline Burman,
For cambered beams dL should be taken as the sum of the individual

applied loads multiplied by their relevant values of dL, divided by the
Consulting,
total applied loads;

G is the shear modulus;
IT is the St Venant torsion constant for the beam;
Iz,c is as defined in 8.4;
Licensed Copy: Ms
M is the largest bending moment occurring at a support or within

Licensed copy:Hyder
lengths Lw either side of it, whether hogging or sagging;

σfc is the maximum compressive stress in the flange, averaged over the
whole flange width, either at the support under consideration or in the
span either side of it;
δt1, δt2 are the values of δt for an end support at each end of a simply
supported beam as defined in 6.3.1;
20 • ©
20 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
δe, δi are the values for an end support and internal support respectively
for a continuous beam as defined in 6.3.2;
σcrit is as defined in Clause 11;

D is the overall depth of the beam at the support;
df is as defined in 8.4;
R is the bearing reaction;
β = 1 for an end support;
β = 2 for an internal support or restraint in continuous beams with
lateral restraints;
θL is the change in longitudinal slope of the beam adjacent to a support;
θLA, θLB are the coincident changes in the longitudinal slopes of the
beam adjacent to the supports in the span considered, taken as positive
when in a sagging direction away from the relevant support, and with
θLA taken as the slope change adjacent to the support being considered
and θLB as that at the opposite end of the span;
C, K are obtained from Figure 5;

NOTE For a two span beam the values of C and K are related to
BSI
(df/L)(Iz,c/IT)0,5. For an internal support in a multi span continuous beam

they are obtained from Figure 5 by replacing (df/L)(Iz,c/IT)0,5 by
(2df/L)(Iz,c/IT)0,5.
Copy,
α is the angle of skew, i.e. between the normal to the longitudinal axis
of the beam and the axis of the support in plan for a skewed bridge;
αA is the value of α at the support being considered;

αB is the value of α at the other end of the span being considered;

0,25
⎛ 1 ⎞
λ= ⎜ ⎟ ;
⎝ 4δ ′R EI F ⎠
IF is the lateral second moment of area of the bottom flange;
δ ′R is the value of δRl;
13/05/2016,
l is the spacing of U-frames.

For beams with intermediate U-frame restraints δR is defined in
Clause 9.
For beams without intermediate restraints and which are restrained
Jacqueline Burman,
by the deck slab only, δR may be obtained from

Consulting,
BS EN 1994-2:2005, 6.4.3.2, and BS EN 1993-2:2006, D.2.4, or, in

cases where the deck and webs of the beam are of constant thickness
throughout the span, and the beam is of constant depth, it may be
assumed that:
d13 uBd22
δR = + ;
Licensed Copy: Ms
3 EI1 E I2
Licensed copy:Hyder
where:
d1 is the distance from the centroid of the compression flange to the
nearest surface of the structural deck (see Figure 6);
© BSI2013
2010 • 21
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
d2 is the distance from the centroid of the compression flange to the

centroidal axis of the deck (see Figure 6);
3
tw
I1 = ;
12
tw is the thickness of the web of the beam;
I2 is the second moment of area of the deck per unit length, about its
axis of bending, neglecting concrete in tension but including
reinforcement;
u = 0,5 for an outer beam; or
= 0,33 for an inner beam, if there are three or more beams
interconnected by U-frames;
B is the distance between centres of consecutive beams, or the
maximum distance when the beams are not exactly parallel.
Figure 5 Restraint forces – continuous beams

22 22
BSI
20 20
18 18
K
Copy,
16 16
14 14
12 12
K 10 10 C
C
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
13/05/2016,
1,5
1
0 0
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2

0,5
(df / L) (Iz,c /IT )
Jacqueline Burman,
Consulting,
Licensed Copy: Ms
Licensed copy:Hyder
22 • ©
22 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
Figure 6 Restraint of compression flange by U-frames or deck or end

torsional restraint
Compression
B B
flange of beam
d1 d Structural connection
2
d1 d
between web and deck 2
a) Main beams restrained by U-frames b) Main beams continuously restrained by deck

t t
BSI
Unit Unit
force force
Copy,
d2
d1
Unit Unit
force force
B
c) Composite deck main beams continuously restrained by d) End torsional restraint

deck
10.2.6 Additional force due to cross members in U-frames

13/05/2016,
subjected to vertical loading

When the compression flange of a beam is restrained laterally between
points of support by a system of U-frames with cross members subject
to vertical loading, a force FL should be added to FS as defined above
Jacqueline Burman,
where FL may be taken as follows:

Consulting,
( − x)
FL = ∑ Fc L w ;
Lw
where:
Fc is as defined in Clause 11 and derived for each loaded U-frame within
a length Lw adjacent to the support considered;
Licensed Copy: Ms
Licensed copy:Hyder
x is the distance of the loaded frame from the support;

Lw is the half wavelength of buckling. Where intermediate lateral or
U-frame restraints are provided which are not fully effective, Lw should
be determined by taking L/Lw as the next integer below L/le but not less
than unity;
Σ denotes summation for all loaded frames.
© BSI2013
2010 • 23
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
FL may alternatively be taken as:

d2θ
for an end support to a beam with several internal

δ l3
2,5δ R + e +
2 3EI z,c
U-frames;
d2θ
for a support to a beam with a single internal U-frame;
l3
2δ R +δ e +
3EI z,c
d2θ
for an internal support;
δR l3
+δ e +
2 12EI z,c
where:
θ is as defined in Clause 11 and is to be calculated for most adverse
distribution on cross beams as follows:
a) For beams with multiple U-frames in a span: the difference

between the rotation of the U-frame adjacent to an end support
BSI
and the mean of the rotations at the end support and the second
U-frame from the support respectively.
b) For a beam with only one internal U-frame: the difference between
Copy,
the rotation of the internal frame and the mean of the rotations at
the supports at each end of the span.
c) For an internal support: the difference between the rotation at the

support and the mean of the coincident rotations at the U-frames

on each side of the support.
d) Where the support is not in the form of a U-frame, θ should be
taken as zero.
d2 is defined in 10.2.5;
δR is defined in Clause 9;
13/05/2016,
l is the spacing of U-frames;

δe is defined in 6.3.2;
centroidal axis parallel to the web of the beam at the point of the
Jacqueline Burman,
maximum bending moment.

Consulting,
10.3 Stiffness
The stiffness of restraints at supports against rotation about the
longitudinal axis of a beam should be such that the values δt, calculated
as defined in 6.3.1, do not exceed the values adopted in determining the
Licensed Copy: Ms
effective length of the compression flange.

Licensed copy:Hyder
Where bearing stiffeners are used to provide the sole torsional restraint
they should meet the above stiffness criterion in addition to the criteria
of Clause 16 relevant to their function as bearing stiffeners.
24 • ©
24 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
11 Intermediate restraints – effects due

to restraint of main beams
In addition to forces from wind and other applied forces, transverse

restraints to compression flanges, including U-frames, should
be designed for a force FEd in accordance with
BS EN 1993-2:2006, 6.3.4.2(5), applied normal to each beam at the
level of the centroid of its flange. Each force should be calculated from
the product of the greatest stress in the compression flange anywhere
along the beam and the area given in BS EN 1993-2:2006, 6.3.4.2(7).
Where there are two or more interconnected beams, two cases should
be considered:
a) forces FEd from any two beams;
b) forces FEd from all beams but the reduction factor αm u 1,0 in
accordance with BS EN 1993-1-1:2005, 5.3.3(1) may be applied
to each force FEd.
The forces FEd from each beam should be applied in directions such as
to maximize the effect in the element being considered.

Where the restraint forces are to be transmitted to end supports by a
BSI
system of plan bracing, the plan bracing system should be designed to

resist the more onerous of the forces FEd from each restraint within a
length equal to the half wavelength of buckling and the forces
Copy,
generated by an overall flange bow in each flange according to

BS EN 1993-1-1:2005, 5.3.3.
For torsional restraints, the force FEd should be taken as:

⎛ σ com,Ed ⎞ Lw
FEd = ⎜ ⎟ ;
⎜ σ crit − σ com,Ed ⎟ 667δ Rθ
⎝ ⎠
or when Lw > 13,3h:
⎛ σ com,Ed ⎞ h
FEd = ⎜ ⎟ ;
⎜ σ crit − σ com,Ed ⎟ 50δ Rθ
⎝ ⎠
13/05/2016,
where:
σcom,Ed is the maximum design compressive stress in the element;
Lw is the half-wavelength of buckling as defined in 8.3;
h is the overall depth of the beam cross-section;
Jacqueline Burman,
δRθ = nθRhdf, where:

Consulting,
n is as defined in 8.4;
θR is as defined in 8.4;
df is the vertical distance between the centroid of the compression and
tension flanges respectively at the position of the torsional restraint;
Licensed Copy: Ms
Ncrit
Licensed copy:Hyder
σcrit = where:
Aeff
Ncrit is as defined in BS EN 1993-2:2006, 6.3.4.2(3);
Aeff is as defined in BS EN 1993-2:2006, 6.3.4.2(4).
w , L
NOTE The expressions for FEd are based on a bow imperfection of
with a factor of safety of 1,5. 1000
© BSI2013
2010 • 25
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
The following additional effects should be included for U-frames with

cross members subjected to vertical loading:
a) additional forces Fc applied to the U-frame, in the same manner as

FEd, resulting from the interaction between the bending of the
cross members and verticals, which may be taken as:
θ d2
Fc = ;
{ (
1.5δ R + l 3 / 12 EI z,c )}
where:
d2 is as defined in 10.2.5;
δR is as defined in Clause 9;
l is the spacing of U-frames;
centroidal axis parallel to the web of the beam at the point of maximum
bending moment;
θ is the difference in rotation between the cross member of the U-frame
under consideration, and the mean of the rotations of the cross

members of the adjacent U-frames on either side. The rotations are
BSI
calculated in radians under the loading, at the junction of the relevant

cross member with the main beam under consideration, assuming that
the cross member is simply supported.
Copy,
b) For all highway and railway bridges the lateral flexure of a

compression flange due to loading on a cross member should be

taken into account. The maximum value of the transverse moment
My produced in the plane of the flange may be taken as follows:
5 EI z,cθ d2 ⎧⎪ ( L / lk ) − 1,25 ⎫⎪
My = ⎨1 + 2⎬
;
Llk (1 − σ fc / σ crit ) ⎪ 2,8 + 3,5 (σ / σ ) ⎪
⎩ fc crit ⎭
where:
σfc is the maximum compressive stress in the flange;
13/05/2016,
σcrit is as defined in this clause.

lk is as defined in BS EN 1993-2, 6.3.4.2(5).
L is the span of the beam.
Both Fc and My may alternatively be determined from a three
Jacqueline Burman,
dimensional global analysis model. Second order effects should be

Consulting,
included either directly by second order analysis or by magnifying the

results of a first order analysis by an appropriate factor in accordance
with BS EN 1993-2:2006, 5.2.2.
Licensed Copy: Ms
Licensed copy:Hyder
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26 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008
12 Buckling resistance of plates with

12 out
Buckling resistance
of plane loading of plates with
2012
out of plane loading

2012
Institution
12.1 General
Institution
12.1 General
Buckling of plates with out of plane loading is partially covered by
BS EN 1993-1-7
Buckling butwith
of plates the out
rules
ofare not loading
plane sufficiently comprehensive
is partially covered to
byfully
Standards
cover
BS EN 1993-1-7 but the rules are not sufficiently comprehensive tolocal
the design of bridge deck plates under combined global and fully
Standards
loading.
cover theRules based
design on those
of bridge deckinplates
BS ENunder
1993-1-7 to cover
combined the design
global of
and local
bridge
loading.deck plates
Rules based are
ongiven
thoseininthis
BS section.
EN 1993-1-7 to cover the design of
bridge deck plates are given in this section.
British
Where local loads are applied transversely to a deck plate or the deck
British
plate
Whereislocal
curved between
loads transverse
are applied restraints,
transversely to athe additional
deck plate orbending
the deck
moments generated
plate is curved should
between be combined
transverse with the
restraints, in-plane effects.
additional Where
bending
TheThe
the member
moments geometry
generated complies
should with BS EN
be combined with1993-1-5:2006, 4.1(1),
in-plane effects. the
Where
(c) (c)
method given in 12.2, based on the effective section method

the member geometry complies with BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 4.1(1), the of
Copy,
BS EN 1993-1-5,
method may be
given in 12.2, used.
based onThe
themethod
effectivegiven in 12.3,
section methodbased
of on the
BSI Copy,
reduced stress method

BS EN 1993-1-5, may be ofused.
BS EN 1993-1-5,
The may be
method given inused
12.3,inbased
all cases.
on the
©Uncontrolled
reduced stress method of BS EN 1993-1-5, may be used in all cases.

Plates with out of plane loading – effective
Uncontrolled
12.2
12.2 Plates
sectionwithmethod out of plane loading – effective
section method
In the absence in-plane direct stress normal to the longitudinal
11:40,
Copy,
stiffeners,
In the absence the following criterion
in-plane direct should
stress be satisfied
normal for the stiffened
to the longitudinal
11:40,
deck plate:the following criterion should be satisfied for the stiffened

stiffeners,
21/02/2012
deck plate:
 NEd N M y+,ED
M y,Ed NEd+N eNy e M z,EdM z+,EDN+EdNeED σ bend ,long σ cr,c
21/02/2012
Nz e
η1,mod ED+ ED +Ny
Uncontrolled
Nz
η1,mod =
Aeff NfyEdγ M0 MW +
y,Ed + fN γ
Ed eNy M+
Wz,Ed + fN γ
Ed eNz + ×
η1,mod Aeff f y / γ+M0 eff,y y M0 +
W eff,y f y / γ M0 eff,z y M0
W eff,z f y / γ M0 f y / γ M0 σ cr,c − σ E
Aeff f γ
σ bend,long
y M0 W
σ cr,c
eff,y f y γ M0 W eff,z fy γ M0
N ED M y ,ED + N EDe Ny M z,ED + N EDe+Nz σ bend ,long σ cr,c- 1,0 ;
Institution,
η1,mod = + + σ+bend,long
fy γ M0 σ cr,c σ − σ Ed
× cr,c ≤ 1.0
- 1,0 ;
Institution,
Aeff f y / γ M0 W eff,y f y / γ M0 W eff,z f y / γ M0+ f /γ σ −σ

fy γyM0 M0 σ cr,c −cr,c
σ Ed ED 
where:
where:
σ is the critical buckling stress for column-like buckling determined
Standards
cr,c
incr,c
σ accordance withbuckling
is the critical BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, Clause buckling
stress for column-like 4. determined
13/05/2016,
Standards
in accordance
σ with BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, Clause 4.
Ed is the compressive stress due to global effects in the stiffened deck
plate
σEd isat the
the location of stress
compressive the stiffener
due to being
globalchecked
effects in(determined
the stiffenedusing
deck
British
effective section properties as for determination of η

plate at the location of the stiffener being checked (determined
1 ) but using the
using
British
stress at the
effective centroid
section of the stiffened
properties deck plate. This
as for determination of ηcan conservatively
1) but using the
Burman,
be taken
stress as the
at the maximum
centroid of thefibre stress.
stiffened deck plate. This can conservatively
Burman,
be taken is
σ asthe
themaximum
maximumlongitudinal
fibre stress.local bending stress in the
Consulting,
bend,long
stiffened
σ plate, calculated for the fibre of the stiffener effective section
bend,long is the maximum longitudinal local bending stress in the
Jacqueline
which maximizes
stiffened plate, calculated ofηthe
the valuefor . of the stiffener effective section
fibre
1,mod
Jacqueline
which maximizes
Other terms are asthe ofηBS
value in
defined EN. 1993-1-5:2006, 4.6.
1,mod
Other terms arewith

The interaction as defined
in-plane in shear
BS ENshould
1993-1-5:2006,
be carried 4.6.
out according to
Ms Ms
BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 7.1(5), with η

The interaction with in-plane shear should1 taken as η
be carried . Foraccording
1,mod out the check to
of
copy:Hyder
σ
Copy:
sub-panel buckling,
BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, bend,long can be taken as the value at the mid-plane
7.1(5), with η1 taken as η1,mod. For the check of
of the flange plate. σbend,long can be taken as the value at the mid-plane
Copy:
sub-panel buckling,
of the flange plate.
Licensed
LicensedLicensed
© BSI2013
2010 • 27
© BSI 2010 • 27
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
Yielding of the flange plate, i.e. plate without longitudinal stiffeners,

should be checked according to the following criterion:
2 2 2
⎛ σ x,Ed ⎞ ⎛ σ z,Ed ⎞ ⎛ σ x,Ed ⎞ ⎛ σ z,Ed ⎞ ⎛ τ Ed ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + 3 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ - 1,0 ;
⎝ fy / γ M0 ⎠ ⎝ fy / γ M0 ⎠ ⎝ fy / γ M0 ⎠ ⎝ fy / γ M0 ⎠ ⎝ fy / γ M0 ⎠
where:
σx,Ed is the longitudinal direct stress at the mid-plane of the flange plate
calculated on the effective section allowing for plate buckling and shear
lag and including local bending stress;
σbend,long is also calculated at the mid-plane of the flange plate;
σz,Ed is the transverse direct stress at the extreme fibre of the flange
plate including σbend,trans (extreme fibre stress in the flange is used as
there would otherwise be no effect from transverse bending of the
flange);
τEd is the in-plane shear stress in the flange, taken equal to 50% of the
maximum shear stress at the web-flange junction due to the beam shear
force plus 100% of the torsional shear stress. Where shear stress from
other effects is present, such as from warping, this shear stress should
BSI
also be included.
12.3 Plates with out of plane loading – reduced

Copy,
stress method
The following criterion should be satisfied for overall buckling of the

stiffened deck plate:
2
⎛ σ x,Ed σ bend,long ⎛ 1 ⎞⎞
⎜⎜ + ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ρ x fy / γ M1 fy γ M1 ⎝ 1 − 1 / α cr ⎠ ⎠⎟
2
⎛ σ z,Ed σ bend,trans ⎛ 1 ⎞⎞
+⎜ + ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ ⎝ 1 − 1 / αcr ⎠ ⎠⎟
⎝ ρ z fy / γ M1 fy γ M1
13/05/2016,
⎛ σ x,Ed σ bend,long ⎛ 1 ⎞⎞
−⎜ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎜ ρ x fy / γ M1 f y γ M1 ⎝ 1 − 1 / α cr ⎠⎠
⎝
2
⎞ ⎛ σ z,Ed σ bend,trans ⎛ 1 ⎞⎞ ⎛ τ Ed ⎞
⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟ + 3 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ - 1,0 ;
⎠ ⎝ ρ x fy / γ M1 fy γ M1 ⎝ 1 − 1 / α cr ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ χ v fy / γ M1 ⎠
Jacqueline Burman,
where:
Consulting,
αcr is the minimum load factor applied to the design loads required to
give elastic critical buckling of the panel considered under all stresses
acting together, but excluding the stresses from out of plane loading.
σx,Ed and σz,Ed are the stresses from global analysis (i.e. excluding local
moments) along the deck and transverse to the deck respectively.
Licensed Copy: Ms
Licensed copy:Hyder
τEd is the in-plane shear stress in the flange, taken equal to 50% of the
maximum shear stress at the web-flange junction due to the beam shear
force plus 100% of the torsional shear stress. Where shear stress from
other effects is present, such as from warping, this shear stress should
also be included.
σbend,trans and σbend,long are the peak bending stresses transversely in
flange plate and longitudinally in stiffened deck plate respectively.
28 • ©
28 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD PD
6695-2:2008+A1:2012
6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008
The following
The following
criterion
criterion
should
should
be satisfied
be satisfied
for sub-panel
for sub-panel
buckling:
buckling:
2 2 2 2
⎛ σ ⎛xt,Edσ xt,Ed ⎞ ⎛⎞ σ⎛z,Edσ z,Ed σ bend,transσ bend,trans 1⎞ ⎞ ⎞ ⎞
⎛ ⎛1
⎜⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ + + ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟ ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝ ρ x f⎝y ρ/ xγ M1
fy /⎠γ M1⎝⎠ ρ z f⎝y ρ/ γz M1
fy / γ M1fy γ M1
fy γ⎝M1
1 − 1⎝ /1α−cr1 ⎠/ α
⎠ cr ⎠ ⎠
⎛ σ ⎛xt,Edσ xt,Ed ⎞⎛ σ ⎞ ⎛z,Edσ z,Ed σ bend,trans
σ bend,trans
⎛ ⎛1 1⎞ ⎞ ⎞ ⎞
−⎜ −⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ + + ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟ ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎜ ρ x f⎜y ρ/ xγ M1
fy /⎟⎠γ⎜⎝M1
ρ x⎟⎠f⎜⎝y ρ/ xγ M1
fy / γ M1fy γ M1
fy γ⎝M11 − 1⎝ /1α−cr1 ⎠/ α
⎝ ⎝ ⎠ cr ⎠ ⎠
2 2
⎛ τ⎛s,Ed τ s,Ed ⎞ ⎞
+ 3⎜ + 3⎜ ⎟ - 1.0
⎟ -; 1.0 ;
⎜ χ v f⎜y χ/ vγ M1
fy /⎟⎠γ M1 ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎝
where:
where:
σ xt,Edσ
rx,Ed is
 theistotal
x,Ed the total
stressstress
alongalong
the deck
the deck
fromfrom
global
global
and local
and local
loading
loading
calculated
calculated
at theatmid-plane
the mid-plane
of theofflange
the flange
plate;plate;
τs,Ed τiss,Ed
theisaverage
the average
in-plane
in-plane
shearshear
stressstress
within
within
the sub-panel
the sub-panel
of theof the
flange,
flange,
calculated
calculated
fromfrom
the elastic
the elastic
shearshear
distribution.
distribution.
1313Resistance
Resistance
of of
members
members
with
with
flanges
flanges
curved
curved
outout
of of
plane
plane
BSI
General
13.113.1 General
Copy,
Guidance
Guidance
on theoncalculation
the calculation
of stresses
of stresses
in flanges
in flanges
and webs
and webs
induced
induced
by by
flanges
flanges
curved
curved
in elevation
in elevation
is given
is given
below.
below.
These These
stresses
stresses
are required
are required
in checking
in checking
yielding
yielding
of theofflanges
the flanges
and buckling
and buckling
of theofweb,
the web,
although
although
BS ENBS1993
EN 1993
does does
not provide
not provide
specific
specific
details
details
of such
of such
a check.
a check.
A method
A method
of checking
of checking
longitudinally
longitudinally
stiffened
stiffened
flanges
flanges
which which
are curved
are curved
in in
elevation
elevation
is also
is presented.
also presented.
Flange
13.213.2 Flange
induced
induced
buckling
buckling
Flange
Flange
plates
plates
should
should
comply
comply
with with
the provisions
the provisions
of of
BS EN
BS1993-1-5:2006,
EN 1993-1-5:2006,
Clause
Clause
8. 8.
13/05/2016,
Flanges
13.313.3 Flanges
curved
curved
in elevation
in elevation
13.3.1 Stresses
13.3.1 Stresses
in flanges
in flanges
Jacqueline Burman,
For flanges
For flanges
curved
curved
in elevation,
in elevation,
a transverse
a transverse
bending
bending σT due
stressstress σT to
due to
Consulting,
the radial
the radial
component
component
of theoflongitudinal
the longitudinal
forceforce
in theinflange
the flange
should
should
be be
takentaken
as: as:
3σ2 f/crt
σ T =σ3Tσ f=cfo 2
fof in
/ rtaf flange
in a flange
outstand;
outstand;
σ T =σ3Tσ f=b23σ/ 4f brt2f / in

4 rtaf plate
in a plate
panelpanel
of a flange
of a flange
between
between
longitudinal
longitudinal
stiffeners
stiffeners
and/or and/or
webs;webs;
Licensed Copy: Ms
Licensed copy:Hyder
where:
where:
σf is σ
the
f islongitudinal
the longitudinal
stressstress
in theinflange;
the flange;
b is the
b isdistance
the distance
between
between
successive
successive
longitudinal
longitudinal
stiffeners
stiffeners
and/or
and/or
webs;webs;
tf is the
tf isthickness
the thickness
of theofflange
the flange
in theinpanel
the panel
or outstand
or outstand
beingbeing
considered;
considered;
© The©British Standards
The British © BSI©
Institution
Standards 2010
2013
Institution
2012 • 29
BSI 2012
2010
• • 29
29
• 29
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
cfo is the width of the outstand measured from the edge to the nearest
line of rivets or bolts connecting it to the supporting part of the
member, or to the toe of a root fillet of a rolled section, or, in the case
of a welded construction, to the surface of the supporting part of the
member, or, in the case of composite construction, to the outer line of
shear connectors;
r is the radius of curvature at the flange.
NOTE The stresses are not applicable when the section is unsymmetrical
about a vertical axis or curved in plan or in any plane other than the
vertical, such a section being outside the scope of this clause.
Yielding of the flange may be checked in accordance with 12.2.
13.3.2 Stresses in webs

The vertical components of the forces in flanges should be taken into
account in computing the shear force carried by the web.
The edge of a web attached to a curved portion of a flange should be
considered to be subjected to a force, acting in the plane of the web,
equal to:
BSI
σ f Bf tf / rcosβ per unit length;

where:
Bf is the width of an unstiffened flange, in a beam having only one web,
Copy,
or half the distance between successive longitudinal stiffeners or webs,

together with any adjacent outstand;
β is the slope of the web to the vertical;

The interaction of transverse force on the web with other effects may be
treated in accordance with BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 7.2.
13.3.3 Flanges sloping in elevation

In computing the shear force carried by the web at any section of a
beam, the vertical components of the longitudinal forces in sloping
13/05/2016,
flanges should be taken into account.
13.3.4 Beams with longitudinal flange stiffeners

Where a flange with longitudinal stiffeners is curved in elevation, the
stiffeners may be checked for buckling either following Clause 12,
Jacqueline Burman,
treating the radial force from the flange as a local transverse load, or by
Consulting,
modifying the value of Φ in BS EN 1993-1-1:2005, 6.3.1.2, as follows,

when determining the effective section for the flange:
⎡ ye f ⎤
( )
Φ = 0,5 ⎢1 + α e λ − 0,2 + 2 + λ 2 ⎥ for stiffeners without continuity
i
⎣ ⎦
over the cross members;
Licensed Copy: Ms
⎡ ye f ⎤
( )
Φ = 0,5 ⎢1 + α e λ − 0,2 + 2 + λ 2 ⎥ for stiffeners with continuity over
Licensed copy:Hyder
⎣ 2i ⎦
the cross members;
where:
αe and i are as defined in BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 4.5.3(5);
y is the greatest distance from an extreme fibre of the stiffener effective
section to its centroid;
30 • ©
30 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PDPD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD PD
6695-2:2008
6695-2:2008
ef isethe
f is the
greatest
greatest
offset
offset
of the
of the
stiffener
stiffener
fromfrom
a straight
a straight
lineline
between
between
transverse
transverse
restraints
restraints
duedue
to flange
to flange
curvature;
curvature;
λ isλasisdefined
as defined
in BS
in EN
BS EN
1993-1-1:2005,
1993-1-1:2005,
6.3.1.2.
6.3.1.2.
1414Design
Designofof
flanges
flanges
and
and
webs
webs
with
with
large
large
openings
openings
AnyAnyopenings
openings
in webs
in webs
or compression
or compressionflanges
flanges
should
should
be framed
be framed
andand
the the
stiffened
stiffened
section
section
designed
designed
for local
for local
loadload
effects,
effects,
including
including
secondary
secondary
bending.
bending.
Alternatively,
Alternatively,
openings
openings
in webs
in webs
maymay
be unstiffened
be unstiffened
provided
provided
thatthat
theythey
meetmeet
the the
following
following
provisions:
provisions:
a) a)
the the
overall
overall
greatest
greatest
internal
internal
dimension
dimension
doesdoes
not not
exceed
exceed
the the
limits
limits
in BS
in EN
BS EN
1993-1-5:2006,
1993-1-5:2006,2.3(1);
2.3(1);
b) b)
the the
longitudinal
longitudinal
distance
distance
between
between
the the
boundaries
boundaries
of adjacent
of adjacent
openings
openings
is atisleast
at least
three
three
times
times
the the
maximum
maximum
internal
internal
dimension;
dimension;
c) c)
not not
moremore
thanthan
oneone
opening
opening
is provided
is provided
at any
at any
cross-section.
cross-section.
All corners
All corners
of openings
of openingsshould
should
be rounded
be rounded
withwith
a radius
a radius
of atofleast
at least
one-quarter
one-quarter
of the
of the
leastleast
dimension
dimension
of the
of the
hole.
hole.
BSI
Cut-outs
Cut-outs
in stiffeners
in stiffeners
should
should
be inbeaccordance
in accordance
withwith
BS ENBS EN1993-1-5:2006,
1993-1-5:2006, 9.2.4.
9.2.4.
Cut-outs
Cut-outs
provided
provided
for transverse
for transverse
stiffeners
stiffeners
should
should
either
either
havehave
at least
at least
one-third
one-third
of their
of their
perimeters
perimeters
Copy,
welded
welded
to the
to the
stiffeners,
stiffeners,
or the
or the
stiffeners
stiffeners
should
should
be cleated
be cleated
to the
to the
webweb
withwith
at least
at least
twotwoboltsbolts
or rivets
or rivets
per per
sideside
of the
of the
connection
connection
or by
or full
by full
perimeter
perimeterwelding
welding
of the
of the
cleat.
cleat.
1515Design
Designofof
intermediate
intermediate
transverse
transverse
web
webstiffeners
stiffeners
Intermediate
Intermediate
transverse
transverse
webweb
stiffeners
stiffeners
should
should
be designed
be designed
to to
BS EN
BS EN
1993-1-5.
1993-1-5.
Complementary
Complementary guidance
guidance
on the
on the
design
design
of of
13/05/2016,
intermediate
intermediate
transverse
transverse
webweb
stiffeners
stiffeners
is given
is given
below.
below.
In particular
In particular
it it
provides:
provides:
a) a)
PPguidance
guidance
on detailing
on detailing
intermediate
intermediate
transverse
transverse
stiffeners;
stiffeners;
QQ
b) b)
guidance on the
guidance loadings
on the to consider.
loadings to consider.
Jacqueline Burman,
WebsWebs
of plate
of plate
girders,
girders,
boxbox
girders
girders
andand
rolled
rolled
beams beamsshould
should
be provided
be provided
withwith
transverse
transverse
stiffeners
stiffeners
at all
atpoints
all points
where
where
these these
are are
necessary
necessary
for the
for the
Consulting,
adequacy
adequacyof the
of the
webweb plate
plate
andandthe the
longitudinal
longitudinal
stiffeners,
stiffeners,
if any.
if any.
A A
transverse
transverse
webweb
stiffener
stiffener
should
should
be provided
be provided
at allatlocations
all locations
where
where
a web
a web
connects withwith
connects a cross beam
a cross beamandand
where a sloping
where a sloping flange changes
flange changes
direction.
direction.
EachEach
endend
of the transverse
of the transverse stiffener should
stiffener be stopped
should be stoppedoff or
offshaped
or shaped to to
Licensed Copy: Ms
allow
allow
space
space
for afor
root
a root
filletfillet
or weld
or weld
connecting
connecting
the the
webweb to the
to the
flange.
flange.
Licensed copy:Hyder
Where
Wherethe the
stiffener
stiffener
is stopped
is stopped off, off,
a clearance
a clearance
not not
exceeding
exceedingfivefive
timestimes
the the
thickness
thickness
of the
of the
webwebshouldshould
be allowed.
be allowed.
TheThe
stiffener
stiffener
should
should
extend
extend
overover
the the
whole
whole
remaining
remainingdepth depth
of the
of the
webweb
andand
should
should
be fitted
be fitted
closely
closely
to the flange
to the at each
flange point
at each of application
point of applicationof aof
concentrated
a concentrated loadload
to the
to the
flange.
flange.
© The
© The British
British Standards
Standards © BSI
©2012
2010
Institution
Institution • 31
BSI2013
2010
•
2012 • 31
•
31 31
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
Where cut-outs are provided in transverse stiffeners to allow the

passage of longitudinal stiffeners, at least one side of the opening in the
transverse stiffener should be cleated to the longitudinal stiffener with

at least two bolts or rivets per side of the connection, or by full
perimeter welding of the cleat, or at least one-third of the perimeter of
the cut-out should be connected to the longitudinal stiffener by welding.
Requirements for cut outs in transverse stiffeners are given in
BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.2.4(4) and 9.2.4(5). A transverse web
stiffener may form part of a cross beam, cross frame or U-frame.
A transverse stiffener should be designed to resist the following load
effects, where these are present:
a) axial force in accordance with BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.3.3(3),
applied in the mid-plane of the web plate;
b) out of plane bending due to compressive stress in the web,
determined in accordance with BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.2.1;
c) axial force due to transfer of load through a cross frame or cross
beam;
d) axial force due to load applied at flange level;

BSI
e) axial force due to curvature of flange;

f) axial force due to change of slope of flange;
g) bending moment about the centroidal axis of the effective section
Copy,
parallel to the plane of the web due to eccentricity to that axis of

axial forces described in a), c), d), e), and f), or from flexure of a
cross beam, U-frame or deck.

The effective section of the transverse stiffener should be determined in

accordance with BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.1(2).
The axial force in a stiffener due to the load applied at flange level, or
due to curvature or change of slope of a stressed flange, or due to
transfer of load through a cross frame, may be assumed to vary
uniformly along the length of the stiffener from the value at the point of
13/05/2016,
application to zero at the remote end of the stiffener. The axial force in
a stiffener due to tension field action should be assumed as constant
over the length of the stiffener.
16 Design of bearing stiffeners

Jacqueline Burman,
Consulting,
16.1 General
This clause gives complementary guidance on the design of bearing
stiffeners. In particular it provides guidance on:
a) detailing bearing stiffeners;
Licensed Copy: Ms
b) the loadings to consider, including the effects of membrane tension

Licensed copy:Hyder
from shear which is not defined in BS EN 1993-1-5;

c) the eccentricities to consider.
Webs of plate girders and rolled beams should be provided with a
system of load bearing stiffeners at each support position. Hereafter
these will be referred to as bearing stiffeners. The section of a bearing
stiffener should be symmetrical about the mid-plane of the web. When
32 • ©
32 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
this condition is not met, the effect of the resulting eccentricity should
be taken into account. The ends of a bearing stiffener should be
adequately connected to both flanges. They should be shaped to allow

space for any root fillet or weld connecting the web to the flange. If
providing clearance using a localized cut out the length of any
unsupported web should not exceed five times the thickness of the web.
The stiffener should be fitted closely to the flange where the flange is
subject to a concentrated load. Where cut-outs are provided in bearing
stiffeners, to allow the passage of longitudinal stiffeners, at least one
side of the opening in the bearing stiffener should be cleated to the
longitudinal stiffener with at least two bolts or rivets per side of the
connection, or by full perimeter welding of the cleat, or at least
one-third of the perimeter of the cut-out should be connected to the
longitudinal stiffener by welding. Requirements for cut-outs in
transverse stiffeners are given in BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.2.4(4)
and 9.2.4(5). A bearing stiffener may be used to provide torsional
restraint to a beam at its support; it may also form part of a cross beam,
cross frame or U-frame.
16.2 Loadings on bearing stiffeners and effective

BSI
section
A stiffener should be designed to resist the following load effects, where
these are present:
Copy,
a) an axial force equal to the algebraic sum of the reaction from the
support bearing and the vertical components of the forces in the

adjacent bottom flange or flanges, due to slope or curvature;
b) an axial force representing the destabilizing influence of the web,

determined in accordance with BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.2.1(6);
c) an axial force due to transfer of load through a cross frame or
cross beam;
d) bending moments arising from eccentricity of the axial force about
the relevant axes or from flexure of a cross beam, cross frame,
13/05/2016,
U-frame or deck;
e) axial force and bending moment from provision of beam torsional
restraint in accordance with Clause 10;
f) membrane force applied in the plane of the web for stiffeners
Jacqueline Burman,
acting as a rigid end post.

Consulting,
The membrane force in f) may be represented by a uniformly distributed

force NH acting transverse to the stiffener in the plane of the web of total
magnitude given by:
⎛ τ2 ⎞
NH = hw tw ⎜ − τ / 1.2 ⎟ . 0 ;
⎜ τ cr / 1.2 cr ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Licensed Copy: Ms
where:
Licensed copy:Hyder
τ is the shear stress in the web;

τcr is the elastic critical shear stress calculated in accordance with
BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 5.3, taken as the lowest of that for overall and
sub-panel buckling where longitudinal stiffeners are present.
© BSI2013
2010 • 33
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
The effective section of the bearing stiffener should be determined in

accordance with BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.1(2) for the effects in a) to e)
and in accordance with BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.3.1(2) for the effects

of f).
The axial force in a stiffener due to the load applied at flange level, or
due to curvature or change of slope of a stressed flange, or due to
transfer of load through a cross frame, may be assumed to vary
uniformly along the length of the stiffener from the value at the point of
application to zero at the remote end of the stiffener. The axial force in
a stiffener due to tension field action should be assumed as constant
over the length of the stiffener.
16.3 Eccentricity
Load effects due to eccentricities arising from the following causes
should be taken into account, when relevant:
a) movements of the beam relative to the bearing due to changes in
temperature;
b) changes in the point or line of contact at the spherical or

BSI
cylindrical surface of a bearing due to slope of the beam when

deflected by load;
c) uneven seating which may occur on a flat bearing surface;
Copy,
d) inaccuracy which may occur in the positioning of the beam relative

to the bearing.
The following values of eccentricity may be assumed to satisfy the

provisions of c) and d):

• half the width of the flat bearing surface plus 10 mm for a
flat-topped rocker bearing in contact with a flat bearing surface;
or
• 3 mm for a radiused upper bearing resting on a flat or radiused
lower part; or
13/05/2016,
• 10 mm for a flat upper bearing resting on a radiused lower part.

These recommendations are for guidance only. Alternative values
may be used depending on the type of bearings used for individual
projects.
Jacqueline Burman,
16.4 Strength and stiffness of bearing stiffeners

Consulting,
The bearing stiffener should be designed for the actions in

Clause 16 using BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.4. In applying
BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.4(2), the cross-section resistance of the
stiffener should be checked at each end of the stiffener effective section,
regardless of whether or not cut-outs are present.
Licensed Copy: Ms
Licensed copy:Hyder
34 • ©
34 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
17 Connections – design of beam splices

17.1 General
Splices in bridge beams are not explicitly covered by BS EN 1993-1-8.
This section gives guidance on the determination of the distribution of
forces in the constituent parts of a cross-section for use in the design of
beam splices to bridge members. The verification of the constituent
parts subjected to these forces should then be carried out using
BS EN 1993-1-8.
17.2 Cover material

Where cover material is used to transmit load through a splice the
following conditions should be satisfied whenever practicable:
a) both surfaces of the spliced parts should be provided with cover
material;
b) cover material should be so disposed, with respect to the
cross-section of the member, as to communicate the proportional

load in the respective parts of the section.
BSI
Where the provisions of either a) or b) are not met, the effect of any
eccentricity of cover material with respect to the centroid of the spliced
Copy,
section, or any part of such a section, should be considered when

determining the strength both of the cover material and of the member
or part.
17.3 Compression members
17.3.1 Loads to be transmitted

A splice located at or near an effectively braced joint should be capable
of transmitting at least the design load effects in the member. All other
splices should be capable of transmitting at least the load effects and the
13/05/2016,
stresses at the spliced section due to initial imperfections in accordance

with BS EN 1993-1-1:2005, 5.3.3(4).
Alternatively, the splice may be designed to transmit a force equal to:
NEd Npl,Rd /Nb,Rd in addition to any coincident moments and shears;
Jacqueline Burman,
where:
NEd is the load in the member or part;
Consulting,
Npl,Rd is the plastic resistance of the member or part;

Nb,Rd is the buckling resistance of the member or part.
17.3.2 Limiting stresses for design

Licensed Copy: Ms
The maximum stress σa in a spliced part and that in the cover material
Licensed copy:Hyder
should not exceed fy/γMo

where:
σa is the axial stress or, where shear is present, the equivalent stress
( σ e12 + 3τ12 ), on a cross-section making allowance for holes in
accordance with BS EN 1993-1-1:2005, 6.2.4.
© BSI2013
2010 • 35
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
σe1, τ1 are the axial stress and the coexistent shear stress at a
cross-section.
17.3.3 Machined abutting ends of parts in compression

A splice which has machined abutting ends in contact over the whole
area of the section may be assumed to carry 75% of any compressive
load directly through the abutting ends. If the abutting area is increased
by means of machined end plates, the whole compressive load may be
assumed to be transmitted through the abutting faces. The alignment of
the abutting ends should be maintained by cover plates or other means.
The cover material and its fastenings should be proportioned to carry a
force at the abutting ends, acting in any direction perpendicular to the
axis of the member, equal to 2.5% of the compressive force in the
member.
17.4 Tension members
17.4.1 Loads to be transmitted

A splice in a member or part subjected to tension should be designed to

BSI
transmit at least the load in the member or part.
17.4.2 Limiting stresses for design

Copy,
The maximum stress σa in a spliced part and that in the cover material
should not exceed fy/γMo
where:
σa is the axial stress or, where shear is present, the equivalent stress
( σ e12 + 3τ12 ), on a cross-section making allowance for holes in
accordance with BS EN 1993-1-1:2005, 6.2.3.
σe1, τ1 are as defined in 17.3.2.
Members in bending
13/05/2016,
17.5
17.5.1 General
A splice in a member or part subjected to bending and axial load effects
should satisfy 17.5.2 to 17.5.4 and 17.3 or 17.4 as appropriate.
Jacqueline Burman,
Compression flanges
Consulting,
17.5.2
Compression flanges should be treated as compression members and
spliced in accordance with 17.3. In determining the load to be
transmitted at a splice that is not effectively braced, the following
definitions should be adopted:
Licensed Copy: Ms
NEd is the force in the compression flange at the splice position;

Licensed copy:Hyder
Nb,Rd is the flange compression calculated from the bending resistance

of the beam at the position of the maximum bending moment;
Npl,Rd is the flange compression calculated from the bending resistance
of the beam at the position of the maximum bending moment, assuming
that lateral torsional buckling is prevented.
36 • ©
36 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
17.5.3 Tension flanges

Tension flanges should be treated as tension members and spliced in
accordance with 17.4.
17.5.4 Parts subject to shear

A splice in a web or other part subjected to shear should be designed to
transmit at least the total of:
a) the shear force at the splice;
b) the moment resulting from the eccentricity, if any, of the centroids
of the groups of fasteners on each side of the splice;
c) the proportion of moment carried by the web or part, irrespective
of any shedding of stress into adjoining parts assumed in the
design of the member or part;
d) the proportion of axial force carried by the web or part,
irrespective of any shedding of stress into adjoining parts assumed
in the design of the member or part.
BSI
18 Connections – design of gusset plates

18.1 General
Copy,
Gusset plates are not explicitly covered by BS EN 1993-1-8. This section

provides guidance on the proportioning and verification of gusset

plates.
18.2 Strength
Gusset plates should be capable of resisting actions from connected
members in such a way that the maximum equivalent stress
( σ e12 + 3τ12 ) does not exceed fyd, the design yield stress of the gusset
material. Any reasonable assumption as to the distribution of stresses
13/05/2016,
may be made, provided that the assumed stresses are in equilibrium

with the forces in the connecting members, and that the connections are
in accordance with BS EN 1993-2:2006, Clause 8.
σe1, τ1 are as defined in 17.3.2.
Jacqueline Burman,
In assessing the fatigue life, the stresses in a gusset plate should be

determined by elastic analysis (see PD 6695-1-9).
Consulting,
18.3 Detailing
Gusset plates should be so shaped, and connectors so arranged, as to
avoid severe stress concentrations.
Licensed Copy: Ms
The lengths bg of unstiffened unsupported edges shown in Figure 7

Licensed copy:Hyder
should be such that:

bg 235
- 61,5 ;
t fy
where:
t is the thickness of the gusset.
© BSI2013
2010 • 37
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
Figure 7 Gusset plates

bg
bg
bg
NOTE The unsupported edge distance bg is measured clear between

fixings.
19 Bolted connections
BSI
19.1 General
Complementary requirements to BS EN 1993-2:2006, Clause 8,
covering the design of joints are given in this section.
Copy,
19.2 Bolted connections

19.2.1 Main beam splices and connections of bracing

members
Splices in main beams may generally be designed using Category B
connections in accordance with BS EN 1993-1-8. Connections between
compression flange restraints and compression flanges should
generally be designed using Category C connections unless the
13/05/2016,
compression flange and restraints are checked for the effects of bolt slip
at the ultimate limit state.
19.2.2 Bolts, nuts and washers

Further to BS EN 1993-1-8:2005, 3.1.1(1) and 3.1.2, Type 3 Grade A
Jacqueline Burman,
fasteners to ASTM standard A325 [1] may be deemed suitable.

Consulting,
20 Welded connections
20.1 Welds with packings
Licensed Copy: Ms
Packings need only be trimmed flush in accordance with

Licensed copy:Hyder
BS EN 1993-1-8:2005, 4.4(1), for the case where the packing thickness

is less than the required throat length as indicated in Figure 8.
38 • ©
38 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
Figure 8 Welds with packings

3
2
1
2
2
BSI
1
Copy,
Key
1 Packing
2 Specified throat thickness

3 Throat thickness necessary to transmit the design force
20.2 Fatigue check of welds for parts in direct

bearing contact
Where all or part of a force is transmitted between two parts in contact
13/05/2016,
by direct bearing, the welds between the parts should be checked for
fatigue assuming the entire fatigue loading is carried by the welds,
unless a detailed stress analysis is performed considering the tolerances
on flatness of the mating surfaces.
Jacqueline Burman,
20.3 Effective throat thickness for fillet welds

Consulting,
The effective throat thickness for welds with angle less than 90°
between fusion faces should be limited to 0,71 times the leg length. If a
greater throat is required in design, the required throat should be
specified on the drawing.
Licensed Copy: Ms
20.3.1 Specification of weld size

Licensed copy:Hyder
20.3.1.1 Butt welds

The minimum throat depth of partial penetration butt welds should be
indicated together with the side from which welding is to be done
(see BS EN 22553 for symbols).
© BSI2013
2010 • 39
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
All full penetration butt welds should be double sided, unless specifically
indicated that single sided welds are acceptable, and if so whether
2012 2012
All full penetration

permanent backingbutt welds shouldpermitted.
is required/not be double sided, unless specifically
indicated that single sided welds are acceptable, and if so whether
20.3.1.2 Fillet welds
Institution
permanent backing is required/not permitted.

The sizes of fillet welds should be clearly designated as to whether the
20.3.1.2 Fillet welds
Institution
dimension refers to the throat or the leg (see BS EN 22553 for symbols).
The sizes of fillet welds should be clearly designated as to whether the
Standards
20.3.1.3 Weld symbols

dimension refers to the throat or the leg (see BS EN 22553 for symbols).
If weld symbols to BS EN 22553 are used, this should be indicated on
Standards
20.3.1.3 Weld symbols

all applicable drawings.
The British
If weld symbols to BS EN 22553 are used, this should be indicated on

all applicable drawings.
21 Cross beams and other transverse
(c)British
21 members in flanges
Cross beams and other transverse
(c) The
Copy,Copy,
members in flanges
21.1 General
Uncontrolled
This section gives guidance on the design of flange transverse members.

21.1 General
In particular it provides:
©Uncontrolled
This section gives guidance on the design of flange transverse members.

a) a means of calculating the second order effects required for the
In particular it provides:
BSI
stiffness and strength checks in BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.2.1,

11:40,11:40,
a) guidance
awithout
meansthe of
oncalculating
detailing;
need the second
for second
 order order effects
computer required for the
modelling;
stiffness and strength checks in BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.2.1,
b) guidance on the loadings to consider.
without the need for second order computer modelling;
21/02/2012
Copy,
All flange transverse members designed in accordance with this part

b) guidance on the loadings to consider.
should be supported by transverse web stiffeners at main beam webs,
21/02/2012
All flange
unless transverse
a special membersisdesigned
investigation in accordance
undertaken to show such with this partto
stiffening
Uncontrolled
should be supported by transverse web stiffeners at main beam webs,

be unnecessary.
Institution,
unless a special investigation is undertaken to show such stiffening to

This section provides limited rules for the design of transverse members
be unnecessary.
Institution,
required to support a flange projecting from an outer main beam. Such

This sectionmembers
transverse providesshould
limitedbe rules for the design
continuous of transverse
with the transversemembers
member
Standards
required
between main to support
beamawebs.
flangeThe
projecting
strengthfrom
and an outer main
stiffness beam.
criteria of Such
transverse members should
BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, be continuous
9.2.1(4), should bewith the transverse
applied in their design member
and
Standards
betweenby
verified main beamorder
second webs. The strength
analysis. and stiffness
The assumptions incriteria of
13/05/2016,
BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.2.1(1) 9.2.1(4),to should be applied

(3) should in their as
be modified design and
follows:
BritishBritish
verified by second order analysis. The assumptions in

a) The transverse stiffener should be assumed to be cantilevered from
BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.2.1(1) to (3) should be modified as follows:
the main beam web with an initial sinusoidal imperfection w0.
Burman,
a) The transverse stiffener should be assumed to be cantilevered from

b) In the definition of s in BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.2.1(2), b should
the main beam web with an initial sinusoidal imperfection w .
Burman,
be modified to 2b and b re-defined to be the length of the 0

b) In the definition
cantilever of s in BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.2.1(2), b should
projection.
Ms Jacqueline
Consulting,
be modified to 2b and b re-defined to be the length of the

BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.2.1(5) should not be applied as it relates to
cantilever projection.
Jacqueline
simply supported conditions at each end of the transverse stiffener.

BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.2.1(5) should not be applied as it relates to
If allowance is made for orthotropic action, σcr,p should not be obtained
simply supported conditions at each end of the transverse stiffener.
from BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, Annex A, which caters only for plates
Copy:Copy:
If allowance
supported onisfour
made for orthotropic
sides. It should either beσdetermined
action, cr,p should not frombe elastic
obtained
Ms
from BS
theory orEN 1993-1-5:2006,
orthotropic Annex be
action should A, which
ignored and σonly
caters for plates
cr,p taken equal to
Licensed copy:Hyder
Licensed
σ
supported
cr,c . on four sides. It should either be determined from elastic
theory or orthotropic action should be ignored and σcr,p taken equal to
Licensed
σcr,c.
40 • © BSI 2010
40 • ©
40 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
21.2 Loadings to consider and effective section

21.2 Loadings to consider and effective section
21.2.1 Where transverse members are provided on flanges or decks
2012
21.2.1 Wherebetransverse members areeffects,

provided on flanges
the or decks
2012
they should designed for all action including following:

they should be designed for all action effects, including the following:
Institution
a) to transfer local loading from the flange or deck to the web of main
Institution
a) to transfer local loading from the flange or deck to the web of main
beams;
beams;
b) to distribute loading transversely to the main beams;
Standards
b) to distribute loading transversely to the main beams;

c) to withstand forces arising from a longitudinal change of slope of a
Standards
c) flange;
to withstand forces arising from a longitudinal change of slope of a
flange;
d) to withstand forces from wet concrete and permanent loads;
British
d) to withstand forces from wet concrete and permanent loads;

e) to provide rigid support to a compression flange with or without
British
e) to provide rigid
longitudinal support to a compression flange with or without
stiffeners.
The
longitudinal stiffeners.
21.2.2 Additionally they should be designed for the following:
The
21.2.2 Additionally they should be designed for the following:

(c)(c)
a) moments induced by initial deformations due to applied loads

Copy,
a) moments induced
(particularly by initial
live loads) deformations
magnified due to applied
by the compressive loads
force in the
Copy,
(particularly
flange; live loads) magnified by the compressive force in the
flange;
Uncontrolled
b) moments induced by deflections due to applied loads (particularly

©Uncontrolled
b) moments
live loads)induced
magnifiedby deflections due to applied
by the compressive loads
force in (particularly
the flange;
live loads) magnified by the compressive force in the flange;
BSI
c) restraint of distortion of box girders;

c) restraint of distortion of box girders;
d) creep and shrinkage of concrete, and differential temperature;
11:40,
d) creep and shrinkage of concrete, and differential temperature;

11:40,
e) longitudinal curvature of the main flange in elevation;

Copy,
e) longitudinal curvature of the main flange in elevation;

21/02/2012
f) profile deviations from the specified profile in elevation of a

21/02/2012
f) profile deviations
compression from the specified profile in elevation of a
flange.
compression flange.
Uncontrolled
NOTE In box girders, a flange transverse member may also be part of an

NOTE In
internal box frame
cross girders,
oradiaphragm.
flange transverse member may also be part of an
Institution,
internal cross frame or diaphragm.

Institution,
21.3 Strength and stiffness of transverse flange

21.3 Strength
stiffenersand stiffness of transverse flange
stiffeners
Standards
The transverse flange stiffener should meet the strength and stiffness
Standards
The transverseofflange
requirements BS ENstiffener should meet
1993-1-5:2006, theThe
9.2.1. strength and stiffness
expressions in
13/05/2016,
requirements of BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.2.1.

Clause 15 may be used to perform the checks. The
 Text deleted.
expressions in

Clause 15 may be used to perform the checks.
British
British
22 Shape limitations for stiffener

22 outstands
Shape limitations for stiffener
Burman,
Burman,
outstands
Consulting,
Jacqueline
22.1 General
Jacqueline
22.1 General
This clause gives guidance on design for torsional buckling of open
This clause
stiffeners gives
and guidance
provides on design
formulae for torsional
to carry buckling of open
out the necessary
stiffeners and provides formulae to carry out the necessary
Ms
verifications. A simplified criterion is given for flat stiffeners.

Ms
verifications. A simplified criterion is given for flat stiffeners.

Copy:
Licensed copy:HyderCopy:
Licensed
Licensed
© BSI 2010 • 41
© BSI2013
2010 • 41
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
22.2 Verification of torsional buckling

All stiffener outstands should satisfy the requirements of
BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.2.1(7) or 9.2.1(8), as appropriate. Flat

stiffeners may be assumed to be stable against torsional buckling if
hs fy
- 12,9 . In applying BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.2.1(8), the
ts 235
critical stress for torsional buckling may be taken as:
1 ⎡ π 2 ECw ⎤
σ cr = ⎢ GI T + ⎥;
Ip ⎢⎣ L2 ⎥⎦
where:
Cw is the warping constant of the stiffener about the attachment line;
L is the length between transverse restraints to the stiffener;
For an angle section:
⎡ B 3tf Ht ⎤
3⎢ 2 + Btf + s ⎥
1.3 B H tf ⎢ 3 H 2 3 ⎥.
Cw =
3 ⎢ Btf + Hts ⎥
⎢ ⎥
BSI
⎣ ⎦
For a tee section:
Copy,
⎡ B 3tf Ht ⎤
⎢
3 2 + Btf + s ⎥
1.1B H tf ⎢ 12 H 2 3 ⎥
Cw = .
12 ⎢ Btf + Hts ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
where B, H, ts and tf are as shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9 Notation for angles and tees
B
13/05/2016,
tf tf
B
H
H
Jacqueline Burman,
Consulting,
ts ts
Licensed Copy: Ms
Licensed copy:Hyder
42 • ©
42 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
23 Box girders – the effects of torsion

and distortion
23.1 General
This section introduces traditional methods for evaluating torsional and
distortional actions in box girders. In current practice it is likely that FE
models using 2D elements will provide the values more readily, with
much less scope for confusion. However, an FE analysis merges the
longitudinal stresses due to axial force, bending, torsional warping and
distortional warping. When evolving a design, knowledge of the relative
magnitudes of the separate components can be useful, and these
algebraic expressions provide such knowledge. It is also useful to
understand what factors influence each component.
The shapes of the theoretical stress patterns shown in this section can
be useful when interpreting an FE analysis although, in situations where
shear-lag is particularly significant, the patterns will differ slightly from
those shown here.
The use of 23.2 and 23.3 for the calculation of distortional effects
BSI
requires that the distortional restraints satisfy the given stiffness

criteria.
If the effects of St Venant torsion are neglected in open sections, the full
Copy,
applied torsional moment should be carried as warping torsion.

23.2 Restraint of torsional warping in box girders

23.2.1 General
When an increment of torque, T, is applied at a section of a box girder
(other than at a free end) the resulting maximum longitudinal stress at
this section due to restraint of torsional warping, σTW, may be calculated
as follows:
13/05/2016,
23.2.2 Stresses at the junction between the bottom flange

and web
At the junction between the bottom flange and a web, at the section
where an increment of torque, T, is applied:
Jacqueline Burman,
DT
Consulting,
σTWB = ;
IT
where:
D is the depth of the box at its centreline measured between centres of
flange plates, or, in composite construction, between the effective
centroid of the composite top flange and the centre of the bottom flange
Licensed Copy: Ms
plate;
Licensed copy:Hyder
4 Ao2
IT is the torsional constant b;
∑t
Ao is the area enclosed by the median line of the perimeter material of
the section;
© BSI2013
2010 • 43
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
b, t are the width and thickness, respectively, of each wall of the section
forming the closed perimeter.
NOTE For boxes with a composite flange,

see BS EN 1994-2:2005, 5.4.2.2(11).
23.2.3 Stresses at the junction between the top flange and

the web
At the junction between the top flange and a web, at the section where
an increment of torque T is applied:
2
⎛ BB ⎞ DT
σ TWT = ⎜ ⎟ 3 ;
⎝ BT ⎠ ⎛ 2 Bc ⎞
IT ⎜ 1 + ⎟
⎝ BT ⎠
where:
Bc is the width of flange projection beyond the centre of the web;
BB, BT are the widths of the bottom and top flanges, respectively,
measured between the centres of webs.
NOTE Where there are two or more box girders in a single structure with
BSI
connected top flanges, σTWT may be taken as zero.
23.2.4 Distribution of stresses

Copy,
At a distance x from the section where an increment of torque is applied:

σ TW,x = σ TW e− (2 x BB )
.
The distribution across the section of the longitudinal stress due to

restraint of torsional warping may be assumed to be as shown in
Figure 10.
Figure 10 Distribution of torsional warping stresses

13/05/2016,
2 Bc
TWT max 1+
BT BT BT
2 2 Bc
TWT max
TWT max
Jacqueline Burman,
T
Consulting,
Positive
compressive BB
TWB max TWB max

Licensed Copy: Ms
Licensed copy:Hyder
44 • ©
44 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PDPD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PDPD
6695-2:2008
6695-2:2008
23.3Restraint
23.3 Restraint
of of
distortional
distortional
warping
warping
23.3.1General
23.3.1 General
WhenWhen
torque
torque
is applied
is applied
to ato
box
a box
girder
girder
other
other
thanthan
at aat
cross
a cross
frame
frame
or aor a
diaphragm,
diaphragm,
the the
resulting
resulting
longitudinal
longitudinal
stress
stress
duedue
to restraint
to restraint
of of
distortional
distortional
warping σDWσmay
warping DW may
be calculated
be calculated
in accordance
in accordancewithwith
23.3.2,
23.3.2,
provided
provided
thatthat
the the
cross
cross
frames
frames
or diaphragms
or diaphragms are are
in accordance
in accordance
withwith
23.3.4.
23.3.4.
23.3.2Corner
23.3.2 Corner
stresses
stresses
TheThe
distortional
distortional
warping
warping
stress σDWσmay
stress DW may
be calculated
be calculated
as follows.
as follows.
a) a)
At aAtjunction
a junction
between
between
a flange
a flange
andand
a web,
a web,
under
under
a uniformly
a uniformly
distributed
distributed
applied
applied
torque
torque
TUDTper
UD per
unitunit
length
length
of span:
of span:
2 2
T TzLUDDzLD
= =UD
σ DWσ DW when β LDβ <LD1.6
when <;1.6;
4,5 B
4,5
T IB
yyT I yy
T TzL2 zL2
σ DWσ DW
= 0,6
= 0,6 UD UDD D
when β LDβ .
when .;1.6 ;
LD1.6
β 2 Lβ2D2BLT2DIB
yyT I yy
BSI
where:
where:
z iszthe
is the
distance
distance
from
from
the the
horizontal
horizontal
neutral
neutral
axisaxis
to the
to the
flange/web
flange/web
Copy,
junction;
junction;
Iyy isIyythe
is the
second
second
moment
moment
of area
of area
of the
of the
girder,
girder,
inclusive
inclusive
of its
of effective
its effective
flanges,
flanges,
about
about
the the
horizontal
horizontal
neutral
neutral
axis;
axis;
LD is
LDthe
is the
spacing
spacing
of cross
of cross
frames
frames
or diaphragms;
or diaphragms;
BT isBTasisdefined
as defined
in 23.2.3;
in 23.2.3;
0.250.25
⎛ KL⎛4KL ⎞4 ⎞
β LDβ is
LDgiven by ⎜⎜by ⎜⎜D ⎟⎟ D
is given ⎟;
⎟ ;
⎝ EI⎝yyEI⎠ yy ⎠
24D24DRYT
D RD
13/05/2016,
K isKgiven
PP by by YT
is given 3 3 ;
Q ;Q
BT BT
DYTDisYTthe
is the
transverse
transverse
flexural
flexural
rigidity,
rigidity, of the
EI, EI, of the
top top
flange,
flange,
including
including
transverse
transverse
stiffeners
stiffeners
if any,
if any,
per per
unitunit
length
length
of span;
of span;
Jacqueline Burman,
BB +BBBT+ BT
RD =RD = ; ;
⎛ ⎛BB BB⎞ ⎛ 2⎞D⎛YT 2DdYT d ⎞ ⎞ ⎧⎪ ⎛ ⎧⎪ ⎛ BB ⎞BBD⎞YTD dYT d ⎫⎪ ⎫⎪
Consulting,
BB ⎜BB ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ + 1⎟+−1B
⎟ B−VB
DB⎨V⎜D2 ⎨+⎜ 2 + ⎟ ⎟ + 1⎬+ 1⎬
⎝ BB⎝ +BBBT+ ⎠B⎝TD⎠YC
⎝DBYC
T BT ⎠ ⎠ ⎩⎪ ⎝ ⎩⎪ ⎝ BT ⎠BD ⎠D
T YC BYC
T BT ⎭⎪ ⎭⎪
where:
where:
VD is
VDasisdefined
as defined
in 23.4.2;
in 23.4.2;
BB, B
BBT, are
BT are
as defined
as defined
in 23.2.3;
in 23.2.3;
Licensed Copy: Ms
DYBDisYBthe
is the
transverse
transverse
flexural
flexural
rigidity,
rigidity,
EI, of
EI,the
of the
bottom
bottom
flange,
flange,
including
including
Licensed copy:Hyder
transverse
transversestiffeners,
stiffeners,
if any,
if any,
per per
unitunit
length
length
of span;
of span;
d isdthe
is the
clearclear
depth
depth
of the
of the
webweb
measured
measured
in the
in the
plane
plane
of the
of the
web,web,
or, if
or, if
corner
corner
stiffening
stiffening
is provided,
is provided,
the the
distance
distance
between
between
the the
centres
centres
of of
connections
connectionsof such
of such
stiffening
stiffening
to the
to the
web;web;
DYCDisYCthe
is the
transverse
transverse
flexural
flexural
rigidity,
rigidity, of the
EI, EI, of the
web,web,
including
including
its its
transverse
transverse
stiffeners,
stiffeners,
if any,
if any,
per per
unitunit
length
length
of span.
of span.
© The
© The British
British Standards
Standards © BSI
© 2012
BSI
2010
Institution
Institution • 45
2010
•
2013
2012 • 45
•
45 45
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
b) At a junction between a flange and a web, due to a concentrated

applied torque T where the axle or concentrated load is applied
mid-way between diaphragms:

T zLD
σDW = when β LD - 1,0 ;
BT I yy
T zLD
σDW = when β LD > 1,0.
β LD BT I yy
c) Under uniformly distributed loading (UDL) and concentrated
loading, the effects due to each of them should be separately
calculated as described in a) and b), and the sum of the resulting
stresses taken.
d) Under a series of concentrated torques due to axle loads:
∑ σ DW = σ DW1 ∑ Cβ x ;
where:
σDW1 is the value of σDW obtained under b) for a unit axle load;
Cβ x is given by Pn ( cosβ x − sinβ x ) e− β x ;

BSI
Pn is the load on an axle at distance x from the mid-point between

diaphragms;
Copy,
0.25
⎛ Kx 4 ⎞
βx = ⎜ ⎟ ;
⎜ EI yy ⎟
⎝ ⎠
K is as defined in a).
23.3.3 Distribution of distortional warping stress

Stress due to restraint of distortional warping should be assumed to be
distributed over the cross-section as shown in Figure 11. In Figure 11,
Bc is the width of the flange projection beyond the web, or, where there
are two or more boxes in one structure, half the clear width of flange
13/05/2016,
between boxes.
Figure 11 Longitudinal stresses due to distortional warping
BT
Jacqueline Burman,
2 Bc
Consulting,
DWT max
2 Bc
DWT max 1+
BT
zT
Y Y
Licensed Copy: Ms
zB
Licensed copy:Hyder
BB
DWB max
46 • ©
46 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
23.3.4 Effective diaphragm and cross frames

23.3.4.1 General
To be effective for the purposes of this clause, a cross frame or a
diaphragm should be such as to satisfy the conditions given in 23.3.4.2
and 23.3.4.3, where the load effects mentioned should be considered as
acting in combination with all other simultaneously acting loading
effects.
23.3.4.2 Strength
a) A plate diaphragm should be capable of resisting a shear stress τD
given by:
τD = T/2BDtp
where:
tp is the thickness of the diaphragm plate;
B is the average of the widths at the top and bottom flanges;
D is as defined in 23.2.3;
T is the torque due to loads applied at the diaphragm and between the
BSI
adjacent diaphragms or cross frames on either side. Any torque applied

between the diaphragm and an adjacent diaphragm or cross frame may
be apportioned by simple static analysis.
Copy,
b) A cross frame consisting of a pair of cross braces connecting both

pairs of opposite corners of the box, in which both braces are

considered to be simultaneously effective, should be capable of
carrying a force FB in each brace, given by:

TLp BB
FB = ;
4 BDBT
where:
T, B, D are as defined in a);
13/05/2016,
BB, BT are as defined in 23.2.3;

Lp is as defined in 23.3.4.3.
c) A vee-braced cross frame with the vee centred in the top or bottom
flange, in which both braces are considered to be simultaneously
effective, should be capable of carrying a force FB in each brace,
Jacqueline Burman,
as given by:
Consulting,
TLb BB
FB = ;
2BDBT
where:
T, B, D are as defined in a);
Licensed Copy: Ms
Lb is as defined in 23.3.4.3;
Licensed copy:Hyder
BB, BT are as defined in 23.2.3.
© BSI2013
2010 • 47
PD
PD
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
6695-2:2008
6695-2:2008
23.3.4.3
23.3.4.3 Stiffness
Stiffness
A Across
crossframe
frameorora adiaphragm
diaphragmshould
shouldhave
havea adimensionless
dimensionlessstiffness
stiffness
SS
not
notless
lessthan
thanthe
thevalue
valueobtained
obtainedfrom
fromTable
Table1.1.
where:
where:
Gt
Gt
Gt L22δ2pδ2δb22K
K
d pL
d pLp b b K
S S= =
 is isfor
forplated
plateddiaphragm;
diaphragm;

22A2
ApApLpLDL D
D
EAδ 2δ 2K K
EA
S S= = b bb b is isfor
fora across
crossbraced
bracedcross
crossframe;
frame;
L DL DL pL p
EAEAL2Lδ22δK2 K
S S= = b bp p3b 3b is is forfor a vee
a veebraced
braced cross frame,
cross frame,irrespective
irrespectiveofofwhether
whether
4L4L
DDL bL b
the
thecentre
centreofofthetheV Vis isatatthe
thetop
topororbottom
bottomflange;
flange;
KK
S S= = R R is isfor
forananunbraced
unbracedring
ringcross
crossframe
framewith
withconstant
constantsection
section
KL
KL
DD
framing
framingmembers;
members;alternatively,
alternatively,
P Pδ 2δK2 K
S S= = P Pb b is isfor
forany
anytype
typeofofcross
crossframe
frameincluding
includinga aring
ringcross
crossframe;
frame;
Δ pΔLpDLD
BSI
ΔpΔis
p is
the
thechange
changeininlength
lengthofofthe
thediagonal
diagonalLpLcalculated
p calculated totooccur
occurunder
under
the
thesystem
systemofofdiagonal
diagonalforces
forces PPPas
P asshown
shown inin
Figure
Figure12.
12.
This
Thismethod
method ofof
deriving
derivingstiffness
stiffnessmay
maybebeused
usedforforany
anytype
typeofofframe
frameincluding
includingthose
those
Copy,
given
givenabove.
above.
Figure
Figure1212 System
Systemofofdiagonal
diagonalforces
forces
BTBT
PPPP PPPP
BB
DD
13/05/2016,
22
DD
L PL P
LWLW DD
22
Jacqueline Burman,
Consulting,
BBBB PPPP
PPPP
LpL=p =√(D
√(D2 +
2 +
B2B),2),the
thelength
lengthofofthe
thediagonal;
diagonal;
Licensed Copy: Ms
LbLis
b is
the
thelength
lengthofofthe
thebrace;
brace;
Licensed copy:Hyder
ApAis
p is
the
thesurface
surfacearea
areaofofthe
theplated
plateddiaphragm,
diaphragm,given
givenbybyBD;
BD;
AbAis
b is
the
thearea
areaofofthe
thecross-section
cross-sectionofofthe
thebrace;
brace;
4BD
4BD
δbδis
b is
thetheunit
unitlength
lengthflexibility
flexibilitygiven
givenbyby ; ;
KBKB
BLBpLp
B B ++BB
B Bisisthe
theaverage
averagewidth
widthofofthe
thebox
boxgirder givenbyby T T B B; ;
girdergiven
22
LDLDand andK Kare
areasasdefined
definedinin23.3.2;
23.3.2;
4848
48 • •
• ©©
BSI
© BSI
2010
The 2010
2012
PDPD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PDPD
PD
6695-2:2008
PD
PD
6695-2:2008
6695-2:2008
PD
6695-2:2008
6695-2:2008
6695-2:2008
KR KisKRRthe
isK
K isRRthe
the
value
isK
isRthe
the
value
value
is of
the
value
value
Kof
of
value
derived
Kof
Kofderived
derived
KKofderived
derived
Kbyderived
taking
by
bytaking
by
taking
bytaking
taking
byYBtaking
D D,DYB
D D
YB ,D,YB
YC DDand
YB,D
,D
YC
YCYB ,PD
Dand
and
D
YC
YCand
Dand
YTDD
YCPD
6695-2:2008
asand
YTDD
YT the
as6695-2:2008
as the
YTD
YT as
the
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2013
2012 • ⎦ ⎦
PDPD
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
6695-2:2008
6695-2:2008
b) b)
At aAtjunction
a junction
between
between
a transverse
a transverse
stiffener
stiffener
on aonweb
a web
andanda a
transverse
transverse
stiffener
stiffener
or cross
or cross
beambeam
on aonflange,
a flange,
duedue
to ato a
concentrated
concentrated torque
torque
T where
T where
an axle
an axle
or concentrated
or concentratedloadload
is is
applied
applied
mid-way
mid-way between
betweendiaphragms:
diaphragms:
TFDTFD
σDBσ=DB = β LDβ L
when β LDβ L
D when ; 2;
> D2 >
2 BT2LBDTW
LD W
TFDTFD
σDBσ=DB = ( β L(Dβ)L3,9D )when
3,9
β
whenLDβ - - 2,65
LD2,65 ; ;

15,515,5
BT LBDTW
LD W
where
where
all symbols
all symbols
are are
as defined
as defined
in a).
in a).
c) c)Under
Under
UDLUDL
andand
concentrated
concentratedloading,
loading,
the the
effects
effects
of the
of the
uniformly
uniformly
distributed
distributed
andand
concentrated
concentratedloads
loads
should
should
be separately
be separately
calculated
calculated
as described
as described
in a)
inand
a) and
b), b),
andand
the the
sumsum
of the
of the
resulting
resulting
stresses
stresses
used.
used.
d) d)
Under
Under
a series
a series
of concentrated
of concentrated
torques
torques
duedue
to axle
to axle
loads:
loads:
∑ σ∑
DBσ =
DBσ DB1 ∑ P∑
= σ DB1 β xP;β x ;
where:
where:
BSI
σDB1σDB1
is the
is the
value of σof
value DBσobtained
DB obtained
under
under
b) for
b) for
a unit
a unit
axleaxle
load;
load;
− β x− β x
Pβ xPisβ xgiven
is given Pn ( P
by by n (β
cos βx
x+
cos x )βex
sin+βsin ) e; ;
βnx, βare
Pn, P x are
as defined
as defined
in 23.3.2d).
in 23.3.2d).
Copy,
23.5Distribution
23.5 Distribution
of of
distortional
distortional
bending
bending
stress
stress
Transverse
Transverse
distortional
distortional
bending
bending
moments
momentsshould
should
be assumed
be assumedto be
to be
distributed
distributed
overover
the the
cross-section,
cross-section,
as shown
as shown
in Figure
in Figure
13, 13,
andand
the the
resulting
resulting
stresses
stresses
calculated
calculated
using
using
the the
appropriate
appropriate
value
value
of Wof at
Weach
at each
section.
section.
Figure
Figure
13 13Transverse
Transverse
distortional
distortional
moments
moments
13/05/2016,
MDBM=DB DB
= WDB
T WT
Jacqueline Burman,
Consulting,
MDBM=DB DB
= WDB
B WB
Licensed Copy: Ms
Licensed copy:Hyder
50
50 50
• ©
• •
© BSI
© BSI
The 20102010Standards Institution 2013
British 2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
24 Box girders – the design of plated

diaphragms
24.1 General
Diaphragms may in general be designed using either non-linear finite
element analysis with appropriate imperfections in accordance with
BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, Annex C, or by using the reduced stress method
of BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, Clause 10, in conjunction with elastic finite
element analysis and appropriate global imperfections. This informative
appendix is however intended to be used as a self-contained procedure
for hand methods of calculation, except where specific reference is
made to other parts of BS EN 1993 or this document.
The design methods of 24.5 and 24.6 use strength provisions that are
compatible only with the assumed methods of stress derivation
contained therein. Stresses derived by finite element analyses should
not be substituted directly for these derived stresses.
a) Diaphragms should be provided at supports of box girders to

transfer applied loads to the bearings. Subject to the limitations
BSI
and provisions of 24.2, unstiffened and stiffened diaphragms

should be designed in accordance with 24.5 and 24.6,
respectively, on the basis of the loadings and effective sections
Copy,
given in 24.3 and 24.4, respectively.

b) The diaphragm/web junctions should meet the provisions of 24.7.
Deck cross beams and/or cantilevers supporting the deck and

located in the plane of a diaphragm should meet the provisions

of 24.8.
c) The geometric notation used is shown in Figure 14.
24.2 Limitations
24.2.1 Box girders

13/05/2016,
Box girders should be of nominally rectangular cross-section or of

nominally trapezoidal cross-section with webs in single planes inclined
at less than 45° from the vertical, and when unstiffened, should be
nominally symmetrical about a vertical axis (i.e. ignoring cross fall or
Jacqueline Burman,
superelevation).
Consulting,
Box girders should be of a single cell form with or without

interconnecting cross members and cantilevers and should not be
subject to internal pressure effects due to sealing.
24.2.2 Diaphragms and bearings

Licensed Copy: Ms
The plane of the diaphragm should be within ±5° to the normal to the
Licensed copy:Hyder
axis of the girder in elevation, within ±10° in plan, and within ±5° of a
vertical plane.
The diaphragm should be in a single plane, except as permitted
in 24.2.4 for starter plates.
Each diaphragm should be supported on either a single bearing or twin
bearings under each box.
© BSI2013
2010 • 51
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
Bearings under unstiffened diaphragms should be symmetrically placed

about the vertical axis of the diaphragm.
The contact width j of a stiffened diaphragm above a bearing, as defined

in Figure 14, should not exceed half the depth of the diaphragm with a
single bearing nor one-quarter of the depth of the diaphragm with twin
bearings.
A bearing below a stiffened diaphragm should not extend across the
width of the diaphragm beyond the line of attachment of a bearing
stiffener by more than 15tpεp,
where:
εp = √(235/fyp);
fyp is the nominal yield strength of the diaphragm plate.
Figure 14 Geometric notation for diaphragms

B
BSI
Ss Thickness
Intermediate stiffeners tp
Copy,
D
D tw
2
Bearing wh tf
stiffeners Diaphragm / web
c
junction section
13/05/2016,
Bd
Stub
stiffeners
Z
Jacqueline Burman,
y
1,5 tf
Consulting,
tp z
Y Y
Z
Licensed Copy: Ms
Licensed copy:Hyder
15tpεp
Bearing detail
52 • ©
52 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
24.2.3 Cross beams and cantilevers

Where the deck projects beyond the box web and is supported on cross
beams and/or cantilevers which are in the plane of a diaphragm, the

flanges of such members should provide a continuous load path through
each box web and across the diaphragm for the forces they are required
to carry. These members should be assumed to be supported by the
diaphragm/box web junctions (see 24.7 and 24.8).
24.2.4 Starter plates

Where starter plates are to be used to connect a diaphragm to the box
walls, they should either be:
a) positioned in the plane of the diaphragm and be butt-welded or
connected by double cover plates to the diaphragm; or
b) lap jointed to the diaphragm, provided that a suitable system of
stiffening is designed to withstand, in addition to any other load
effects, all the moments resulting from the eccentricity of
connection.
24.2.5 Stiffeners to diaphragms

BSI
All stiffeners to plate diaphragms should be in accordance with

BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.2.1(8) and 9.2.1(9).
Copy,
Bearing stiffeners should be symmetrically placed about the diaphragm

plate, unless a special analysis is made of the effects of any eccentricity
with respect to that plate.

24.2.6 Plating in diaphragms

The thickness of plating in an unstiffened diaphragm should be uniform
throughout.
24.2.7 Openings in unstiffened diaphragms

Openings in unstiffened diaphragms should be in accordance with the
13/05/2016,
following.
a) Only one circular opening may be provided on each side of the
vertical centreline of the diaphragm within the upper-third of the
height of the diaphragm.
Jacqueline Burman,
b) The diameter of any such opening should not exceed the least of:
Consulting,
• 6tp;
• D/20;
• B/20.
where:
Licensed Copy: Ms
tp is the diaphragm plate thickness;

Licensed copy:Hyder
D is the depth of the diaphragm (see Figure 14);

B is the width of the diaphragm taken as the average of the widths at the
top and bottom flange levels for boxes with sloping webs.
© BSI2013
2010 • 53
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
c) Cut-outs for longitudinal stiffeners on the box walls should have

the stiffeners connected to the diaphragm plate by one of the
following methods:
• welding, along at least one-third of the perimeter of the
cut-out;
• cleating to the longitudinal stiffener with at least two bolts or
rivets per side of the connection, or by full perimeter welding
of the cleat.
In addition, the length of the free edge of any cut-out should not exceed
10tpε p when any part of this free edge is within a distance 12tpε p from
any part of a bearing plate,
where:
tp is the diaphragm plate thickness;
εp = √(235/fyp);
24.2.8 Openings in stiffened diaphragms

BSI
24.2.8.1 Position of openings

With the exception of openings permitted in 24.2.8.4, openings should
not be positioned within the areas shown shaded in Figure 15a and
Copy,
Figure 15b.
24.2.8.2 Unstiffened openings

Unstiffened openings should be circular and of diameter not exceeding

the least of:
• 6tp;
• a/20;
• b/20;
except when:
13/05/2016,
fyp
σe u ;
2γ M0
for which the limiting diameter is twice the limits given in 24.2.8.3a),
b) and c);
Jacqueline Burman,
where:
Consulting,
a and b are the panel dimensions;

2 2
σe = σ p1 + σ p2 − σ p1 σ p2 + 3τ p2 ;
σp1,σp2 and τp are the stresses in the diaphragm plate derived in
accordance with 24.6;
Licensed Copy: Ms

Licensed copy:Hyder
Not more than one such opening should be positioned in a single plate
panel.
54 • ©
54 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
Figure 15a Openings in stiffened diaphragms – twin bearings

15tp εp
Connection line of
bearing stiffeners
Single Double
bearing bearing
stiffeners stiffeners
D
3
BSI
15tp εp
Copy,
Figure 15b Openings in stiffened diaphragms – single central bearing and

positioning of bearings
Connection line of 15 tp ε p
bearing stiffeners
D2 0,7 D1 (min.)
13/05/2016,
0,7 D2 (min.)
Jacqueline Burman,
Consulting,
D1
D
D
3
Licensed Copy: Ms
Licensed copy:Hyder
NOTE 1 Openings are not permitted in shaded areas.

NOTE 2 Dimensions are taken from top of cut-outs where present.
© BSI2013
2010 • 55
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
24.2.8.3 Stiffened openings

Stiffened openings should:
a) be framed on all sides by stiffeners;

b) have circular corners of radius at least one-quarter of the least
dimension of the hole, with no re-entrant corners;
c) be positioned such that the distance of any edge from an adjacent
wall of the box is at least 0,7 times the maximum dimension of the
hole parallel to the wall, plus the distance from the wall to the
tips of any cut-outs in the diaphragm for longitudinal stiffeners
(see Figure 15b), unless the adjacent plate is designed for
secondary in-plane stresses.
24.2.8.4 Cut-outs for longitudinal stiffeners

Cut-outs for longitudinal stiffeners should be in accordance
with 24.2.7c).
24.3 Loading on diaphragms

BSI
24.3.1 Derivation
The load effects in diaphragms and associated parts of box girders
should be derived from global analysis undertaken in accordance with
Copy,
BS EN 1993-2:2006, 5.2.
24.3.2 Effects to be considered

Diaphragms should be designed to resist, with due account being taken

of any lack of symmetry in the cross-section or in the bearing
arrangement, the combined effects of the following.
a) All externally applied loads and the associated bearing reactions.
b) Changes in bearing reactions and web shears due to:
1) creep, shrinkage and differential temperature;
13/05/2016,
2) settlement and other movement of supports.

NOTE 1 Transverse effects due to b) (1) may be neglected.
c) Errors in installation of bearings, comprising:
1) bearing misalignment in plan;
Jacqueline Burman,
2) errors in level of a single bearing, or in the mean levels of

Consulting,
more than one bearing at any support;

3) bearing inclination;
4) departures from common planarity of twin or multiple
bearings.
Licensed Copy: Ms
NOTE 2 Installation errors in (1), (2) and (3), within the tolerances
Licensed copy:Hyder
given in BS EN 1337 and BS EN 1090-2, are allowed for in 24.5 and 24.6
and their load effects need not be assessed separately.
d) Changes in longitudinal slope of box flanges at the diaphragm.
e) Errors of longitudinal camber in continuous construction.
NOTE 3 Allowance for this may be made by assuming, at the bearings,
a vertical displacement of a support relative to two adjacent supports
of 1/5 000 times the sum of the adjacent spans.
56 • ©
56 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
f) Out-of-plane moments due to any or all of the following, as

appropriate:
1) longitudinal movements of the bridge;

2) changes in slope of the bridge;
3) eccentricity due to bearing misalignment along the span or
due to the shape of the bearing; the combined eccentricity for
these may be taken as:
• half the width of the flat bearing surface plus 10 mm for
flat topped rocker bearing in contact with flat bearing
surface; or
• 3 mm for radiused upper bearing resting on flat or
radiused lower part; or
• 10 mm for flat upper bearing resting on radiused lower
part.
4) interconnection between deck and diaphragm stiffeners;
5) any intended eccentricity of the centroidal axes of the effective
section of the bearing stiffeners with respect to the diaphragm

BSI
plate.
24.4 Effective sections

Copy,
24.4.1 General
For determining the stresses in a diaphragm, the effective elastic

section modulus and effective area of a vertical cross-section, and the

effective vertical and horizontal shear areas, should be derived in
accordance with 24.4.2 and 24.4.3. For determining the stresses in
stiffeners, their effective sections should be derived in accordance
with 24.4.4 or 24.4.5, as appropriate.
In 24.4.2 and 24.4.3 the references to transverse tension and
compression apply to directions normal to the longitudinal axis of the
13/05/2016,
girder.
24.4.2 Vertical sections

24.4.2.1 General
Jacqueline Burman,
The determination of the effective area Ae and the effective section

Consulting,
modulus We of a vertical cross-section of a diaphragm, should be

based on effective areas of box flanges and diaphragm plate as given
in 24.4.2.2 to 24.4.2.5.
24.4.2.2 Effective flange width

In calculating an effective area of a box flange, an effective width be
Licensed Copy: Ms
should be determined separately for each side of the diaphragm and

Licensed copy:Hyder
should not exceed any of the following:

a) one-quarter of the distance of the section under consideration
from the nearest web/flange junction;
b) half the distance to an adjacent diaphragm or cross beam for any
flange in transverse tension, or for a composite flange in
transverse compression;
© BSI2013
2010 • 57
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
c) outside an end diaphragm, the actual width of plate provided;

d) 15tfεf for a non-composite flange in transverse compression. This
limit may be increased to one-quarter of the distance to an

adjacent diaphragm or cross beam provided that the transverse
compressive stress (using the increased width) does not exceed
the lesser of:
• one-quarter of the longitudinal compressive strength of the
flange;
2
⎛t ⎞
• 0,5 ⎜ f ⎟ E ;
⎝b⎠
where:
tf is the thickness of the flange plate;
εf = √(235/fyf);
fyf is the nominal yield strength of the flange plate;
b is the spacing of the longitudinal flange stiffeners or the distance
between box webs for an unstiffened flange.
24.4.2.3 Effective flange area

BSI
The effective area of a box flange should be determined as follows.

The effective area of steel plate on each side of the diaphragm should
Copy,
be taken as Kctfbe;
where:
tf is the flange thickness;

be is the effective width on the appropriate side of the diaphragm

derived from 24.4.2.2;
Kc is a coefficient taken as 1,0, except in the case of a non-composite
flange in transverse compression with an effective width greater
than 15tfε f when the value of Kc should be obtained from Figure 16 with
the dimension a taken as the spacing of longitudinal flange stiffeners
13/05/2016,
and dimension b taken as the distance from the diaphragm to an

adjacent cross beam or diaphragm. In using Figure 16, the restrained
curve should be used for diaphragms at internal supports of continuous
beams and the unrestrained curve for diaphragms at end supports;
Any transverse flange stiffeners within the effective width should be
Jacqueline Burman,
ignored.
Consulting,
In composite construction, the effective flange area may include the

area of steel reinforcement within the total effective width, and, if
subjected to transverse compression, may also include the transformed
area of concrete within the total effective width.
24.4.2.4 Diaphragm plate

Licensed Copy: Ms
Holes within the vertical section of a diaphragm should be deducted.

Licensed copy:Hyder
When a stiffened opening is provided, diaphragm plating extending

within the framing stiffeners by more than 10tpε p should be ignored,
where:
235
εp = .
fyp
58 • ©
58 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
24.4.2.5 Inclined webs

In the case of box girders with inclined webs, no part of the webs should
be included in the vertical section of a diaphragm.
24.4.3 Shear area

The effective vertical and horizontal shear areas Ave and Ahe should be
taken as the net areas of a vertical and horizontal cross-section,
respectively, of diaphragm plating only.
24.4.4 Diaphragm stiffeners

a) The effective section of a stiffener on a diaphragm should be taken
to comprise the stiffener with widths of diaphragm plate on each
side of the stiffener where available, not exceeding the lesser of:
• half the distance from the stiffener to an adjacent stiffener or
to the wall of the box; or
• 15εp times the thickness of the diaphragm plate.
b) Additionally, for a bearing stiffener, the effective width of plate

assumed on the side towards the web should not exceed half the
BSI
distance from the stiffener to the web/bottom flange junction.

c) The sectional area of discontinuous diaphragm stiffeners should be
ignored.
Copy,
24.4.5 Diaphragm/web junction

The effective section of this part should be taken to comprise a) below,

plus b), c), or d) as appropriate:

a) a width of web plating each side of the diaphragm (where
available) of up to 16 times the web thickness;
b) where there is a load bearing stiffener on the diaphragm, within a
distance of 25tp from the web: a width of diaphragm plate equal to
half the distance between the web and the load bearing stiffener;
13/05/2016,
c) where there is a stiffener, other than a load bearing stiffener, on

the diaphragm parallel to, and within a distance of 25tp from the
web: the area of this stiffener together with a width of the
diaphragm plate equal to 25tp;
Jacqueline Burman,
d) when there is no stiffener on the diaphragm parallel to, and within

a distance of 25tp from, the web: a width of diaphragm plate equal
Consulting,
to 15tpεp;
where:
εp is as defined in 24.4.2.4.
Licensed Copy: Ms
Licensed copy:Hyder
© BSI2013
2010 • 59
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
Figure 16 Coefficient Kc for plate panels under direct compression

0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6
Kc 0,5
1
0,4
2
BSI
4
0,3
3
5
Copy,
0,2
0,1
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Key
1 Curve 1
13/05/2016,
2 Curve 2
3 Curve 3
4 Restrained
5 Unrestrained
Jacqueline Burman,
NOTE The value of Kc to be used is the higher of the values obtained using
Consulting,
either:
a) curve 1 or 2 as relevant, with λ = b/(tfεf); or
b) curve 3, with λ = a/(tfεf);
where:
Licensed Copy: Ms
a is the panel dimension in the direction of stress considered;

Licensed copy:Hyder
b is the panel dimension normal to the direction of stress;

a will always give the higher value for Kc when a/b W 0,5.
For a/b < 0,5, (a) or (b) may give a higher value.
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2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
Figure 17 Reference point and notation for unstiffened diaphragms

B
yR
Reference
point D
wh lR
D
tf 2
Thickness of
diaphragm
plate = tp
1,5 tf 1,5 tf
j lR lf
j
j 4 L
lR
4
Extent of position Bp Extent of position

for Aveb for Avea
BSI
NOTE lR is taken as the least of:

D L
7.5tpε p or .
Copy,
8 2
24.5 Unstiffened diaphragms

24.5.1 General
Unstiffened diaphragms in accordance with 24.2.1 to 24.2.4, 24.2.6
and 24.2.7, should be designed to meet the yield criteria of 24.5.4 and
the buckling criterion of 24.5.5 using reference stress values of 24.5.2
and the buckling coefficients of 24.5.3. Web/flange junctions should
13/05/2016,
additionally be in accordance with 24.7.3.
24.5.2 Reference values of in-plane stresses

24.5.2.1 General
Jacqueline Burman,
The stresses in an unstiffened diaphragm, resulting from the load effects

given in 24.3, should be determined at the reference point indicated in
Consulting,
Figure 17, in accordance with 24.5.2.2 to 24.5.2.4, for each of the

appropriate reference stresses required.
24.5.2.2 Vertical stresses

The reference value of the in-plane vertical stress σR1 should be taken
Licensed Copy: Ms
as follows:
Licensed copy:Hyder
a) for a diaphragm with a single central bearing:

Rv (1 + 4e / tp ) ⎛T j⎞
σR1 = + 0,77 ⎜ b ⎟ ;
( j − Σwh ) tp ⎜ 2 I zp ⎟
⎝ ⎠
© BSI2013
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PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
b) for a diaphragm with a pair of twin symmetrical bearings:

Rv (1 + 4e / tp )
σR1 = ;
( j − Σwh ) tp
where:
Rv is the total vertical load transmitted by the diaphragm to one bearing
(including the effects of torque on twin bearings);
Tb is the torsional reaction at a single central bearing;
j is the width of contact of the bearing pad plus 1,5 times the thickness
of the bottom flange at each end if available (see Figure 14);
Σwh is the sum of the widths of any cut-outs for stiffeners within the
width j at the level immediately above the flange;
Izp is the second moment of area of the diaphragm plate of width j
excluding cut-outs, about the Y-axis (see Figure 14);
e is the eccentricity of bearing reaction along the span, which should
include the effects of:

BSI
• movements of the beam relative to the bearing due to changes

in temperature;
• changes in the point or line of contact at the spherical or
Copy,
cylindrical surface of a bearing due to slope of the beam when

deflected by load;
• uneven seating which may occur on a flat bearing surface;

• inaccuracy which may occur in positioning of the beam

relative to the bearing.
Values of eccentricity to satisfy c) and d) may be taken from 24.3.2f)3).
24.5.2.3 Horizontal stresses

The reference value of the in-plane horizontal stress σR2 should be taken
13/05/2016,
as:
⎡⎛ K p ΣRv T⎞ lf ⎤ 1 ΣRv tan β
σR2 = ⎢⎜ + ⎟ yR + Q fv ⎥ + ;
⎣⎝ 2 B⎠ 2 ⎦ We 2 Ae
where:
Jacqueline Burman,
Kp is a factor to allow for the effects of boundary shears and should be

Consulting,
taken as 2,0 in the absence of any special analysis;

ΣRv is the total vertical force transmitted by the diaphragm to the
bearings;
Qfv is the vertical force transmitted to the diaphragm by the portion of
the bottom flange over a width lf when there is a change of flange slope;
Licensed Copy: Ms
lf is the horizontal distance from the reference point to the nearest edge
Licensed copy:Hyder
of the bottom flange;

B is as defined in 24.2.7;
T is the torque transmitted to the diaphragm in shear through the box
walls and from cross beam and/or cantilever loading;
yR is the distance parallel to the bottom flange from the reference point
to the web mid-point (see Figure 17);
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PD 6695-2:2008
We and Ae are the effective section modulus and the effective area
respectively of the diaphragm and flanges at the vertical cross-section
through the reference point, derived in accordance with 24.4.2;

β is the inclination of the box web to the vertical.
24.5.2.4 Shear stresses

24.5.2.4.1 Reference value of in-plane shear stresses
Except as required by 24.5.2.4.2, the reference value of the in-plane
shear stress τR should be taken as follows:
⎛ ΣR T ⎞ 1 Q
τR = ⎜ v + Qfv + ⎟ + h ;
⎝ 2 2 B ⎠ Avea Ahe
where:
Rv, Qfv and T are as defined in 24.5.2.3;
Qh is the shear force due to transverse horizontal loads on the bridge
transmitted from the top flange to the diaphragm;

Avea is the minimum value of the effective vertical shear area, as given
BSI
in 24.4.3, for any section of diaphragm plating taken between the web
and a point j/4 inside the outer edge of the bearing (see Figure 17);
j is as defined in 24.5.2.2;
Copy,
Ahe is the effective horizontal shear area, as given in 24.4.3 for the
section of diaphragm plating through the reference point.

24.5.2.4.2 Diaphragms on twin symmetrical bearings

In addition to the values derived from 24.5.2.4.1, in the case of
diaphragms on twin symmetrical bearings where there is a change in
slope of the bottom flange, an alternative value τRf should be derived
from:
⎛T Q T ⎞ 1 Q
τRf = ⎜ + bv − ⎟ + h ;
13/05/2016,
⎝c 2 2 B ⎠ Aveb Ahe
where:
T is as defined in 24.5.2.3;
Qbv is the total vertical force transmitted to the diaphragm by the
Jacqueline Burman,
portion of the bottom flange between the inner edges of the bearings
when there is a change in flange slope;
Consulting,
c is the distance between centres of bearings;

Aveb is the minimum value of the effective vertical shear area, as given
in 24.4.3, for any section of diaphragm plating taken within a distance
lR from the inner edge of a bearing (i.e. towards the diaphragm
Licensed Copy: Ms
centreline) and a distance j/4 inside the same inner edge of the bearing
Licensed copy:Hyder
(see Figure 15a and Figure 15b);

lR is as defined in Figure 17.
This value τRf should be adopted if it exceeds the value of τR determined
in 24.5.2.4.1.
© BSI2013
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PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
24.5.3 Buckling coefficient

In checking the adequacy of an unstiffened plate diaphragm, a
coefficient K is required which is given by:

K = K1K2K3K4
where:
2,2 D
K1 = 3,4 + ;
Bp
K2 for single central bearings;

j
K2 = 0,4 + ;
2 Bp
K2 for twin bearings;

c− j/3
K1 = 0,4 + ;
Bp
β
K3 = 1,0 − ;
100
BSI
fPp ⎛ 2B ⎞
K4 = 1,0 − ⎜⎜ − 1⎟ ;
ΣRv + T / lb ⎝ Bp ⎟
⎠
D, Bp, B and β (in degrees) are as defined in Figure 17;
Copy,
j is as defined in 24.5.2.2;
f = 0,55 when D/B u 0,7 or 0,86 when D/B W 1,5 with intermediate
values found by linear interpolation;

lb = j/2 for single central bearings, or c for twin bearings;
ΣRv and T are as defined in 24.5.2.3;
c is the distance between centres of bearings;
⎛ P ⎞
PP = Fp + Σ ⎜ ⎟;
⎝ K5 ⎠
13/05/2016,
Fp is the total uniformly distributed load applied to the top of the

diaphragm;
P is any local load applied to the top of a diaphragm;
Jacqueline Burman,
w
K5 = 0,4 + ;
Consulting,
2 B − Bp
w is the actual width of the load P plus an allowance for the dispersal
through a concrete flange at an angle of 45° to the vertical, and through
a steel flange at an angle of 60° to the vertical.
Licensed Copy: Ms
24.5.4 Yielding of diaphragm plate

Licensed copy:Hyder
The value of σR1 and √(σR22 + 3τR2) should not exceed the lesser of:
fyp
; or
γ M0
fyp ⎡ ( ΣRv + T / lb ) D ⎤⎥
⎢1,2 − ;
γ M0 ⎢ 3
⎣ 1,25 KEt p ⎥
⎦
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PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
where:
σR1, σR2 and τR are the reference values of stress as derived in 24.5.2.2,
24.5.2.3 and 24.5.2.4, respectively;

ΣRv and T are as defined in 24.5.2.3;
lb and K are as derived in 24.5.3;
D is as defined in Figure 17;
tp and fyp are, respectively, the thickness and nominal yield strength of
the diaphragm plate.
24.5.5 Buckling of diaphragm plate

0,7 KEtp3
The value of ΣRv + T/lb should not exceed ;
Dγ M1
where:
lb and K are as derived in 24.5.3;
D is as defined in Figure 17;
ΣRv and T are as defined in 24.5.2.3.

BSI
24.6 Stiffened diaphragms

Copy,
24.6.1 General
a) Diaphragms in accordance with 24.2.1 to 24.2.6 and 24.2.8 and

stiffened by an orthogonal system of stiffeners, generally as
indicated in Figure 14, should be designed such that the

diaphragm plate meets the yield criterion of 24.6.4 and the
buckling criterion of 24.6.5, using the appropriate stresses
determined from 24.6.2.
b) In addition, all types of stiffeners, as defined in a), b) and c) below,
should be designed such that they meet the yield criterion
of 24.6.6 and the buckling criterion of 24.6.7, using the
13/05/2016,
appropriate stresses determined from 24.6.3.

c) Web/flange junctions should, additionally, be in accordance
with 24.7.3 and 24.7.4.
d) Stiffening may consist of (see Figure 17):
Jacqueline Burman,
• bearing stiffeners, which span from a box flange immediately

Consulting,
above a bearing, to the flange at deck level;

• stub stiffeners, which are short vertical stiffeners above
bearings;
• intermediate stiffeners, which may be either primary or
secondary. Stiffeners spanning between box walls or, if
Licensed Copy: Ms
horizontal, between a box web and a bearing stiffener, or

Licensed copy:Hyder
between bearing stiffeners should be treated as primary. All

other stiffeners should be treated as secondary.
© BSI2013
2010 • 65
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
24.6.2 Stresses in diaphragm plates

24.6.2.1 General
Relevant stress components should be calculated at the corners of
each plate panel, using the appropriate section properties obtained
from 24.4, in accordance with 24.6.2.2 to 24.6.2.4. When secondary
bending stresses have been calculated in accordance with 24.2.8c)3)
they should be added to these components.
24.6.2.2 Vertical stresses

Vertical stresses σp1 may be neglected with the exception of those due
to:
a) a change in slope of the main girder flange; and
b) local wheel loads applied above the diaphragm, which should be
calculated in accordance with BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 3.2.3. The
maximum value within a panel may conservatively be assumed to
act over the entire length of the longitudinal edges of the panel.
24.6.2.3 Horizontal stresses

BSI
24.6.2.3.1 General
Horizontal stresses σp2 should be calculated under the action of the
following subclauses (24.6.2.3.2 and 24.6.2.3.3).
Copy,
24.6.2.3.2 The in-plane primary moment on the diaphragm

The in-plane moment M should be taken as:

⎛ Qfv lf ⎞
M = ( K p Qv + 2QT ) yw + K p Qc yc + Σ i=
1,n ( Pi yi ) − Rv yb + ⎜ ⎟;
⎝ 2 ⎠
where (as shown in Figure 18):
Qv is the total vertical component of symmetric shear transmitted into
the diaphragm from one web;
QT is the vertical component of torsional shear transmitted into the
13/05/2016,
diaphragm from one web, given by T/(2B);

NOTE In calculating the effects in plate panels occurring in a region
bounded by an inclined girder web, a girder top flange, and a vertical line
Jacqueline Burman,
passing through the bottom flange/web junction, an appropriate portion

of Qv and QT should be taken on the assumption that they are uniformly
Consulting,
distributed over the depth of the girder web.

yw is the horizontal distance, from the section under consideration to the
mid point of the web;
QC is the vertical component of any cross beam or cantilever shear;
yc is the horizontal distance from the section under consideration to the
Licensed Copy: Ms
root of the cross beam or cantilever;

Licensed copy:Hyder
Pi is a locally applied deck load between the section under consideration

and the web;
yi is the horizontal distance from the section under consideration to the
locally applied deck load Pi;
Rv is the total vertical load transmitted to one bearing by the diaphragm;
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PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
yb is the distance from the section under consideration to the inner edge
of the nearest bearing plus j/4 for sections between twin bearings, or is
zero for all other sections, and for diaphragms with a single bearing;
Kp, Qfv and lf are as defined in 24.5.2.3;
j is as defined in 24.5.2.2.
The horizontal bending stress σ2b should be taken as:
M
σ2b = ;
We
where:
We is the effective section modulus of a vertical cross-section of the
diaphragm and flanges, at the point under consideration, derived in
accordance with 24.4.2.
24.6.2.3.3 The horizontal component of girder shear when the webs are
inclined
a) The horizontal stress σ2q from this component should be taken as:
Qv tan β
σ2q = ;
Ae
BSI
where:
Qv is as defined in 24.6.2.3.2;
Copy,
Ae is the effective area of a vertical cross-section of the diaphragm

and flanges, at the point under consideration, derived in accordance
with 24.4.2;
β is the inclination of the box web to the vertical.

b) The total horizontal stress σp2 at the point under consideration
should be taken as:
σp2 = σ2b + σ2q.
Figure 18 Load effects and notation for stiffened diaphragms

13/05/2016,
Pi
wi
Qh
yi
Jacqueline Burman,
yc
Consulting,
Section under yc
Qc
consideration
Qv + QT
d1
D
d2
d2
2
Licensed Copy: Ms
d1
Licensed copy:Hyder
yb Rv
L
j
4
© BSI2013
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PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
24.6.2.4 Shear stresses

24.6.2.4.1 Shear stresses should be calculated under the action of the
shear flow q at the section of the diaphragm under consideration. This

shear flow q should be taken as constant over the net depth or width of
the diaphragm, and as follows:
a) In sections between a box web and an outer bearing stiffener:
Qv + QT + Qfv + Qc + ΣPi Qh
q= + .
De Be
b) In sections between inner bearing stiffeners where there are twin
bearings:
⎛Q Q T ⎞ 1 Qh
q = ⎜ v + bv + − QT ⎟ + .
⎝ 4 2 c ⎠ De Be
c) In sections between pairs of bearing stiffeners above one of a pair
of bearings:
⎛ 5Q T ⎞ 1 Qh
q= ⎜ v + ⎟ + ;
⎝ 8 2c ⎠ De j − Σwh
BSI
up to the level of the tops of any longitudinal bottom flange stiffeners

above the bearing, or to a height j in the absence of any cut-outs and:
⎛ 5Q T ⎞ 1 Q
Copy,
q= ⎜ v + ⎟ + h.
⎝ 8 2 c D
⎠ e Be
d) In sections between pairs of bearing stiffeners above a single

bearing:
⎛Q ⎞ 1 Qh
q= ⎜ v⎟ + ;
⎝ 4 ⎠ De j − Σwh
up to the tops of any longitudinal stiffener, bottom flange stiffener
cut-outs above the bearing or to a height j in the absence of any
cut-outs;
13/05/2016,
or, above that level:

⎛Q T ⎞ 1 Q
q = ⎜ v + − QT ⎟ + h;
⎝ 4 ss ⎠ De Be
where:
Jacqueline Burman,
Qv, QT, QC and Pi are as defined in 24.6.2.3;

Consulting,
Qfv is as defined in 24.5.2.3;

Qh, Qbv, c are as defined in 24.5.2.4;
De and Be are the net depth and width of the diaphragm at the point
under consideration;
Licensed Copy: Ms
j and Σwh are as defined in 24.5.2.2;

Licensed copy:Hyder
ss is the distance between stiffener centroids.
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PD 6695-2:2008
24.6.2.4.2 The shear stress τp in the sections referred to

in 24.6.2.4.1 a), b), c) or d) should be taken as:
q
τp = ;
tp
where:
tp is the thickness of the diaphragm plate in the panel under
consideration.
24.6.2.4.3 In sections other than those referred to in 24.6.2.4.1 a), b),
c), or d), τp may be neglected.
24.6.3 Stresses in diaphragm stiffeners

24.6.3.1 General
Stresses in stiffeners should be determined in accordance with 24.6.3.2
to 24.6.3.4, using the appropriate effective stiffener sections obtained
from 24.4.4.
The stiffener types: bearing, stub, primary intermediate and secondary

intermediate, are as defined in 24.6.1.
BSI
24.6.3.2 Vertical stresses in bearing stiffeners

a) The vertical stress σ1s in a bearing stiffener should be taken as:
Copy,
Ps
σ1s = ;
Ase
where:
Ps is the total vertical force in the group of bearing stiffeners;

Ase is the effective cross-sectional area of the group of bearing
stiffeners, derived in accordance with 24.4.4.
NOTE 1 Both values are taken at the level under consideration.
b) In the absence of openings in the diaphragm between the group of
bearing stiffeners and the adjacent web, the vertical force Ps may
13/05/2016,
be assumed to vary linearly from the value of the reaction at the

bearing to the value of any reaction transmitted from the deck to
the top of the bearing stiffener.
c) If there are any openings in the diaphragm between the group of
Jacqueline Burman,
bearing stiffeners and the adjacent web, no variation of load over

the depth of such openings should be assumed. The variation over
Consulting,
the remaining parts of the diaphragm should be assumed to be

linear of constant slope. In the case of a diaphragm above a single
bearing, an additional vertical stress σ1sT in a bearing stiffener
should be taken as:
Ts y
σ1sT = ;
Licensed Copy: Ms
I zse
Licensed copy:Hyder
where:
TS is the value of the moment in the plane of the diaphragm on the group
of bearing stiffeners;
y is the horizontal distance of the stiffener under consideration from the
centroidal axis, normal to the plane of the diaphragm, of the stiffener
group (see Figure 14);
© BSI2013
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PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
Izse is the effective second moment of area of the stiffener group about
the same centroidal axis, derived in accordance with 24.4.4.
NOTE 2 All values are taken at the point under consideration. TS may be
assumed to vary linearly, from the torsional reaction above the bearing,
to zero at the top flange level.
d) In the case of a diaphragm where stub stiffeners are used, the
stress calculated as above may be reduced locally by including the
area of such stiffeners, provided their connections to the
diaphragm plate are adequate to transfer their share of the bearing
reaction.
24.6.3.3 Bending stresses in bearing stiffeners

24.6.3.3.1 The bending stress σbs in a bearing stiffener due to an
out-of-plane moment should be taken as:
Ms z
σbs = ;
I yse
where:
Ms is the proportion of the out-of-plane moment carried by the group of

bearing stiffeners;
BSI
z is the distance of the extreme fibre of the stiffener under consideration

from the centroidal axis, parallel to the plane of the diaphragm, of the
stiffener group (see Figure 14);
Copy,
Iyse is the effective second moment of area of the stiffener group about
the same centroidal axis, derived in accordance with 24.4.4.

NOTE All values are taken at the point under consideration.

24.6.3.3.2 A proportion of the out-of-plane moment may be assumed to
be carried by the flange longitudinal stiffeners, provided due account is
taken of this in their design.
24.6.3.3.3 Stub stiffeners should not be considered to carry any part of
the out-of-plane moment carried by a bearing stiffener group unless
they have an adequate out-of-plane shear connection to the bearing
13/05/2016,
stiffeners and/or the box walls.
24.6.3.4 Equivalent stress for buckling check

24.6.3.4.1 General
Jacqueline Burman,
The equivalent axial stress σse to be used in the buckling check of all
stiffeners, should be taken as the maximum value within the
Consulting,
middle-third of the length ls of the stiffener, calculated from:
1 ⎡ σ q ls2 tp ks ⎛ ΣAs ⎞ ⎤
σse = σ a + ⎢ ⎜⎜ 1 + ⎟⎟ + τ h tp hh ⎥ ;
Ase ⎢⎣ amax ⎝ ls tp ⎠ ⎥⎦
Licensed Copy: Ms
where, for all stiffeners:

Licensed copy:Hyder
Ase is the effective cross-sectional area of the stiffener derived in

accordance with 24.4.4;
ls is the length of the stiffener between points of effective restraint;
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PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
ks is obtained from Figure 19 using the slenderness parameter:

ls
λ= ;
rseε s
rse is the radius of gyration of the effective section of the stiffener about
its centroidal axis parallel to the plane of the diaphragm, derived in
εs = √(235/fys);
fys is the nominal yield strength of the stiffener;
ΣA is the sum of the areas of all stiffeners which intersect the stiffeners
being designed, within the length ls not including any adjacent
diaphragm plate;
σp2 is derived in 24.6.2.3, for the level being considered, and taken as
positive when compressive;
σ2s is the average value of σp2 within the middle-third of the length ls;
σa, σq, amax, τh and hh are defined as follows for the appropriate type of
stiffener.
24.6.3.4.2 For bearing stiffeners

BSI
σa = σ1s + σ1sT;
σ1s and σ1sT are as derived in 24.6.3.2;
Copy,
σq = σ2s;
amax is the maximum spacing of vertical stiffeners which would ensure

the adequacy of the diaphragm plate and any horizontal stiffeners, and
may conservatively be taken as the actual spacing of vertical stiffeners;

τh and hh are taken as zero.
24.6.3.4.3 For all intermediate stiffeners
amax is one-half of the sum of the panel widths on each side of the
stiffener. Where the widths vary over the length ls the average value of
the middle-third should be used;
13/05/2016,
τ is the average shear stress in the panels on either side of the stiffener;
τh is zero except in the case of the stiffeners framing openings, where τh
is the shear stress which would occur in the plating adjacent to the
stiffener if the opening had been fully plated;
Jacqueline Burman,
hh is zero except in the case of the stiffeners framing openings where hh

Consulting,
is the dimension of the opening parallel to the stiffener.

NOTE In calculating amax and σq no account should be taken of any
opening in the diaphragm adjacent to the stiffener (i.e. it should be
assumed that a plate of thickness tp fills the opening).
Licensed Copy: Ms
Licensed copy:Hyder
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2010 • 71
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
Figure 19 Parameters for the design of stiffeners

1,0
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6
BSI
fls fls
fys fys
or 0,5
Copy,
ks
0,4
0,3
ks
13/05/2016,
0,2
0,1
Jacqueline Burman,
Consulting,
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
ls
= r
se s
Licensed Copy: Ms
Licensed copy:Hyder
72 • ©
72 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
24.6.3.4.4 For horizontal intermediate stiffeners only

σa = σp2;
σq = τ.
24.6.3.4.5 For vertical intermediate stiffeners only
σa = 0;
σ 2b max − σ 2b min
σq = τ + σ 2s + ;
12
σ2bmax and σ2bmin are the maximum and minimum values of σ2b derived
as in 24.6.2.3, within the length ls and taken as positive when
compressive.
24.6.4 Yielding of diaphragm plate

Plate panels between stiffeners, or between stiffeners and the box walls,
should be designed such that at all points in every panel:
2
2 2 2 ⎛ fyp ⎞
σ p1 + σ p2 − σ p1σ p2 + 3τ p2 -⎜
⎟ ;
⎝ γ M0 ⎠
BSI
where:
σp1 = σ1s+σ1sT for parts of plate panels forming part of the effective
section of any bearing stiffener, or is the vertical in-plane stress due to
Copy,
local deck loads and change in flange slope, if relevant, for all remaining
parts of plate panels;
σ1s is defined in 24.6.3.2;

σ1sT is as derived in 24.6.3.2, but with the value of y in that clause taken
as the dimension from the centroidal axis to the extreme fibre of the
effective section of the stiffener group;
σp2 is defined in 24.6.2.3;
τp is defined in 24.6.2.4;
13/05/2016,
24.6.5 Buckling of diaphragm plate

24.6.5.1 Plate panels need not be checked for buckling provided that:
a) the cross-section of the girder is nominally rectangular;
Jacqueline Burman,
b) the ratio of the depth of the diaphragm D to the minimum plate

Consulting,
thickness tp is less than 100εp, where εp is as in 24.4.2.4;

c) the overhang L (see Figure 17 or Figure 18) from the outer edge
of the bearing to the box web is less than D/2;
d) stiffening is limited to the bearing stiffeners themselves, and any
member providing continuity of cross beam or cantilever flanges
Licensed Copy: Ms
through the diaphragm;

Licensed copy:Hyder
e) there is no change in flange slope at the diaphragm.

24.6.5.2 If any of the provisions of 24.6.5.1 are not satisfied, all plate
panels should be verified taking into account buckling under the
combined effect of stresses σp1, σp2 and τp as defined in 24.6.4.
© BSI2013
2010 • 73
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
24.6.5.3 A method for verifying plate panels is given in 24.9. This may
be used provided the following qualifications are met:
a) For panels adjacent to an inclined web the panel dimension a

should be taken as the maximum horizontal dimension of the
panel.
b) A plate panel of non constant thickness should be assumed to be of
its minimum thickness throughout.
c) All plate panels adjacent to the box webs or flanges or to boundary
stiffeners not more than 25tp from the box walls or to large
cut-outs should be treated as unrestrained. Other panels may be
treated as restrained.
d) For a plate panel without horizontal stiffeners, bounded on three
sides by the main beam web and the two main beam flanges, the
shear stress coefficient Kq should not be taken higher than:
2⎡ 2⎤
1,3 × 106 ⎛ tp ⎞ ⎛b⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥;
fyp ⎝ b ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎥⎦
where:
BSI
a and b are the length and width of the panel respectively;

tp and fyp are the thickness and nominal yield stress, respectively, of the
diaphragm plate;
Copy,
σp2 should be taken as the main longitudinal stress in the plate panel.
Hence, for the purposes of meeting the buckling criterion of 24.9,

σp1 and σp2 as derived in 24.6.4 should be taken as σ2 and σ1.
24.6.6 Yielding of diaphragm stiffeners

24.6.6.1 A bearing stiffener section should be designed such that, at any
point along its length:
fys
σ 1s + σ 1sT + σ bs - ;
γ M0
13/05/2016,
where:
σ1s and σ1sT are as defined in 24.6.3.2;
σbs is as defined in 24.6.3.3;
fys is the nominal yield strength of the stiffener.
Jacqueline Burman,
24.6.6.2 The bearing stress at the point of contact with a flange should
Consulting,
be verified in accordance with BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.4(2).
24.6.7 Buckling of diaphragm stiffeners

The stiffener section should be such that, at any point within the
middle-third of the length of the stiffener:
Licensed Copy: Ms
σ se σ 1
Licensed copy:Hyder
+ bs - ;
fls fys γ M1
where:
σse is as defined in 24.6.3.4;
σbs is as defined in 24.6.3.3 for a bearing stiffener, or is taken as zero
for an intermediate stiffener;
74 • ©
74 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
fls is obtained from Figure 19 using the slenderness parameter

λ = ls/rseεs;
ls is the length of the stiffener between points of effective restraint;

rse is the radius of gyration of the effective section of the stiffener about
its centroidal axis parallel to the plane of the diaphragm, derived in
fys is the nominal yield strength of the junction section.
24.7 Diaphragm/web junctions
24.7.1 General
The diaphragm/web junction should be designed as a stiffener to the
box web, spanning between box flanges, unsupported in the plane of the
diaphragm, and with effective section derived as in 24.4.5.
24.7.2 Loading effects to be considered

The junction should withstand the effects of the following.

BSI
a) All loads transmitted to the diaphragm from the cross beams

and/or cantilevers in the plane of the diaphragm. Such loads
should be assumed to be applied at the centroidal axis of the
effective section, and to vary linearly from a maximum at the top
Copy,
of the junction, to zero at the bottom.

b) Any forces resulting from tension field action in the adjacent web
panels. Such forces should be assumed to be applied in the plane
of the box web, and to be constant over the height of the junction.
c) An equivalent axial force representing the destabilizing influence
of the web. This force should be assumed to be applied at the
centroidal axis of the effective section, and to be constant over the
height of the junction.
24.7.3 Strength of diaphragm/web junction

13/05/2016,
24.7.3.1 The maximum stress at any point on the cross-section of the

junction, at any section in its length, should not exceed:
fys /γM0
Jacqueline Burman,
where:
Consulting,
24.7.3.2 The effective junction section should be such that:

P M 1
+ - ;
Ase fls Wse fys γ M1
Licensed Copy: Ms
where:
Licensed copy:Hyder
P and M are, respectively, the maximum force on the effective junction

section and the maximum moment about the centroidal axis parallel to
the web due to all the effects specified in 24.7.2, within the middle-third
of the length of the junction;
Ase is the effective area of the junction section (see 24.4.5);
Wse is the lowest section modulus of the effective junction section about
the centroidal axis parallel to the web (see 24.4.5);
© BSI2013
2010 • 75
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
fls is obtained from Figure 19 using the slenderness parameter:

ls
λ= ;
rseε s
ls is the total length of the junction section;
rse is the radius of gyration of the effective section (stiffener and plate)
about the centroidal axis parallel to the web, derived in accordance
with 24.4.5;
24.7.4 Junction restraint provided by diaphragm stiffeners

Diaphragm/web junctions should be designed in accordance
with 24.7.1 to 24.7.3, except that full width horizontal stiffeners in the
diaphragm may be assumed to offer restraint to the junction in the plane
of the diaphragm, provided that the equivalent axial stress σse in such
stiffeners (see 24.6.3.4) is increased by an amount equal to:
0,025 P
;
nAse
BSI
where:
P is as defined in 24.7.3;
n is the number of full width horizontal stiffeners;
Copy,
Ase is the effective area of the horizontal stiffeners, derived in

accordance with 24.4.4.

NOTE In this case ls in 24.7.3 may be taken as the distance between such
stiffeners.
24.8 Continuity of cross beams and cantilevers
24.8.1 General
When continuity of cross beams and cantilevers is provided in the plane
13/05/2016,
of a diaphragm, in accordance with 24.2.3, that portion within the box

walls should be in accordance with the following.
a) The force in the member providing continuity to the bottom flange
of the transverse member should be taken as the moment in the
transverse member at the box wall divided by the distance between
Jacqueline Burman,
the mid-plane of the top and bottom flanges of the member. If the
Consulting,
force is different at the two box walls a linear variation along the
length may be assumed.
b) If the member providing the continuity in a) is also required as a
horizontal stiffener for a diaphragm designed in accordance
with 24.6, it should be designed to withstand, in addition to the
Licensed Copy: Ms
load given in a), an axial force equal to Aseσse.

Licensed copy:Hyder
where:
Ase is the effective cross-sectional area of the continuity member
derived in accordance with 24.4.4;
σse is as specified in 24.6.3.4.
76 • ©
76 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
c) The member providing the continuity in a) should be designed as a

compression member in accordance with BS EN 1993-1-1:2005,
6.2 and 6.3, and should be assumed to be unrestrained out of the

plane of the diaphragm unless provided with effective intermediate
restraint. If these restraints are provided by bearing or primary
vertical diaphragm stiffeners, such stiffeners should each be
designed to resist, in addition to all other forces given in 24.6.3, a
force equal to 2.5% of the maximum axial load in the continuity
member including that given in b), if appropriate. This force
should be applied, out of the plane of the diaphragm, at the point
of intersection of the continuity member and the stiffener
providing the restraint. The stiffener should be designed to satisfy
the criterion:
σ se σ + σ b2 1
+ bs - ;
fls fys γm
where:
σb2 is the bending stress induced in the stiffener by the above force,
taken as the maximum value within the middle-third of the lengths of the
stiffener;
BSI
σbs, fls, σse and fys are as defined in 24.6.7.
24.9 Buckling of panels in diaphragms

Copy,
24.9.1 General
This section may be used for verification of panels taking into account
buckling. It may only be used as part of this published document, and
subject to the limitations in 24.2, 24.6.5.2, and 24.6.5.3.
In particular, note that for use with this method:
σp2 = σ1 (relates to K1, m1, etc.);
σp1 = σ2 (relates to K2, m2, etc.).
13/05/2016,
24.9.2 Restraint of panels

Effective panel restraint should be defined in 24.5.3 for calculation of
the buckling coefficients K1, Kq, Kb and K2 required in 24.9.3.
Jacqueline Burman,
24.9.3 Buckling coefficients

Consulting,
24.9.3.1 The coefficients K1, Kq, Kb and K2 should be obtained

from 24.9.3.2, 24.9.3.3, 24.9.3.4, 24.9.3.5 respectively, with the panel
assumed to be restrained or unrestrained in-plane as determined
from 24.9.2.
24.9.3.2 For axial coefficients, when the stress is compressive, K1
Licensed Copy: Ms
should be taken as the greater of the values obtained as follows:

Licensed copy:Hyder
Either:
a) from Figure 21a using curve 1 or 2 as appropriate, with:
b fyp
λ = 0,81 ;
tp 235
© BSI2013
2010 • 77
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
unless λ is less than 24, when:

2
⎛ tp ⎞ 204 500
K1 = ⎜ ⎟ ;
⎝b⎠ fyp
or:
b) from Figure 21a curve 3 with:
a fyp
λ = 0,81 ;
tp 235
unless λ is less than 4,33, when:

2
⎛ tp ⎞ 6 600
K1 = ⎜ ⎟ ;
⎝ a ⎠ fyp
where:
tp is the diaphragm thickness;
fyp is the nominal yield stress of the material;
a and b are as defined in Figure 21a.

BSI
When the stress is tensile, K1 should be taken as 1,0.

24.9.3.3 The shear coefficient Kq should be taken from Figure 21b,
unless:
Copy,
⎛ 2
b ⎛b⎞ ⎞
< 35 ⎜1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ;
tp ⎜ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎟⎠
⎝
when:
⎡ ⎛ b ⎞2 ⎤
2
435 000 ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎛ tp ⎞ ⎢⎣ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎥⎦
Kq = ⎜ ⎟ ;
⎝b⎠ fyp
where:
13/05/2016,
tp and fyp are as defined in 24.9.3.2;

a and b are defined in Figure 21b.
24.9.3.4 The bending coefficient Kb should be taken from Figure 21c.
24.9.3.5 Transverse coefficient K2 should be taken as the greater of the
Jacqueline Burman,
values obtained as follows:

Consulting,
either:
a) from Figure 21a using curve 1 or 2 as appropriate, with:
a fyp
λ = 0,81 ;
tp 235
Licensed Copy: Ms
unless λ is less than 24, when:

Licensed copy:Hyder
2
⎛ t ⎞ 204 500
K2 = ⎜ w ⎟ ;
⎝ a⎠ fyp
78 • ©
78 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
or:
from Figure 21a, curve 3 with:
b fyp
λ = 0,81 ;
tp 235
unless λ is less than 4,33, when:

2
⎛ t ⎞ 6 600
K2 = ⎜ p ⎟ ;
⎝b⎠ fyp
where:
tp is the diaphragm thickness;
fyp is the nominal yield stress of the material;
a and b are as defined in Figure 21a.
When the stress is tensile, K2 should be taken as 1,0.
24.9.4 Interaction buckling criterion

The following condition should be satisfied for each panel:

BSI
mc + mb + 3mq - 1 ;
mc = ( m1 + m2 ) for positive values of (m1 + m2);

Copy,
mc = − − ( m1 + m2 ) for negative values of (m1 + m2);

2
⎡σ γ ⎤
m1 = ⎢ 1 m ⎥ to be taken as negative if σ1 is tensile;

⎣⎢ fyp K1 ⎦⎥
2
⎡σ γ ⎤
m2 = ⎢ 2 m ⎥ to be taken as negative if σ2 is tensile;
⎣⎢ fyp K2 ⎦⎥
2
⎛σ γ ⎞
mb = ⎜ b m ⎟ ;
⎜ fyp K b ⎟
13/05/2016,
⎝ ⎠
2
⎛ τ pγ m ⎞
mq = ⎜ ;
⎜ fyp K q ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
where:
Jacqueline Burman,
σ1 is the mean longitudinal stress on a cross-section of the panel,

Consulting,
considered positive if compressive. The algebraically higher of the two

values on the opposite edges of a panel should be used;
σ2 is the transverse stress, considered positive if compressive. The
algebraically higher of the two values on the opposite edges should be
used;
Licensed Copy: Ms
σb is the maximum longitudinal stress due to in-plane bending of the

Licensed copy:Hyder
individual panel (see Figure 20);

τp is as defined in 24.6.2.4;
K1, Kq, Kb and K2 are coefficients derived in accordance with 24.9.3.2
to 24.9.3.4;
fyp is the nominal yield stress of the diaphragm material.
© BSI2013
2010 • 79
Licensed Copy: Ms Jacqueline Burman, Institution, 21/02/2012 Copy, (c) The British Standards Institution 2012
Licensed copy:Hyder Consulting, 13/05/2016,
British StandardsUncontrolled Copy,
BSI
80
PD
80 •
• ©
b
© BSI
b
The2010
PD 6695-2:2008
2
2
6695-2:2008+A1:2012
Figure 20
2012
a
a
= b
Stresses on panels
1
b
b
stress in the plate panel

Direction of main longitudinal
z
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
Figure 21a Buckling coefficients K1, K2, Kq and Kb

1,0
0,8
Curve 1
0,6
Kc
0,4
Curve 2
Restrained
Unrestrained
BSI
0,2
Curve 3
Copy,
Restrained or unrestrained
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

NOTE 1 NOTE 2
For stresses shown as follows: For stresses shown as follows:
a
b = b
a
13/05/2016,
a
b = b
a
K2 is the greater value of Kc obtained from curve 1
or 2, as appropriate with:
b fyp
λ = 0,81
Jacqueline Burman,
tp 235
K2 is the greater value of Kc obtained from curve 1
Consulting,
or curve 3 with:
or 2, as appropriate with:
a fyp fyp
λ = 0,81 a
tp 235 λ = 0,81
tp 235
or curve 3 with:
Licensed Copy: Ms
b fyp
λ = 0,81
Licensed copy:Hyder
tp 235
© BSI2013
2010 • 81
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
Figure 21b Values of Kq

1,0
0,9
0,5
1,0
0,8 Restrained
2,0
0,7
0,5
0,6
1,0
Kq 0,5
BSI
0,4 Unrestrained
2,0
Copy,
3,0
0,3
0,2
0,1
13/05/2016,
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
b fyp
= 0,81
tp 235
Jacqueline Burman,
NOTE 1 For intermediate values of ϕ, Kq may be obtained by linear interpolation between adjacent values
Consulting,
of ϕ; for this purpose a curve may be extended beyond Kq= 1.

NOTE 2 ϕ = a/b shown as follows:
a b
Licensed Copy: Ms
Licensed copy:Hyder
82 • ©
82 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
Figure 21c Values of Kb

1,4
1,2
1,0
Restrained
Kb
0,8
Unrestrained
0,6
BSI
0,4
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
b fyp
= 0,81
Copy,
tp 235
25 Box girders – the design of internal

cross frames
25.1 General
This section provides guidance on the design of ring or braced
13/05/2016,
intermediate cross frames provided in box girders to restrict distortion

of the cross-section or to control the effects due to distortional warping,
subject to the limitations and provisions of 25.2. The design of plated
intermediate diaphragms is not covered, but they may be used provided
special analysis is undertaken.
Jacqueline Burman,
Consulting,
25.2 Limitations
25.2.1 Girder layout

Girders should be nominally symmetric (i.e. ignoring cross fall or
superelevation), of rectangular or trapezoidal cross-section, and with
Licensed Copy: Ms
webs in single planes inclined at less than 45° from the vertical. Girders
Licensed copy:Hyder
should be of single cell form, with or without interconnecting cross

members and cantilevers. Girders should not be subject to internal
pressure effects due to sealing.
© BSI2013
2010 • 83
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
25.2.2 Cross frames

The cross frames should be in a single plane, within ±5° of the
normal to the axis of the girder in elevation, within ±10° in plan, and
within ±5° of a vertical plane.
25.2.3 Corner stiffening

Each corner of the cross frame (i.e. at the intersections of flange and
web of main box) should be stiffened as necessary to withstand the
bending moments acting at the corner. In the absence of such stiffening,
no effective width of box web or flange (see 25.4.1) should be assumed
to act with the cross frame at this point.
25.2.4 Stiffeners
Where distortion due to torque applied to a girder between cross frames
is to be resisted by the box walls, the cross frames should have
dimensionless stiffness of at least that defined in 23.3.4.3 of this
published document.
25.3 Design forces and moments to be considered

BSI
The design should be such as to resist the load effects given in Clause 15
and 21.2.
Copy,
NOTE The distortional effects to be considered may include those due to

torque applied either at the cross frame, or at intermediate positions
between the cross frame and the adjacent cross frames or diaphragms.
The effects of restraint of distortional warping of the box walls may be
ignored in the analysis of distortional bending stresses in the frames.
25.4 Ring cross frames
25.4.1 Effective section of transverse members

The effective section of transverse members may be determined in
13/05/2016,
accordance with BS EN 1993-1-5:2006, 9.1(2).
25.4.2 Strength of ring cross frame members

Components of ring cross frames attached to the web or flange plates
of main beams should satisfy the strength provisions of Clause 15 and
Jacqueline Burman,
Clause 21 as appropriate.
Consulting,
25.5 Braced cross frames
25.5.1 General
Braced cross frames should be designed to satisfy the provisions
Licensed Copy: Ms
of 25.4, 25.5.2 and 25.5.3.

Licensed copy:Hyder
25.5.2 Design forces and moments to be considered

Additional account should be taken of bending moments induced by
eccentricities at connections, incomplete triangulation and application
of loading other than at points of intersection between members.
84 • ©
84 • © BSI
The2010
2012
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
PD 6695-2:2008
25.5.3 Design of braced cross frame members

The design of compression and tension members of braced cross
frames, not attached to the web or flange plate of main beams, should
be in accordance with clauses BS EN 1993-2:2006, 6.2.3 and 6.2.4
respectively.
26 Web breathing
This Published Document provides guidance on the verification of web
breathing to BS EN 1993-2:2006, 7.4, for cases where there
longitudinal stiffeners on the web.
For webs with longitudinal stiffeners, the criterion in
BS EN 1993-2:2006, 7.4, should be applied to each sub-panel and to the
overall stiffened panel. The stress σx,Ed,ser should be taken as the stress
at the compressive edge of the panel being checked. For panels wholly
σ x,Ed,ser
in tension, may be taken equal to zero.
kσ σ E
Consulting,
Licensed Copy: Ms
© BSI2013
2010 • 85
PD 6695-2:2008
PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012
Bibliography
Standards publications
For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated
references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including any
amendments) applies.
BS 5400-3, Steel, concrete and composite bridges – Part 3: Code of
practice for design of steel bridges
BS EN 1337, Structural bearings
BS EN 1994, Eurocode 4 – Design of composite steel and concrete
structures
BS EN 1993-1-11, Eurocode 3 – Design of steel structures –
Part 1-11: Design of structures with tension components
BS EN 1994-2:2005, Eurocode 4 – Design of composite steel and
concrete structures – Part 2: General rules and rules for bridges
BS EN 22553, Welded, brazed and soldered joints – Symbolic

representation on drawings
BSI
PD 6695-1-9, Recommendations for the design of structures to

BS EN 1993-1-9
PD 6695-1-10, Recommendations for the design of structures to
Copy,
BS EN 1993-1-10 1)
Other publications
Hendy C.R., Murphy C.J., Designers’ Guide to EN 1993-2,

Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 2: Steel bridges. Thomas
Telford 2007. ISBN 978 0 727 73160 9.
References to access-steel documents:
SN002. NCCI: Determination of non-dimensional slenderness of
I and H sections www.access-steel.com/Discovery/
13/05/2016,
LinkLookup.aspx?ID=SN002&Lang=EN
SN003. NCCI: Elastic critical moment for lateral torsional buckling
www.access-steel.com/Discovery/
LinkLookup.aspx?ID=SN003&Lang=EN
Jacqueline Burman,
Other references
Consulting,
[1] ASTM A325 – 07a Standard specification for structural bolts, steel,
heat treated, 120/105 www.astm.org
Licensed Copy: Ms
Licensed copy:Hyder
1) In preparation.
86 • ©
86 • © BSI
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2012
Licensed copy:Hyder Consulting, 13/05/2016, Uncontrolled Copy, © BSI
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Recommendations For The Design of Bridges To BS EN 1993: Published Document

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Committee reference B/525/10

First published July 2008

Amendments issued since publication

Amendments issued since publication

Amd. no. Date Text affected

C1 January 2010 See foreword

A1 July 2012 See

C1 February 2013 Foreword.

14 Design of flanges and webs with large openings 31

16 Design of bearing stiffeners 32

17 Connections – design of beam splices 35

25 Box girders – the design of internal cross frames 83

Figure 1 – Slenderness factor for variation in bending moment 6

Figure 2 – Effective length parameter kf – effect of rotational end

Figure 6 – Restraint of compression flange by U-frames or deck or end

Figure 13 – Transverse distortional moments 50

Figure 15a – Openings in stiffened diaphragms – twin bearings 55

BSI Standards Limited,

This Published Document is by came into effect

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