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Pipeline transport
Pipeline transport is the long-distance transportation of a liquid
or gas through a system of pipes—a pipeline—typically to a market
area for consumption. The latest data from 2014 gives a total of
slightly less than 2,175,000 miles (3,500,000 km) of pipeline in 120
countries of the world.[1] The United States had 65%, Russia had
8%, and Canada had 3%, thus 75% of all pipeline were in these
three countries.[1]
Oil pipelines are made from steel or plastic tubes which are usually buried. The oil is moved through the pipelines by
pump stations along the pipeline. Natural gas (and similar gaseous fuels) are pressurized into liquids known as
Natural Gas Liquids (NGLs).[3] Natural gas pipelines are constructed of carbon steel. Hydrogen pipeline transport is
the transportation of hydrogen through a pipe. Pipelines conveying flammable or explosive material, such as natural
gas or oil, pose special safety concerns and there have been various accidents. Pipelines can be the target of theft,
vandalism, sabotage, or even terrorist attacks. In war, pipelines are often the target of military attacks.
Contents
Oil and natural gas
Growth of market
Construction and operation
Ammonia
Alcohol fuels
Alternative Fuels Pipelines
Coal and ore
Hydrogen
Water
Other systems
District heating
Beer
Brine
Milk
Marine pipelines
Functions
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In the United States, 70% of crude oil and petroleum products are shipped by pipeline. (23% are by ship, 4% by truck,
and 3% by rail) In Canada for natural gas and petroleum products, 97% are shipped by pipeline.[5]
Natural gas (and similar gaseous fuels) are lightly pressurized into liquids known as Natural Gas Liquids (NGLs).
Small NGL processing facilities can be located in oil fields so the butane and propane liquid under light pressure of 125
pounds per square inch (860 kPa), can be shipped by rail, truck or pipeline. Propane can be used as a fuel in oil fields
to heat various facilities used by the oil drillers or equipment and trucks used in the oil patch. EG: Propane will
convert from a gas to a liquid under light pressure, 100 psi, give or take depending on temperature, and is pumped
into cars and trucks at less than 125 psi (860 kPa) at retail stations. Pipelines and rail cars use about double that
pressure to pump at 250 psi (1,700 kPa).
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This new US-supplied natural gas displaces the natural gas formerly shipped An elevated section of the
to Ontario from western Canada in Alberta and Manitoba, thus dropping the Alaska Pipeline.
government regulated pipeline shipping charges because of the significantly
shorter distance from gas source to consumer. To avoid
delays and US government regulation, many small, medium
and large oil producers in North Dakota have decided to
run an oil pipeline north to Canada to meet up with a
Canadian oil pipeline shipping oil from west to east. This
allows the Bakken Basin and Three Forks oil producers to
get higher negotiated prices for their oil because they will
not be restricted to just one wholesale market in the US.
The distance from the biggest oil patch in North Dakota, in
Williston, North Dakota, is only about 85 miles or 137
kilometers to the Canada–US border and Manitoba. Mutual
funds and joint ventures are big investors in new oil and gas
pipelines. In the fall of 2012, the US began exporting
propane to Europe, known as LPG, as wholesale prices
there are much higher than in North America. Additionally,
a pipeline is currently being constructed from North Dakota
to Illinois, commonly known as the Dakota Access Pipeline. Major Russian gas pipelines to Europe in 2009
Enbridge in Canada is applying to reverse an oil pipeline going from east-to-west (Line 9) and expanding it and using
it to ship western Canadian bitumen oil eastward.[8] From a presently rated 250,000 barrels equivalent per day
pipeline, it will be expanded to between one million to 1.3 million barrels per day. It will bring western oil to refineries
in Ontario, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Quebec and New York by early 2014. New Brunswick will also refine some
of this western Canadian crude and export some crude and refined oil to Europe from its deep water oil ULCC loading
port.
Although pipelines can be built under the sea, that process is economically and technically demanding, so the majority
of oil at sea is transported by tanker ships. Similarly, it is often more economically feasible to transport natural gas in
the form of LNG, however the break-even point between LNG and pipelines would depend on the volume of natural
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The Enbridge Sandpiper pipeline is proposed to transfer valuable oil from Western North Dakota through
northwestern Minnesota. The pipeline will be 24-30 inches in diameter. It will carry over 300,000 barrels of oil a day
with a volatility of 32.[10]
Growth of market
The market size for oil and gas pipeline construction experienced
tremendous growth prior to the economic downturn in 2008. After
faltering in 2009, demand for pipeline expansion and updating increased
the following year as energy production grew.[11] By 2012, almost 32,000
miles of North American pipeline were being planned or under
construction.[12]. When pipelines are constrained, additional pipeline
product transportation options may include the use of drag reducing
agents, or by transporting product via truck or rail.
Gas pipe in the dry region of
Antofagasta, Chile.
Crude oil contains varying amounts of paraffin wax and in colder climates wax buildup may occur within a pipeline.
Often these pipelines are inspected and cleaned using pigging, the practice of using devices known as "pigs" to perform
various maintenance operations on a pipeline. The devices are also known as "scrapers" or "Go-devils". "Smart pigs"
(also known as "intelligent" or "intelligence" pigs) are used to detect anomalies in the pipe such as dents, metal loss
caused by corrosion, cracking or other mechanical damage.[14] These devices are launched from pig-launcher stations
and travel through the pipeline to be received at any other station down-stream, either cleaning wax deposits and
material that may have accumulated inside the line or inspecting and recording the condition of the line.
For natural gas, pipelines are constructed of carbon steel and vary in size from 2 to 60 inches (51 to 1,524 mm) in
diameter, depending on the type of pipeline. The gas is pressurized by compressor stations and is odorless unless
mixed with a mercaptan odorant where required by a regulating authority.
Ammonia
Highly toxic ammonia is theoretically the most dangerous substance to be transported through long-distance
pipelines. However, incidents on ammonia-transporting lines are uncommon – unlike on industrial ammonia-
processing equipment. A major ammonia pipeline is the Ukrainian Transammiak line connecting the TogliattiAzot
facility in Russia to the exporting Black Sea-port of Odessa.
Alcohol fuels
Pipelines have been used for transportation of ethanol in Brazil, and there are several ethanol pipeline projects in
Brazil and the United States.[15] The main problems related to the transport of ethanol by pipeline are its corrosive
nature and tendency to absorb water and impurities in pipelines, which are not problems with oil and natural
gas.[15][16] Insufficient volumes and cost-effectiveness are other considerations limiting construction of ethanol
pipelines.[16][17] In the US minimal amounts of ethanol are transported by pipeline. Most ethanol is shipped by rail,
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the main alternatives being truck and barge. Delivering ethanol by pipeline
is the most desirable option, but ethanol's affinity for water and solvent
properties require the use of a dedicated pipeline, or significant cleanup of
existing pipelines.
Hydrogen
Hydrogen pipeline transport is a transportation of hydrogen through a pipe as part of the hydrogen infrastructure.
Hydrogen pipeline transport is used to connect the point of hydrogen production or delivery of hydrogen with the
point of demand, with transport costs similar to CNG,[21] the technology is proven.[22] Most hydrogen is produced at
the place of demand with every 50 to 100 miles (160 km) an industrial production facility.[23] The 1938 Rhine-Ruhr
240-kilometre (150 mi) hydrogen pipeline is still in operation.[24] As of 2004, there are 900 miles (1,400 km) of low
pressure hydrogen pipelines in the US and 930 miles (1,500 km) in Europe.
Water
Two millennia ago, the ancient Romans made use of large aqueducts to
transport water from higher elevations by building the aqueducts in
graduated segments that allowed gravity to push the water along until it
reached its destination. Hundreds of these were built throughout Europe
and elsewhere, and along with flour mills were considered the lifeline of
the Roman Empire. The ancient Chinese also made use of channels and
pipe systems for public works. The famous Han Dynasty court eunuch
Zhang Rang (d. 189 AD) once ordered the engineer Bi Lan to construct a
series of square-pallet chain pumps outside the capital city of Luoyang.[25]
These chain pumps serviced the imperial palaces and living quarters of the
capital city as the water lifted by the chain pumps was brought in by a
stoneware pipe system.[25][26]
Pipelines are useful for transporting water for drinking or irrigation over
long distances when it needs to move over hills, or where canals or
channels are poor choices due to considerations of evaporation, pollution, The Los Angeles Aqueduct in
or environmental impact. Antelope Valley.
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The 530 km (330 mi) Goldfields Water Supply Scheme in Western Australia using 750 mm (30 inch) pipe and
completed in 1903 was the largest water supply scheme of its time.[27][28]
Examples of significant water pipelines in South Australia are the Morgan-Whyalla pipeline (completed 1944) and
Mannum-Adelaide pipeline (completed 1955) pipelines, both part of the larger Snowy Mountains scheme.[29]
There are two Los Angeles, California aqueducts, the Owens Valley aqueduct (completed 1913) and the Second Los
Angeles Aqueduct (completed 1970) which also include extensive use of pipelines.
The Great Manmade River of Libya supplies 3,680,000 cubic metres (4,810,000 cu yd) of water each day to Tripoli,
Benghazi, Sirte, and several other cities in Libya. The pipeline is over 2,800 kilometres (1,700 mi) long, and is
connected to wells tapping an aquifer over 500 metres (1,600 ft) underground.[30]
Other systems
District heating
District heating or teleheating systems consist of a network of insulated feed
and return pipes which transport heated water, pressurized hot water, or
sometimes steam to the customer. While steam is hottest and may be used in
industrial processes due to its higher temperature, it is less efficient to
produce and transport due to greater heat losses. Heat transfer oils are
generally not used for economic and ecological reasons. The typical annual
loss of thermal energy through distribution is around 10%, as seen in Norway's
district heating network.[32]
Brine
The village of Hallstatt in Austria, which is known for its long history of salt Thor Pipeline in Randers, Denmark
mining, claims to contain "the oldest industrial pipeline in the world",
dating back to 1595.[34] It was constructed from 13,000 hollowed-out tree
trunks to transport brine 40 kilometres (25 mi) from Hallstatt to Ebensee.[35]
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Milk
Between 1978 and 1994, a 15 km milk pipeline ran between the Dutch island of Ameland and Holwerd on the
mainland, of which 8 km beneath the Wadden Sea. Every day, 30,000 litres of milk produced on the island were
transported to be processed on the mainland. In 1994, the milk transport was abandoned.[36]
Marine pipelines
In places, a pipeline may have to cross water expanses, such as small seas, straits and rivers.[37] In many instances,
they lie entirely on the seabed. These pipelines are referred to as "marine" pipelines (also, "submarine" or "offshore"
pipelines). They are used primarily to carry oil or gas, but transportation of water is also important.[37] In offshore
projects, a distinction is made between a "flowline" and a pipeline.[37][38][39] The former is an intrafield pipeline, in
the sense that it is used to connect subsea wellheads, manifolds and the platform within a particular development
field. The latter, sometimes referred to as an "export pipeline", is used to bring the resource to shore.[38] The
construction and maintenance of marine pipelines imply logistical challenges that are different from those onland,
mainly because of wave and current dynamics, along with other geohazards.
Functions
In general, pipelines can be classified in three categories depending on purpose:
Gathering pipelines
Group of smaller interconnected pipelines forming complex networks with the purpose of
bringing crude oil or natural gas from several nearby wells to a treatment plant or processing
facility. In this group, pipelines are usually short- a couple hundred metres- and with small
diameters. Sub-sea pipelines for collecting product from deep water production platforms are
also considered gathering systems.
Transportation pipelines
Mainly long pipes with large diameters, moving products (oil, gas, refined products) between
cities, countries and even continents. These transportation networks include several
compressor stations in gas lines or pump stations for crude and multi-products pipelines.
Distribution pipelines
Composed of several interconnected pipelines with small diameters, used to take the
products to the final consumer. Feeder lines to distribute gas to homes and businesses
downstream. Pipelines at terminals for distributing products to tanks and storage facilities
are included in this groups.
The pipeline is routed along what is known as a "right of way". Pipelines are generally developed and built using the
following stages:
1. Open season to determine market interest: Potential customers are given the chance to sign up for part of the
new pipeline's capacity rights.
2. Route (right of way) selection
3. Pipeline design: The pipeline project may take a number of forms, including the construction of a new pipeline,
conversion of existing pipeline from one fuel type to another, or improvements to facilities on a current pipeline
route.
4. Obtaining approval: Once the design is finalized and the first pipeline customers have purchased their share of
capacity, the project must be approved by the relevant regulatory agencies.
5. Surveying the route
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Operation
Field devices are instrumentation, data gathering units and communication systems. The field instrumentation
includes flow, pressure, and temperature gauges/transmitters, and other devices to measure the relevant data
required. These instruments are installed along the pipeline on some specific locations, such as injection or delivery
stations, pump stations (liquid pipelines) or compressor stations (gas pipelines), and block valve stations.
The information measured by these field instruments is then gathered in local remote terminal units (RTU) that
transfer the field data to a central location in real time using communication systems, such as satellite channels,
microwave links, or cellular phone connections.
Pipelines are controlled and operated remotely, from what is usually known as the "Main Control Room". In this
center, all the data related to field measurement is consolidated in one central database. The data is received from
multiple RTUs along the pipeline. It is common to find RTUs installed at every station along the pipeline.
To optimize and secure the operation of these assets, some pipeline companies are using what is called "Advanced
Pipeline Applications", which are software tools installed on top of the SCADA system, that provide extended
functionality to perform leak detection, leak location, batch tracking (liquid lines), pig tracking, composition tracking,
predictive modeling, look ahead modeling, and operator training.
Technology
Components
Pipeline networks are composed of several pieces of equipment that operate together to move products from location
to location. The main elements of a pipeline system are:
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Compressor/pump stations
Pumps for liquid pipelines and compressors for gas
pipelines, are located along the line to move the product
through the pipeline. The location of these stations is
defined by the topography of the terrain, the type of
product being transported, or operational conditions of
the network.
Regulator station
This is a special type of valve station, where the operator can release some of the pressure
from the line. Regulators are usually located at the downhill side of a peak.
Pipeline companies face government regulation, environmental constraints and social situations. Government
regulations may define minimum staff to run the operation, operator training requirements, pipeline facilities,
technology and applications required to ensure operational safety. For example, in the State of Washington it is
mandatory for pipeline operators to be able to detect and locate leaks of 8 percent of maximum flow within fifteen
minutes or less. Social factors also affect the operation of pipelines. Product theft is sometimes also a problem for
pipeline companies. In this case, the detection levels should be under two percent of maximum flow, with a high
expectation for location accuracy.
Various technologies and strategies have been implemented for monitoring pipelines, from physically walking the
lines to satellite surveillance. The most common technology to protect pipelines from occasional leaks is
Computational Pipeline Monitoring or CPM. CPM takes information from the field related to pressures, flows, and
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temperatures to estimate the hydraulic behavior of the product being transported. Once the estimation is completed,
the results are compared to other field references to detect the presence of an anomaly or unexpected situation, which
may be related to a leak.
The American Petroleum Institute has published several articles related to the performance of CPM in liquids
pipelines. The API Publications are:
Implementation
Pipelines are generally laid underground because temperature is less variable. Because pipelines are usually metal,
this helps to reduce the expansion and shrinkage that can occur with weather changes.[43] However, in some cases it is
necessary to cross a valley or a river on a pipeline bridge. Pipelines for centralized heating systems are often laid on the
ground or overhead. Pipelines for petroleum running through permafrost areas as Trans-Alaska-Pipeline are often run
overhead in order to avoid melting the frozen ground by hot petroleum which would result in sinking the pipeline in
the ground.
Maintenance
Maintenance of pipelines includes checking cathodic protection levels for the proper range, surveillance for
construction, erosion, or leaks by foot, land vehicle, boat, or air, and running cleaning pigs, when there is anything
carried in the pipeline that is corrosive.
US pipeline maintenance rules are covered in Code of Federal Regulations(CFR) sections, 49 CFR 192 for natural gas
pipelines, and 49 CFR 195 for petroleum liquid pipelines.
Regulation
In the US, onshore and offshore pipelines used to transport oil and gas are regulated by the Pipeline and Hazardous
Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA). Certain offshore pipelines used to produce oil and gas are regulated by the
Minerals Management Service (MMS). In Canada, pipelines are regulated by either the provincial regulators or, if they
cross provincial boundaries or the Canada–US border, by the National Energy Board (NEB). Government regulations
in Canada and the United States require that buried fuel pipelines must be protected from corrosion. Often, the most
economical method of corrosion control is by use of pipeline coating in conjunction with cathodic protection and
technology to monitor the pipeline. Above ground, cathodic protection is not an option. The coating is the only
external protection.
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Oil and gas pipelines also figure prominently in the politics of Central Asia
and the Caucasus.
Hazard identification
Because the solvent fraction of dilbit typically comprises volatile aromatics
like naptha and benzene, reasonably rapid carrier vaporization can be
expected to follow an above-ground spill—ostensibly enabling timely
intervention by leaving only a viscous residue that is slow to migrate. An underground petroleum pipeline
Effective protocols to minimize exposure to petrochemical vapours are running through a park
well-established, and oil spilled from the pipeline would be unlikely to
reach the aquifer unless incomplete remediation were followed by the
introduction of another carrier (e.g. a series of torrential downpours).
The introduction of benzene and other volatile organic compounds (collectively BTEX) to the subterranean
environment compounds the threat posed by a pipeline leak. Particularly if followed by rain, a pipeline breach would
result in BTEX dissolution and equilibration of benzene in water, followed by percolation of the admixture into the
aquifer. Benzene can cause many health problems and is carcinogenic with EPA Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL)
set at 5 μg/L for potable water.[44] Although it is not well studied, single benzene exposure events have been linked to
acute carcinogenesis.[45] Additionally, the exposure of livestock, mainly cattle, to benzene has been shown to cause
many health issues, such as neurotoxicity, fetal damage and fatal poisoning.[46]
The entire surface of an above-ground pipeline can be directly examined for material breach. Pooled petroleum is
unambiguous, readily spotted, and indicates the location of required repairs. Because the effectiveness of remote
inspection is limited by the cost of monitoring equipment, gaps between sensors, and data that requires interpretation,
small leaks in buried pipe can sometimes go undetected
Pipeline developers do not always prioritize effective surveillance against leaks. Buried pipes draw fewer complaints.
They are insulated from extremes in ambient temperature, they are shielded from ultraviolet rays, and they are less
exposed to photodegradation. Buried pipes are isolated from airborne debris, electrical storms, tornadoes, hurricanes,
hail, and acid rain. They are protected from nesting birds, rutting mammals, and stray buckshot. Buried pipe is less
vulnerable to accident damage (e.g. automobile collisions) and less accessible to vandals, saboteurs, and terrorists.
Exposure
Previous work[47] has shown that a 'worst-case exposure scenario' can be limited to a specific set of conditions. Based
on the advanced detection methods and pipeline shut-off SOP developed by TransCanada, the risk of a substantive or
large release over a short period of time contaminating groundwater with benzene is unlikely.[48] Detection, shutoff,
and remediation procedures would limit the dissolution and transport of benzene. Therefore, the exposure of benzene
would be limited to leaks that are below the limit of detection and go unnoticed for extended periods of time.[47] Leak
detection is monitored through a SCADA system that assesses pressure and volume flow every 5 seconds. A pinhole
leak that releases small quantities that cannot be detected by the SCADA system (<1.5% flow) could accumulate into a
substantive spill.[48] Detection of pinhole leaks would come from a visual or olfactory inspection, aerial surveying, or
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mass-balance inconsistencies.[48] It is assumed that pinhole leaks are discovered within the 14-day inspection interval,
however snow cover and location (e.g. remote, deep) could delay detection. Benzene typically makes up 0.1 – 1.0% of
oil and will have varying degrees of volatility and dissolution based on environmental factors.
Even with pipeline leak volumes within SCADA detection limits, sometimes pipeline leaks are misinterpreted by
pipeline operators to be pump malfunctions, or other problems. The Enbridge Line 6B crude oil pipeline failure in
Marshall, Michigan on July 25, 2010 was thought by operators in Edmonton to be from column separation of the dilbit
in that pipeline. The leak in wetlands along the Kalamazoo River was only confirmed 17 hours after it happened by a
local gas company employee in Michigan.
Spill frequency-volume
Although the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) has standard baseline incident
frequencies to estimate the number of spills, TransCanada altered these assumptions based on improved pipeline
design, operation, and safety.[48] Whether these adjustments are justified is debatable as these assumptions resulted
in a nearly 10-fold decrease in spill estimates.[47] Given that the pipeline crosses 247 miles of the Ogallala Aquifer,[49]
or 14.5% of the entire pipeline length, and the 50-year life of the entire pipeline is expected to have between 11 – 91
spills,[47] approximately 1.6 – 13.2 spills can be expected to occur over the aquifer. An estimate of 13.2 spills over the
aquifer, each lasting 14 days, results in 184 days of potential exposure over the 50 year lifetime of the pipeline. In the
reduced-scope worst-case exposure scenario, the volume of a pinhole leak at 1.5% of max flow-rate for 14 days has
been estimated at 189,000 barrels or 7.9 million gallons of oil.[47] According to PHMSA's incident database,[50] only
0.5% of all spills in the last 10 years were >10,000 barrels.
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Accidents
Pipelines conveying flammable or explosive material, such as natural gas or oil, pose special safety concerns.
1965 – A 32-inch gas transmission pipeline, north of Natchitoches, Louisiana, belonging to the Tennessee Gas
Pipeline exploded and burned from stress corrosion cracking failure on March 4, killing 17 people. At least 9
others were injured, and 7 homes 450 feet from the rupture were destroyed. This accident, and others of the era,
led then-President Lyndon B. Johnson to call for the formation of a national pipeline safety agency in 1967. The
same pipeline had also had an explosion on May 9, 1955, just 930 feet (280 m) from the 1965 failure.[54][55]
June 16, 1976 – A gasoline pipeline was ruptured by a road construction crew in Los Angeles, California.
Gasoline sprayed across the area, and soon ignited, killing 9, and injuring at least 14 others. Confusion over the
depth of the pipeline in the construction area seemed to be a factor in the accident.[56]
June 4, 1989 – The Ufa train disaster: Sparks from two passing trains detonated gas leaking from a LPG pipeline
near Ufa, Russia. At least 575 people were reported killed.
October 17, 1998 – 1998 Jesse pipeline explosion: A petroleum pipeline exploded at Jesse on the Niger Delta in
Nigeria, killing about 1,200 villagers, some of whom were scavenging gasoline.
June 10, 1999 – A pipeline rupture in a Bellingham, Washington park led to the release of 277,200 gallons of
gasoline. The gasoline was ignited, causing an explosion that killed two children and one adult. Misoperation of
the pipeline and a previously damaged section of the pipe that was not detected before were identified as causing
the failure.[57]
August 19, 2000 – A natural gas pipeline rupture and fire near Carlsbad, New Mexico; this explosion and fire
killed 12 members of an extended family. The cause was due to severe internal corrosion of the pipeline.[58]
July 30, 2004 – A major natural gas pipeline exploded in Ghislenghien, Belgium near Ath (thirty kilometres
southwest of Brussels), killing at least 24 people and leaving 132 wounded, some critically.
May 12, 2006 – An oil pipeline ruptured outside Lagos, Nigeria. Up to 200 people may have been killed. See
Nigeria oil blast.
November 1, 2007 – A propane pipeline exploded near Carmichael, Mississippi, about 30 miles (48 km) south of
Meridian, Mississippi. Two people were killed instantly and an additional four were injured. Several homes were
destroyed and sixty families were displaced. The pipeline is owned by Enterprise Products Partners LP, and runs
from Mont Belvieu, Texas, to Apex, North Carolina. Inability to find flaws in pre-1971 ERW seam welded pipe
flaws was a contributing factor to the accident.[59][60]
September 9, 2010 – 2010 San Bruno pipeline explosion: A 30-inch diameter high pressure natural gas pipeline
owned by the Pacific Gas and Electric Company exploded in the Crestmoor residential neighborhood 2 mi
(3.2 km) west of San Francisco International Airport, killing 8, injuring 58, and destroying 38 homes. Poor quality
control of the pipe used & of the construction were cited as factors in the accident.[61]
June 27, 2014 – An explosion occurred after a natural gas pipe line ruptured in Nagaram village, East Godavari
district, Andhra Pradesh, India causing 16 deaths and destroying "scores of homes".[62]
July 31, 2014 – On the night of July 31, a series of explosions originating in underground gas pipelines occurred
in the city of Kaohsiung. Leaking gas filled the sewers along several major thoroughfares and the resulting
explosions turned several kilometers of road surface into deep trenches, sending vehicles and debris high into the
air and igniting fires over a large area. At least 32 people were killed and 321 injured.[63][64]
As targets
Pipelines can be the target of vandalism, sabotage, or even terrorist attacks. For example, between early 2011 and July
2012, a natural gas pipeline connecting Egypt to Israel and Jordan was attacked 15 times.[65] In 2019, a fuel pipeline
north of Mexico City exploded after fuel thieves tapped into the line. At least sixty-six people were reported to have
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been killed.[66] In war, pipelines are often the target of military attacks, as destruction of pipelines can seriously
disrupt enemy logistics.
See also
Lists of pipelines List of natural gas pipelines
Biogas § Biogas gas-grid injection List of pipeline accidents
Black powder in gas pipelines Natural gas pipeline system in the United States
Central gas system Gas networks simulation
Coal pipeline Operation Pluto
District heating Petroleum transport
Geomagnetically induced current (GIC) Pigging
HCNG dispenser Pipeline bridge
HDPE pipe Pneumatic tube, a method for sending documents
Hot tapping and other solid materials in capsules through a tube
Hydraulically activated pipeline pigging Plastic pipework
Hydrogen pipeline transport Reinforced thermoplastic pipe
Hydrostatic test Russia–Ukraine gas disputes
List of countries by total length of pipelines Slurry pipeline
Trans-Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act
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External links
Pipeline news and industry magazine (https://web.archive.org/web/20130116073835/http://energyglobal.com/new
s/pipelines.aspx)
Pipeline Knowledge & Development (2011). "History of Gas and Oil Pipelines" (http://pipelineknowledge.com/files/
images/presentations/history_of_gas_and_oil_pipelines.pdf) (PDF)., US historical summary
Pipeline Politics in Asia: The Intersection of Demand, Energy Markets, and Supply Routes (http://www.nbr.org/pub
lications/element.aspx?id=456), by Mikkal E. Herberg et al. (National Bureau of Asian Research, 2010)
The Dolphin Project: The Development of a Gulf Gas Initiative (https://web.archive.org/web/20080216014638/htt
p://www.oxfordenergy.org/pdfs/NG22.pdf), by Justin Dargin, Oxford Institute for Energy Studies Jan 2008 Working
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7/27/2019 Pipeline transport - Wikipedia
Paper NG #22
UK - Linewatch (https://web.archive.org/web/20090512155221/http://www.linewatch.co.uk/) - a joint awareness
initiative between 14 oil and gas pipeline operators
"Submarine Gas Pipe Line Taps Undersea Wealth" (https://books.google.com/books?id=diEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=RA
1-PA65&dq=popular+science+1951+%22bed+bikes%22&hl=en&ei=RQXETI7MHtC9ngee4ZA3&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=true) November 1951 article about first
undersea gas pipeline constructed in the US and the problems encountered
"The Marvels Of Underground Oil Railroads" Popular Science April 1937 (https://books.google.com/books?id=WS
gDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA19&dq=Popular+Science+1933+plane+%22Popular+Science%22&hl=en&ei=kH7gTamNN
4P40gH1u52xBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEAQ6AEwBjg8#v=onepage&q&f=true)
Construction and delivery of compressor stations for a gas pipeline in the Soviet Union by AEG (https://www.youtu
be.com/watch?v=tqanBk2lEos) (company video from the 1970s with subtitles)
Gas Pipeline Safety: Guidance and More Information Needed before Using Risk-Based Reassessment Intervals:
Report to Congressional Committees (https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo38496) Government Accountability Office
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