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Chapter 1
Introduction and Overview of
Audit and Assurance
Prepared by
Adrian Klamer
Macquarie University
Auditing and Assurance
defined
• An assurance engagement is defined as ‘en
engagement in which an assurance
practitioner expresses a conclusion
designed to enhance the degree of
designed to enhance the degree of
confidence of the intended users other than
the responsible party about the outcome of
the evaluation or measurement of a subject
matter against criteria.’
Auditing and Assurance
defined
• ‘intended users’ ‐ the people for whom the
auditor prepares their report.
Example: shareholders.
• ‘responsible party’ ‐ the person or organisation
responsible for preparing the financial
statements. Example: company.
• ‘subject matter’ – that which the auditor is
expressing a conclusion on. Example: financial
reports
• ‘criteria’ – the rules or principles by which the
subject matter is being evaluated.
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Different assurance services
• The most common assurance services are:
1. Financial report audits
an engagement designed to express an
opinion about whether the report is prepared
p p p p
in all material respects in accordance with a
financial reporting framework (ASA 200, para.
11; ISA 200, para 11.
– How would you apply ‘financial reporting
framework’ in Australia?
– Can Cloud 9 be audited?
Different assurance services
cont’d
– Limitations of an audit:
• There is no guarantee that the financial report is free
from error or fraud.
• The nature of audit procedures and processes are
required to be performed within a reasonable period
and at a reasonable cost. (ASA 200, ISA 200)
• Judgement is required in the process of preparation
of the financial statements.
Different assurance services
cont’d
2. Compliance audit
Involves gathering evidence to ascertain whether
rules, policies, procedures, laws and regulations
have been followed.
– A tax audit is an example of a compliance audit.
3. Performance audit
Refers to the economy, efficiency and
effectiveness of an organisation’s activities.
– Usually done by internal auditors or can be outsourced
to external auditors.
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Different assurance services
cont’d
4. Comprehensive audit
Combines elements of financial report audit,
compliance audit and performance audit.
– Often occur in the public sector.
p
5. Internal audit
Provides assurance about various aspects of
an organisation’s activities.
– Often contain elements of performance audits,
compliance audits, internal control assessments
and reviews.
Different assurance services
cont’d
6. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
assurance
– Includes voluntary reporting about
environmental, employee and social subject
environmental, employee and social subject
matter.
– Incorporates both financial and non‐financial
information.
– Auditor must consider environmental issues
on their clients’ financial reports (AGS 1036)
even if reports do not include any disclosures.
Different levels of
assurance
• Auditors may provide varying levels of
assurance when conducting assurance
engagements.
1. Reasonable assurance – gathering sufficient
evidence to form a positive expression of
id f ii i f
opinion regarding truth and fairness of the
information being assured.
– A positive expression of opinion states that the
subject matter is in accordance with relevant law
and accounting standards.
– Refer Figure 1.1 p. 12 for example audit report
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Different levels of
assurance cont’d
2. Limited assurance – gathering sufficient
evidence to form a negative expression of
opinion regarding the reliability of the
information being assured.
– A negative expression of opinion states that there
g p p
is nothing that has come to the attention of the
auditor to lead them to believe the information
being assured is not true and fair.
– Is a lower level of assurance as being told ‘it is not
wrong’ is not as assuring as being told ‘it is right’.
– A review of a company’s half‐year financial report
is an example of a limited assurance engagement
(ASRE 2410, ISRE 2410). Refer Figure 1.2 p. 14 for
example report.
Different levels of
assurance cont’d
3. No assurance – auditor reports on factual
findings and does not express any opinion.
– Can include ‘agreed‐upon procedures
engagement’ where the client determines the
engagement where the client determines the
nature, timing and extent of evidence gathered.
– Client must then draw their own conclusion
based on the outcomes of work performed by
auditor.
– Refer Figure 1.4 p. 17 for example report.
– Which level of assurance should Cloud 9
accept?
Different audit opinions
• Audit opinions are contained in audit reports
provided by the auditor.
• An unmodified audit report contains an
unqualified or ‘clean’ opinion. Refer Figure 1.1
p. 12.
p. 12.
• All other reports are modified opinions.
• A report can be an unqualified modified report
when an emphasis of matter is added.
• An emphasis of matter is used so that the
reader can pay appropriate attention to the
issue raised, but does not change the auditor’s
opinion (ASA 706, ISA 706)
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Different audit opinions
contd.
• Other modified reports are qualified (ASA 705). A
qualified opinion is given when there are reservations
about the ‘truth and fairness’ of the financial
statements.
• Can include a qualified or
Can include a qualified or ‘except
except for
for’ opinion. This is
opinion This is
when issue(s) are material but not pervasive.
• Adverse opinion would arise when financial report is
misstated and is material and pervasive.
• Disclaimer of opinion would arise when there is an
inability to obtain sufficient appropriate audit
evidence and is material and pervasive.
Preparers and auditors
• It is the responsibility of those charged with
governance to prepare the financial statements. The
information should include the following attributes:
– Relevant: has an impact on the decisions made by users
regarding the performance of the entity.
– Reliable: Information is free from material misstatements
l bl f f f l
(errors or fraud.)
– Comparable: information needs to be comparable
through time. Comparable against the same entity over
time and against other entities.
– Understandable: Users need to be able to interpret the
information presented in order to make decisions.
– True and fair: requires the consistent and faithful
application of an applicable framework when preparing
report.
Preparers and auditors
cont’d
• Auditor also has responsibilities relating to
the audit.
– Professional scepticism: maintaining
independent of the entity and having a
independent of the entity and having a
questioning mind to thoroughly investigate all
evidence presented.
– Professional judgement: use of judgement
based on level of expertise, knowledge and
training obtained by the auditor.
– Due care: being diligent, applying standards and
documenting each stage of the audit process.
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Preparers and auditors
cont’d
• Assurance services are provided by
accounting and consulting firms.
• There are three tiers of assurance providers
in Australia.
– First tier comprises of the ‘Big 4’, which includes
Deloitte, Ernst & Young, KPMG and
PriceWaterhouseCoopers.
– Mid tier comprises of firms with significant
presence and most have international
affiliations.
– Next tier made up of regional and local
accounting firms.
Demand for audit and
assurance services
• The users of the financial statements are not
limited to the shareholders or owners of the
business.
• Other users can include:
– Investors: can include current or potential
investors. Decisions include to buy, hold or sell
stake in the organisation.
– Suppliers: may want to assess whether the entity
can pay them back for goods supplied.
– Customers: may look into going concern if it is to
rely on the entity for goods.
Demand for audit and
assurance services cont’d
• Lenders: to assess whether loan repayments can
be made as and when they fall due.
• Employees: to assess whether they can pay
entitlements, and stability may be assessed for
entitlements, and stability may be assessed for
job security.
• Governments: whether the entity is complying
with regulations and paying appropriate taxes.
• General public: whether they should associate
with the entity (future employee, customer or
supplier,) what it does and plans to do in future.
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Sources of demand for
audit & assurance services
• Reasons why users demand financial reports
include:
– Remoteness: users do not have access to
information themselves.
– Complexity: users do not have knowledge to be
able to make disclosure choices.
– Competing incentives: users may find it difficult
to identify when the incentives of management
have been over‐represented.
– Reliability: as decisions are being made based on
information presented, it is important that it be
reliable.
Theoretical Frameworks
The demand for audit can be explained by the
following three theories:
• Agency theory: Due to the remoteness of the
owners from the entity, the owners have an
incentive to hire an auditor to assess
incentive to hire an auditor to assess
information provided by management.
• Information hypothesis: Due to the need for
reliable information, users will demand that
information be audited to aid in decision
making.
• Insurance hypothesis: Investors demand audited
financial statements to insure against potential
losses.
Demand in a voluntary
setting
• It is becoming more common to voluntarily
disclose CSR information in various forms.
• This is as stakeholders are demanding
information regarding the entity’s impact on the
environment and actions taken to reduce their
environment and actions taken to reduce their
impact.
• Entities are not required to have CSR disclosures
assured.
• These services are provided to meet user
demands for high‐quality, reliable information
and to demonstrate a high level of corporate
social responsibility.
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The role of regulators and
regulations
• There are a number of regulators that impact
the audit process. They include:
• Financial Reporting Council (FRC)
– oversees the process used for setting accounting and
auditing standards. Also monitors and reports on
auditing standards. Also monitors and reports on
auditor independence.
• Auditing and Assurance Standards Board
(AUASB)
– Responsible for the formulation of auditing
standards.
– AUASB redesigned auditing standards to bring in line
with international standards.
– Responsible for issuing ASRE, ASAE and GS standards
and statements.
The role of regulators and
regulations cont’d
• International Auditing and Assurance Standards
Board
– Develop and issue International Standards on
Auditing (ISAs).
– Operates under the auspices of International
Operates nder the a spices of International
Federation of Accountants (IFAC).
• Accounting Professional and Ethical Standards
Board (APESB)
– Established as an independent body by CPA Australia
and ICAA to issue professional and ethical standards.
– APES standards are mandatory for all members of
CPA Australia, ICAA and NIA.
The role of regulators and
regulations cont’d
• Australian Securities and Investments
Commission (ASIC)
– Government body that administers the ASIC Act
and much of Corporations Act.
and much of Corporations Act.
– Plays a role in overseeing of the audit function.
• Australian Securities Exchange (ASX)
– Formed in 1987 after merging of six state based
exchanges.
– Provide additional obligations for entities
wishing to list on the exchange.
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The role of regulators and
regulations cont’d
• Companies Auditors and Liquidators Disciplinary
Board (CALDB)
– Responds to ASIC and APRA regarding breaches of
Corporations Act or ASIC Act.
– Board may cancel or suspend auditor, may give
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warning or ask for undertaking to improve conduct.
• Professional bodies (including CPA Australia,
Institute of Chartered Accountants in Australia
& National Institute of Accountants)
– Include professionals in public practice, industry,
academia and government.
– Requires further post‐graduate study and minimum
work experience periods to join as members.
Regulation
Regulation cont’d
• Corporations Act
– Provides guidance on conducting audit of
financial reports.
– This includes that certain accounts need to be
This includes that certain accounts need to be
audited (s. 301,) the audit report stating
whether it is true and fair & in accordance with
accounting standards (s. 307,) standards must
be applied (s. 307A,) retention of audit working
papers (s. 307B,) and independence declaration
(s. 307C.)
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Regulation cont’d
• CLERP 9
– Significant changes brought about from 1 July
2004 including auditing standards having ‘force
of law.’
– Other changes include:
• Disclosure of non‐audit services provided by auditor.
• Enhanced independence and employment
requirements.
• Auditor rotation based on not exceeding being
auditor for more than five out of the last seven
years.
Audit expectation gap
• Is the difference between the expectations of
assurance providers and financial report or
other users.
• Can be caused by unrealistic expectations
i l di
including:
– The auditor providing a complete assurance.
– The auditor guaranteeing future viability of entity.
– An unqualified opinion denotes complete
accuracy.
– The auditor will find all frauds.
• We know these cannot be met by the auditor.
Audit expectation gap
cont’d
• The expectation gap can be reduced by:
– Auditors performing their duties appropriately
– Undertaking peer reviews of work performed
– Reviewing and updating auditing standards.
Reviewing and updating auditing standards
– Educating the public.
– Enhanced reporting explaining audit processes
and levels of opinion auditors provide to the
entity.
– Greater attention to the risk of material fraud
occurring.
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