China's Security Strategy 1

RAND Corporation
Chapter Title: CHINA’S CURRENT SECURITY STRATEGY: FEATURES AND IMPLICATIONS
Book Title: Interpreting China's Grand Strategy

Book Subtitle: Past, Present, and Future
Book Author(s): Michael D. Swaine and Ashley J. Tellis
Published by: RAND Corporation. (2000)
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7249/mr1121af.14
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Chapter Four
CHINA’S CURRENT SECURITY STRATEGY:
FEATURES AND IMPLICATIONS
The five basic features of Chinese security strategy and behavior pre-
sented in the previous chapter have persisted to the present day.
However, contact with industrialized nation-states, the collapse of
the traditional Confucian-Legalist order, and the emergence of Chi-
nese nationalism have brought about several major changes in the
specific definition of China’s security objectives and concerns (i.e.,
what is understood by domestic order and well-being, threats to
Chinese territory, and Chinese geopolitical preeminence) and hence
the specific means by which such objectives or concerns could be
addressed in the modern era. These changes generally brought
about a hybrid “weak-strong” state security strategy that combined
traditional “strong-state” efforts to control the strategic periphery
with elements of a “weak-state” approach employing a relatively un-
sophisticated, territorial defense-oriented force structure and an ex-
tensive level of involvement in diplomatic balance and maneuver.
In recent decades, this strategy has undergone further changes, re-

sulting in a modification and extension of the existing “weak-strong”
state security approach of the modern era toward a highly
“calculative” security strategy. The term “calculative,” in this con-
text, does not refer to the mere presence of instrumental rationality,
understood as the ability to relate means to ends in a systematic and
logical fashion and which is presumably common to all entities in
international politics, whether weak or strong. Rather, the notion of
“calculative” strategy is defined in substantive terms as a pragmatic
approach that emphasizes the primacy of internal economic growth
and stability, the nurturing of amicable international relations, the
97
98 Interpreting China’s Grand Strategy: Past, Present, and Future
relative restraint in the use of force combined with increasing efforts

to create a more modern military, and the continued search for
asymmetric gains internationally. The reasons for this new strategy
are ultimately rooted in the fact that China today requires high levels
of undistracted growth in economic and technological terms, and
hence significant geopolitical quiescence, to both ensure domestic
order and well-being and to effectively protect its security interests
along the periphery and beyond.
This chapter discerns the specific causes and features of China’s

present-day calculative security strategy and assesses the way this
strategy could adversely affect U.S. interests and the stability of the
Asia-Pacific region over the near to mid term. This period, defined as
extending from the present to about the period 2015–2020, merits
special scrutiny because it represents the minimal timeframe during
which China, despite acquiring critical economic, technological, and
military capabilities, will continue to depend on the success of the
present U.S.-dominated international and regional order for its se-
curity. During this period, the actions of other states will most likely
be the principal precipitants of any serious confrontations or con-
flicts with China, as the growth in relative Chinese power, being not
yet complete, will limit Beijing’s ability and willingness to pursue
other, more assertive, geopolitical strategies. This chapter’s discus-
sion of the features and security implications of China’s calculative
strategy provides a basis for the analysis of the longevity of that strat-
egy and the choices defining China’s strategic directions over the
truly long term—the period after 2015–2020. These two subjects are
the focus of the next chapter.
FACTORS SHAPING CHINA’S CALCULATIVE SECURITY

STRATEGY
The Benefits and Challenges of Economic and Technological
Reform
After a period of nearly 30 years of communist rule, the Chinese
economy began an unprecedented structural transformation in the
late 1970s, thanks primarily to the market reforms of Deng Xiaoping.
This transformation produced revolutionary improvements in Chi-
nese growth rates, patterns and volumes of manufacturing and trade,
China’s Current Security Strategy: Features and Implications 99
personal income levels, state revenues, foreign exchange earnings,

and levels of technology, all of which taken together portend a quali-
tative increase in national capabilities and, if continued over many
decades, a shift in the regional and global balance of power.1 Thanks
to the fruits of the reform program initiated in 1978, China now per-
ceives the acquisition of “comprehensive national strength”2 as be-
ing within its grasp—strength, which if acquired, would enable it to
both resolve its pressing internal developmental problems as well as
reacquire the military capabilities and international political status it
lost at the beginning of the modern era. The importance attached to
concluding the ongoing reform program successfully cannot be un-
derestimated because Chinese security managers clearly recognize
that only sustained economic success can assure (a) the successful
servicing of social objectives to produce the domestic order and well-
being long associated with the memories of the best Chinese states
historically; (b) the restoration of the geopolitical centrality and sta-
tus China enjoyed for many centuries before the modern era; (c) the
desired admittance to the core structures regulating global order and
governance; and (d) the obtaining of critical civilian, dual-use, and
military technologies necessary for sustaining Chinese security in the
evolving regional order.3
At the same time, the continuation, over the long term, of China’s re-
cent economic successes will likely require far more extensive struc-
tural and procedural reforms than have taken place to date. These
include more thoroughgoing price, tax, fiscal, banking, and legal re-
forms; the further liberalization of foreign investment practices,
trade, and currency convertibility; the reform or abandonment of
many state-owned enterprises; and the implementation of more ef-
fective environmental protection measures.4 Such actions, at least in
the near term, could significantly reduce growth rates, aggravate ex-
______________
1The scope and significance of China’s economic and technological achievements
during the reform era are summarized in World Bank (1997a), pp. 1–16.
2Li (1990).
3A good exposition of the role of economic considerations in China’s grand strategy,
coupled with a defense of the claim that global stability will increasingly derive from
Chinese strength, can be found in Song (1986).
4World Bank (1997a), pp. 17–96, for an excellent overview of the requirements for
continued economic growth in China and the problems confronting future reforms.
isting social problems, and will almost certainly challenge deep-

rooted bureaucratic and political interests. They could also signifi-
cantly increase China’s dependence on foreign supplies of critical
materials, consumer demand, investment, technology, and know-
how.5 These possibilities could generate significant leadership de-
bates over the pace and depth of future economic reforms and the
structure and extent of Chinese involvement in the world economy.
How China copes with these challenges holds potentially enormous
implications for the future longevity and composition of China’s cal-
culative security strategy, and if not successfully addressed, they
would prevent the growth of China as a world power.
Changing Capabilities and Orientations of Periphery Powers

Although China is thus changing dramatically and for the better, at
least in economic terms, during the last 20 or so years, the fact re-
mains that the capabilities and strategic orientations of the countries
along China’s strategic periphery have also changed.6 In fact, the
changes here have arguably been more radical, as far as relative na-
tional capabilities over time are concerned and, more significantly,
the processes leading up to these changes have been in motion for
much longer, in fact dating back to the end of the Second World
War. 7 China’s own economic ferment has thus begun at a point
when the traditionally weaker states on its periphery have already
increased their national power capabilities in a manner that would
have been unrecognizable to previous generations of Chinese rulers,
especially those managing the nation’s fortunes at the high tide of
the imperial era. Since the end of the Second World War, the sinitic
states such as South Korea, Japan, Taiwan, and Vietnam, as well as
______________
5 For example, extensive fiscal reform and environmental protection efforts could
temporarily divert resources from more productive pursuits, far-reaching state-en-
terprise reforms could exacerbate worker insecurity and lead to high levels of social
unrest, and greater marketization and privatization efforts could provoke strong resis-
tance at all levels of the Chinese system from profit-seeking capitalist government and
party bureaucrats. See Swaine (1995b), pp. 57–80; Harding (1987), Chapter 10; and
Lardy (1998).
6For a brief overview of the growth in capabilities along China’s periphery, see Rohwer
(1993).
7An overview of the processes leading to the rise of the peripheral states can be found
in Tellis et al. (1998).
non-sinitic states such as India, have all emerged as independent,

more-or-less strong, and stable political entities with significant and
in some cases rapidly growing economic and military capabilities.8
Moreover, several of these states have established strong political
and security links with countries other than China, especially global
powers such as the United States, and are becoming increasingly in-
tegrated into the international economy, although several countries
(particularly Taiwan, Japan, and South Korea) have also recently es-
tablished mutually beneficial economic and/or political connections
with Beijing.9 Areas along China’s northern and western periphery,
such as Outer Mongolia and the Central Asian Republics of the for-
mer Soviet Union, have also emerged as independent states, and
even though they are not as strong and stable as the countries on the
eastern and southern periphery and generally enjoy amicable and
cooperative relations with Beijing, they have for the most part devel-
oped a primarily non-Chinese strategic orientation focused toward
Russia and the Middle East.10
These developments suggest that, although the Chinese state has

managed to incorporate formerly peripheral areas such as Tibet,
Xinjiang, Manchuria, and parts of Mongolia into its orbit of control
(sometimes by force and sometimes through deliberate sinicization),
China now confronts a truly formidable challenge if it seeks to repli-
cate its traditional goal of controlling or at the very least pacifying
new periphery regions beyond the expanded heartland. Indeed, the
past option of direct military force now presents enormous political,
economic, and military dangers to the Chinese state not only from
the actions of the major external powers such as the United States
and Russia (which are often tied by security linkages to the periph-
eral states), but also directly from many of the peripheral states
themselves. There is little doubt today that countries such as Japan,
Vietnam, and India, to cite but three examples of states located along
the eastern and southern periphery, are powerful and stable enough
politically, economically, and militarily to ward off all but the most
______________
8A useful survey of the power and preferences of the Asian states can be found in Ma-
lik (1993).
9The patterns of economic integration of the Asia-Pacific region are detailed in World
Bank (1993).
10Snyder (1995).
violent—meaning nuclear—threats that can be mounted by Beijing.

As a result, the principal peripheral area that Beijing can continue to
threaten with overwhelming force remains Taiwan—an area long
regarded by China as a province. Even in this case, however, the use
of force is presented as a last resort to prevent the island from be-
coming permanently detached from the Chinese heartland.
The newly independent republics of Central Asia are also potentially

susceptible to Chinese blandishments and coercion and could prob-
ably even become subject to Beijing’s military power. But this re-
mains a distant, merely hypothetical, possibility and one whose
eventual success is by no means foreordained, especially if Russia is
able to regain its traditional dominant position in this area. Beijing’s
primary interests in the region revolve around securing access to its
vast, though as yet unexploited, energy supplies; moderating both
pan-Turkic nationalism and militant Islam to sustain effective politi-
cal control in the Xinjiang region; and encouraging regional eco-
nomic development to develop trade and other economic linkages—
all of which would be ill-served by the application of sustained
military force directed at the Central Asian states.11
Exponential Growth in the Capabilities of Industrial Powers

Although most parts of the traditional Chinese periphery have thus
experienced dramatic increases in national capability since the Sec-
ond World War, the economic and military capabilities of major
states in the wider international system have grown even more
significantly. These developments, broadly understood, implied the
further consolidation of Western power (and now include the
integration of a formerly quasi-peripheral state—Japan—within the
orbit of Western influence), which in turn was the result of two gen-
eral processes. On the one hand, the economies of the major West-
ern states in the international system benefited enormously from
their participation in the U.S.-led process of privatized manufactur-
ing and trade that has swept across much of Europe, North America,
______________
11 Useful surveys of Chinese interests in Central Asia can be found in Munro; and
Burles (1999).
and Asia since the 1950s.12 On the other hand, and partly as a result
of this dynamic process of expanding privatization, the most devel-
oped industrial states, and particularly the United States, achieved
major advances in technology that in turn served not only to greatly
increase the lethality and effectiveness of their military capabilities
but to actually increase the power differentials between the West and
its many competitors.
These developments, taken together, implied that China today faces

a significant disadvantage: unlike, for example, its Ming forebears in
the 16th century, who could hold their own in the face of alternative
centers of power such as Mughul India, Muscovy Russia, and Ot-
toman Turkey in the realms of technology and other national capa-
bilities such as economic strength and military power, modern China
(in both its Maoist and Dengist incarnations) has appeared on the in-
ternational scene at a time when Western dominance is highly
entrenched and almost self-perpetuating. Even more crucially,
establishing and maintaining its capabilities as a major power in this
environment require China to establish linkages with the highly
successful economic system of the West, and consequently, both the
preservation of security and the pursuit of power require a radically
different level of global integration than was required of the Ming
Dynasty four centuries earlier or of any other imperial regime. The
price for the rejuvenation of Chinese power in the modern era is thus
potentially high from the perspective of its traditional desire to
maintain both autonomy and geopolitical centrality in Asia: Not
only does the success of the U.S.-led postwar economic regime
prevent Beijing from pursuing an isolated or a nonmarket approach
to economic and military development (at least during the initial
stages), but it also makes continued Chinese acquisition of economic
and technological power hostage to the goodwill of Western regimes,
markets, and suppliers. The ascent to power thus comes at the cost
of limitations on Beijing’s freedom of action and although it appears
that this is a price China is by and large willing to pay, at least in the
near term, it only makes the question of what Beijing’s long-term
directions would be—that is, the directions that can be pursued once
______________
12This dynamic, together with the many changes occurring after 1971, is explored in
some detail in Spero (1985), pp. 25–168.
the constraints relating to external dependency in the near term

diminish—even more interesting.
Growing Domestic Social and Political Challenges

China certainly looks forward to the day when it can recover its right-
ful place in the sun—a yearning reinforced by past memories of both
greatness and humiliation—but there is a clear recognition within
the country’s leadership that several obstacles must be overcome
before China’s claim to greatness rings palpably true within the re-
gion and world-wide. Although the external obstacles are clear and
well-recognized, namely, China’s dependence on external capital,
technology, and markets, there has been a growing recognition, es-
pecially over the past 20 years, that the internal social, political, and
organizational obstacles erected since the advent of communist rule
in 1949 are just as, if not more, significant.13
The utopian and highly disruptive policies of the Great Leap Forward
and the Cultural Revolution of the 1950s and 1960s created enor-
mous chaos and uncertainty within China. By the 1960s and 1970s, a
combination of continued population pressures, the institutional-
ized inefficiencies of a generally autarkic development strategy, and
the highly rigid, repressive, and centralized political system associ-
ated with the Maoist regime had created great impoverishment and
disillusionment. Taken together, such developments not only weak-
ened the faith of ordinary citizens and officials alike in the leadership
of the Communist Party and its official statist development strategy,
they also resulted, more problematically, in a corrosion of political
culture, which brought about the loss of leadership and popular
virtue, made manifest by the appearance of pervasive corruption and
the rise of a self-serving officialdom. These developments have sig-
nificantly exacerbated the challenge to maintaining domestic order
and well-being that resulted from earlier modern developments
(including increases in China’s population, discussed above), and
place enormous pressure on the Chinese state to sustain high levels
of economic growth over the long term.
______________
13For a review of some of these challenges, see Harding (1994b).
Although the internal consequences of political and social corrosion

are no doubt critical, insofar as they affect the prospects for national
disunity, regional fissures, and social unrest, their external conse-
quences are just as unsettling: They have given rise to a deliberate
effort by the weakened and discredited organs of rule at wrapping
themselves in the mantle of territorially defined notions of national-
ism as they struggle to counter the corroding legitimacy of the com-
munist state.14 The effect of this dynamic has been to restore em-
phasis to the irredentist cause of “national reunification” while
simultaneously setting the stage for the possible emergence of new,
potentially dangerous, legal and ideological justifications that “could
provide lebensraum for the Chinese people.”15 These justifications,
taking the form of concepts such as haiyang guotu guan (the concept
of sea as national territory) and shengcun kongjian (survival space),16
feed off the newfound confidence that comes with two decades of
high economic growth but could nonetheless bring China closer to a
costly international conflict without in any way resolving the
problem of infirm structures of rule at home. Even more important,
they carry within themselves the potential for undoing China’s larger
calculative strategy and the geopolitical quiescence that Beijing is
relying upon to complete its internal economic transformation.
The Emergence of a More Pragmatic Program of Military

Modernization
The cost of weak government has been manifested in the material
arena as well as in failures in the realm of legitimacy. This is seen
most clearly when Chinese military capabilities are examined. There
is little doubt today that, lack of resources apart—a problem which in
itself can be traced to leadership failure—the inability of the Chinese
armed forces to modernize adequately since at least the 1950s must
ultimately be traced to the major shortcomings of China’s economic
system and its rigid and unimaginative bureaucracy and party
______________
14Whiting (1995), pp. 732–734; Zhao (1997); and Pye (1995), p. 582.
15Kim (1997), p. 248.
16Kim (1997), p. 248.
structure. Most of the advances in China’s military capabilities at-

tained in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s came about primarily through
incremental and marginal improvements of the largely obsolete So-
viet weapons designs that became available to China during the hey-
day of the Sino-Soviet alliance of 1950–1962. During the 1960s and
1970s, an emphasis on Maoist self-reliance generally precluded any
attempt to accelerate and deepen the modernization process by ac-
quiring foreign military technologies and systems, and efforts to
professionalize and modernize military practices and organizations
were blocked by intrusive Maoist political and doctrinal controls.
By the mid 1980s, however, most Chinese civilian and military lead-
ers clearly recognized that a strong and stable military force could
not be built through a continued reliance on the failed autarkic and
excessively ideological policies of the past. This recognition was fa-
cilitated, over time, by the gradual passing of those leaders, such as
Mao Zedong, who were sympathetic to such policies for political or
ideological reasons and was greatly spurred by the major military ad-
vances attained by Western powers—advances that were subse-
quently labeled the “military-technical revolution” (MTR) by Soviet
theorists.17 As a result of these factors, China’s past impractical and
insular approach to military modernization gave way to a new effort
at examining and selectively incorporating advanced foreign military
technologies while attempting to “indigenize” these qualities
through licensed coproduction of complete systems, the incorpora-
tion of critical subcomponents, or the domestic absorption of know-
how, wherever possible.18 This effort, in turn, required the creation
of a more efficient, innovative, and productive defense industry es-
tablishment and the application of more purely professional criteria
to military training and personnel selection. All of these require-
ments imply a much greater level of involvement with and depen-
dence upon foreign, and especially Western, defense-related re-
sources and know-how. They also demand the resolution of major,
______________
17 The key Soviet proponent of the MTR was Marshal N. V. Ogarkov. See Ogarkov
(1982)—his seminal paper on the subject.
18Gill and Kim (1995) for a detailed review of China’s arms acquisition strategy and
constraints.
long-standing organizational and conceptual problems plaguing

China’s defense establishment.19
All in all, this shift in emphasis in military modernization from com-
plete autarky to some more modest forms of dependence on external
resources and know-how only reinforced the larger trend identified
earlier: the growing reliance on outside powers for critical capabili-
ties that can underwrite Beijing’s rise to power and, by implication,
the acceptance of certain constraints by China’s security managers
on its freedom of action as the price for the acquisition of those ca-
pabilities that are seen to advance its march to “comprehensive na-
tional strength” over the long term. At the same time, the ability of
the Chinese state eventually to reduce its level of dependence on the
outside and increase its freedom of action will depend to a great ex-
tent on its ability to carry out the more extensive economic reforms
and overcome the kinds of structural and conceptual obstacles noted
above.
The Rise of More Institutionalized, Pragmatic Forms of

Authority and Governance
Although the problematic legacy of the past has greatly stimulated
China’s willingness to move in the new directions visible since 1978,
other, more subtle, internal political changes have also coalesced to
make the latest twist in Beijing’s hybrid “weak-strong” state security
strategy possible. These factors often go unrecognized because Chi-
na’s strong dependence on the external environment for continued
economic success usually obscures the effect of internal transforma-
tions on Beijing’s newest shift in strategy. Perhaps the most impor-
tant internal change is the rise of more institutionalized forms of au-
thority and governance. The gradual demise of charismatic authority
in recent years, combined with the widespread repudiation of ex-
tremist ideological development strategies, has resulted in a more
pragmatic, risk-averse brand of politics in comparison to the political
and policy risks that could be taken by strong, militant, and charis-
______________
19Such problems include (a) excessive adherence to self-reliance as a guiding prin-
ciple; (b) lack of horizontal integration; (c) separation from the civilian commercial
sector; (d) lack of skilled experts, managers, and labor; (e) poor infrastructure; and (f)
technology absorption problems. Swaine (1996b).
matic leaders such as Mao in the heyday of the revolutionary era. In

contrast to a previous generation of charismatic leaders who ruled by
both force and popular acclamation, China’s current leaders, lacking
similar charisma and experience, have been forced to rule by creat-
ing a minimal policy consensus which involves, among other things,
an “exchange of considerations”20 both among leading party and
government figures as well as the bureaucratic organs of state.21
Survival in such an environment is contingent on success at the level
of policy outcomes and, consequently, rash and imprudent external
policies that could imperil the fortunes of the current leadership are
likely to be avoided if for no other reason than because the individu-
als involved lack the awe-inspiring charisma that would insulate
them against the worst political consequences of any serious fail-
ure.22
The gradually developing administrative institutions (including more

institutionalized norms for leadership selection and removal), the in-
creasing specialization among elites by expertise in various issue-ar-
eas, and the progressive replacement of violence by intra-elite bar-
gaining as the primary means of capturing and sharing power have
only reinforced the marked tendency toward policy pragmatism wit-
nessed in the post-1978 era.23 This development by no means im-
plies the absence of strong contending views within the leadership or
the elimination of traditional patterns of domestic leadership debate,
discussed in the previous chapter. In particular, increasing, and un-
precedented, levels of involvement with the outside could arguably
heighten long-standing and deep-rooted Chinese sensitivities to
cultural contamination and foreign manipulation and subversion.
Arguments in favor of lessening Chinese dependence on the outside
and increasing Chinese political and diplomatic autonomy could
______________
20Following Chester Bernard, Waltz (1979), p. 113, uses this concept to describe rela-
tions between coordinate units. Although the relations among China’s top leaders are
not always coordinate relations, the mutual adjustment and accommodation that in-
creasingly take place among various personalities and groups justifies the use of the
phrase even in an environment that has room for nominal hierarchies.
21For a discussion of the evolution of the system of “collective leadership,” see Wang
(1995), pp. 103–119.
22Wang (1995), pp. 103–119.
23 Pei (1998) and the discussion below of the prospects for long-term democratic
change, for a detailed review of some of these developments.
gain greater currency if economic growth falters seriously or if Chi-

nese involvement in international regimes or treaties are seen to ob-
struct the attainment of specific nationalist objectives, such as na-
tional reunification. Those who support China’s greater involvement
in world affairs, for whatever reason, would likely resist strenuously
such arguments, thus creating the basis for significant leadership
conflict. However, at present, and barring any major economic or
social crises, such contention is not strong enough to abridge the
evolving “rules of the game” pertaining to the peaceful, pragmatic
pursuit and distribution of power, especially at the highest levels of
the government and party. Also significant is the fact that there still
exists a small though nontrivial threat of military intervention in the
event of prolonged economic decline or elite strife.24 This possibil-
ity, in turn, suggests that the majority coalitions currently behind
China’s pragmatic reform era policies have an even greater interest
in ensuring, first, that a pacific external environment is created to the
maximum extent possible (at least as far as China’s own policies are
concerned) and, second, that this environment actually yields visible
dividends as far as Chinese economic growth and technological im-
provement are concerned.
Barring any catastrophic changes occurring outside of Chinese con-

trol, the net effect of these domestic transformations will be to rein-
force the policy of pragmatism still further—a condition that can be
expected to hold at least until China’s power-political resurgence is
complete, at which point there may arise new elites who seek to use
the country’s newfound power in more assertive ways to advance
either their own particular interests or the national interest at large.
Such elites could attain influence by combining nationalist pride in
China’s economic successes, Chinese great power aspirations, and
elite and popular fears of foreign subversion to argue, for example, in
favor of a more autonomous, strong state security strategy. Until that
point is reached, however, the domestic leadership changes cur-
rently occurring in China appear to reinforce Beijing’s appreciation
of its dependence on the existing international system for continued
growth and prosperity.25
______________
24Swaine (1995b), pp. 38–39.
25For further details on these and other facets of China’s leadership, see Chapter Five
and Swaine (1995b), pp. 3–39, 95–104.
Lowered External Threats

China’s willingness to recognize the price of dependence is certainly
a significant facet of its present security strategy, but the larger and
more consequential changes in its strategic environment that made
this attitude possible must not go unnoticed. The gradual diminu-
tion in the levels of threat faced by the Chinese state since the 1970s
created an environment where increased Chinese security-related
interactions with other states became possible. This diminution oc-
curred in part because the United States initiated a process of de-
tente as a means of involving China in resolving its own problems
with both Vietnam and the Soviet Union. When U.S. problems in
Southeast Asia were resolved by the mid to late 1970s, the U.S. en-
gagement of China as part of its larger strategy toward the Soviet
Union only grew in intensity. Moreover, Beijing’s freedom of ma-
neuver compared to that of the Soviet Union actually increased
(despite its own conspicuous inferiority) after the restoration of full
Sino-U.S. diplomatic relations in 1979, thanks both to the positive
externalities of U.S. nuclear deterrence and because the Soviets were
more concerned with events in such far-off regions as Southwest Asia
than with nearby competitors such as China. As a consequence of
this gradual deepening of Sino-U.S. political relations, Washington
drastically reduced its level of military assistance to Taiwan, dropped
prohibitions on the sale of certain weapons and the transfer of many
critical military and civilian technologies to China, and generally
permitted a wide range of beneficial commercial dealings with the
PRC.26
This turnaround in Sino-U.S. relations, along with initial signs of a

decline in Soviet power, eventually spurred an improvement in Chi-
na’s relations with the Soviet Union, which ultimately produced a
drastic reduction in military tensions between the two Eurasian
powers, marked by high-level leadership visits and consultations,
confidence-building measures along the Sino-Soviet border, and
greatly increased economic and cultural contacts. Such an unprece-
dented reduction in the level of foreign threat posed to the Chinese
______________
26For details, see Harding (1992), and Pollack (1999).
state in the modern era thus occurred at a time when the most im-
portant entity in the international system—the United States—
appeared to be more supportive of China whereas its most
consequential and proximate adversary—the Soviet Union—was
progressively decaying in power-political capacity. This radical
diminution in the range of traditional threats visible since the early
years of the Cold War provided China with a substantial measure of
political cover under which it could pursue the internal economic
reforms—finally embarked upon in 1978 and accelerated in the mid
to late 1980s—without excessive risk.
The general pacificity of its external environment allowed Beijing the

luxury of downgrading military modernization to the last of the “four
modernizations” (identified as agriculture, industry, science and
technology, and national defense) in terms of relative priority and
enabled China to undertake its market reform program for two
decades continuously without any disproportionate diversion of its
fruits into wasteful security competition.27 The wisdom of this
choice was only buttressed by the end of the Cold War, brought
about by the final demise of the Soviet Union in 1992. This event
provoked Jiang Zemin’s authoritative assessment of China’s strategic
environment as “never having been more satisfactory since the
founding of the Republic.”28 The relatively pacific external envi-
ronment thus contributed to the emergence of a Chinese security
policy that could focus on the long-overdue modernization of Chi-
nese agriculture, industry, and science and technology. This focus
enabled Beijing to lay the foundations for acquiring comprehensive
national strength as opposed to embarking on a “quick and dirty”
program of accelerated military modernization which, however
much it increased China’s coercive power in the short run, would
eventually undercut its ability to become a true great power and
reestablish the geopolitical centrality and respect it believes to be its
due.
______________
27Chen (1990).
28Cited in Kim (1996), p. 11.
THE MAJOR GUIDING TENETS AND POLICIES OF CHINA’S

CALCULATIVE SECURITY STRATEGY
Given this backdrop, it is no surprise that Chinese grand strategy
since the end of the Cold War has sought to maintain the orientation
visible since 1978: the acquisition of comprehensive national power
deriving from a continued reform of the economy without the im-
pediments and distractions of security competition. The traditional
objectives that the Chinese state has pursued over the centuries still
remain and they even now constitute the ends to which all the efforts
relating to economic growth and internal transformation are di-
rected. These objectives include assuring domestic order and social
well-being; maintaining an adequate defense against threats to the
heartland; increasing the level of influence and control over the pe-
riphery with an eye to warding off threats that may eventually men-
ace the political regime; and restoring China to regional preemi-
nence while attaining the respect of its peers as a true great power
marked by high levels of economic and technological development,
political stability, military prowess, and manifest uprightness. Such
objectives, however, cannot be pursued today through the assertive
and sometimes militaristic solutions associated with the “strong-
state” strategy of the past, in large measure because China presently
finds itself “between the times”: Although it may be a rising power, it
is not yet sufficiently strong, at least relative to some of the key states
on its periphery, if not beyond. Consequently, it is in many ways still
a “consumer,” rather than an entirely self-sufficient “producer,” of
security and its present grand strategy accordingly reflects the fact
that its domestic and external environments constrain its preferred
outcomes much more easily than its resources can produce them.
Not surprisingly, then, as has occurred at times in the past, China’s

grand strategy today is neither “assertive” nor “cooperative” in the
most straightforward sense of those terms. Instead, in this instance,
it displays a “calculative” streak which, though determined to pre-
vent certain critical losses at all costs, is nonetheless characterized by
an outward-oriented pragmatism designed to rapidly improve its
domestic social conditions, increase the legitimacy of its governing
regime, enhance its national economic and technological capabili-
ties, and thereby ultimately strengthen its military prowess and im-
prove its standing and influence in the international political order.
The logic underlying this “calculative” strategy is therefore simply

one of constrained maximization, with China seeking to increase its
power in a variety of issue-areas in as non-provocative a fashion as
possible to avoid precipitating those regional or global responses
that would seek to retard the growth of that power for all the time
honored reasons associated with the “quest for equilibrium”29 and
“the creation of balances of power.”30 If successfully executed, the
“calculative” strategy offers Beijing dual benefits, whether intended
or not: On the one hand, it would desensitize China’s political and
economic partners to the debilitating problems of relative gains in
Chinese capabilities and thus encourage continued foreign collabo-
ration in the underwriting of China’s rise to power.31 On the other
hand, it would, by accentuating China’s desire for cooperation, pro-
vide Beijing with sufficient breathing space from external threats to
uninterruptedly achieve its goal of increased national power.32
Given these considerations, the “calculative” strategy that achieved

dominance in the 1980s can be summarized by its three guiding ele-
ments:
• First, overall, a highly pragmatic, non-ideological policy ap-

proach keyed to market-led economic growth and the
maintenance of amicable international political relations with all
states, and especially with the major powers.
• Second, a general restraint in the use of force, whether toward
the periphery or against other more distant powers, combined
with efforts to modernize and streamline the Chinese military,
albeit at a relatively modest pace.
• Third, an expanded involvement in regional and global interstate
politics and various international, multilateral fora, with an
______________
29Liska (1977).
30Waltz (1979), p. 118.
31The problem of relative gains and its effect on cooperation is discussed in Grieco
(1988).
32As Jiang Zemin candidly admitted, Beijing cannot afford to be aggressive because
“China needs a long-lasting peaceful international environment for its development.”
Jiang Zemin (1995).
emphasis, through such interactions, on attaining asymmetric

gains whenever possible.33
Together, these elements amount to a highly modified version of

China’s traditional “weak-state” strategy, designed to create the
foundations for a stronger, more modern Chinese state.
How this strategy has concretely manifested itself will now be exam-
ined in the context of the policies China appears to be pursuing in
four separate issue-areas (a) policies toward the United States and
other powers, (b) policies toward military modernization, (c) policies
toward territorial claims and the recourse to force, and (d) policies
toward international regimes.
Policies Toward the United States and Other Major Powers

Given China’s accurate appreciation of its status as a “still weak, but
rising” power, the thrust of Beijing’s security-related policies toward
the United States as the preeminent power in the international sys-
tem can be characterized as a two-sided effort focusing on
“cooptation” on the one hand and “prevention” on the other. The ef-
fort at cooptation focuses essentially on developing and maintaining
cordial relations with the United States to encourage it to consis-
tently underwrite the continuing growth in Chinese power, whereas
the effort at prevention seeks to hinder any U.S. efforts that may be
directed toward frustrating the expansion in Chinese capability,
status, and influence. This two-pronged strategy is grounded in
the Chinese leadership’s recognition that the United States subsists
“in economic terms as an important trading partner and major in-
vestor” in China, while simultaneously remaining “in nationalistic
terms as a major rival in a competition for ‘comprehensive national
strength.’”34
The efforts at both cooptation and prevention are manifested in di-

rect and indirect forms. At the direct level, both are oriented first to
______________
33This feature is also described as a “mini/maxi” code of conduct keyed to the max-
imization of security and other benefits through free rides or noncommital strategies
and the minimization of costs to capabilities, status, or influence. Kim (1999).
34Yi Xiaoxiong (1994), p. 681.
convincing the United States to accept the rise of China as a stabiliz-

ing event both at the level of international politics and in the regional
context of East Asia. Convincing the United States about the in-
evitability—in fact, the desirability—of the growth in Chinese power
is essential to prevent any attempts at containment on the part of
either the United States and its allies or other powers in Asia. It is
also essential to forestall a heightened U.S. defensive counterre-
sponse toward a rising China, especially one that—if it leads to
greater military acquisitions, increased forward deployments, more
robust operational tempos, and accelerated military R&D—would
increase the gap in power capabilities between the United States and
China still further. Such a reaction would thus force China to run a
longer race to become a major power and also would provide Bei-
jing’s regional competitors with the political cover under which they
could challenge Chinese interests more effectively. Both cooptation
and prevention are therefore fundamentally oriented, as one scholar
succinctly phrased it, toward legitimizing “a kind of ‘hegemonic
stability theory’ with Chinese characteristics.”35
To this end, China has attempted to maintain a variety of high-level
interactions with the United States, at both the political and military
levels. In all these exchanges, Chinese leaders have sought to secure
U.S. support for the political, economic, and social transitions and
transformations currently under way in China (including seeking a
political imprimatur that can be used to fend off political opponents
of cordial Sino-U.S. relations back home), while simultaneously at-
tempting to weaken the level of support perceived to be offered by
the United States to China’s current or potential future adversaries,
primarily the Republic of China, and in a different way to Japan as
well. In the case of the former, Chinese efforts have been directed at
encouraging a steady diminution of U.S. political and military sup-
port to the ROC, especially in the context of the latter’s apparent ef-
forts at achieving independence. Because U.S. support for the ROC
is seen both as a direct challenge to China’s sovereignty and as evi-
dence of “an American mentality of ‘not wanting to see the rise of a
too powerful China,’”36 Beijing has frequently exerted strenuous ef-
______________
35Kim (1996), p. 5.
forts to weaken U.S.-ROC political ties.37 Chinese objectives with re-

spect to Japan are more complex in that Beijing recognizes that the
U.S.-Japan Mutual Defense Treaty is a double-edged sword: Al-
though it serves to restrain Japanese remilitarization in the near
term, it could over time become the nucleus of a containment effort
directed against China. Consequently, Beijing’s effort at prevention
here takes the form of a guarded disapproval of any deepening of the
U.S.-Japan security relationship in the hope of encouraging the latter
to atrophy naturally. 38
Besides these political dimensions of cooptation and prevention,

there is an economic dimension as well. Here, the principal objec-
tive of cooptation consists of being able to ensure continued access
to U.S. markets which today constitute the wellspring of Chinese
economic growth and prosperity. Consequently, assuring perma-
nent “most favored nation” status has become the most important
legal objective of direct cooptation at the economic level because it
ensures that China’s export-led growth strategy would find fulfill-
ment in terms of ready access to the richest and most valuable mar-
ket in the world for its consumer goods and light industrial products.
Although China already has most favored nation status from the
United States, this status requires annual renewal and is covered by a
1979 bilateral agreement between China and the United States rather
than through membership in the General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade’s (GATT) successor, the World Trade Organization (WTO). The
recurrent renewal of this status, which is mandated by law, however,
subjects the process of extension to a variety of political pressures,
many of which have little to do with trade per se. 39 Consequently,
China’s abiding interest consists of convincing Washington to sup-
______________
37Weakening the U.S.-ROC relationship has proved much more difficult than Beijing
originally anticipated, in part because it is connected to U.S. domestic politics and the
strong linkages between Taiwan and influential members of the U.S. Congress. China
has repeatedly sought to increase its leverage over the United States concerning this
issue, at times by offering to reduce or eliminate its exports of weapons of mass de-
struction and their associated delivery systems to some South Asian and Middle East-
ern states in return for reductions in U.S. military assistance to Taiwan.
38 For a representative example of the official Chinese position on U.S. strategic
relations with Japan, see “Official Meets Japanese Envoy Over Defense Guidelines”
(1998).
39A good discussion of China’s interest in most favored nation status and in GATT
more generally can be found in Power (1994); and Pearson (1999).
port its admittance into the WTO as a full member, but on what
amounts to preferential terms as a developing country. Admittance to
the WTO is important to the success of Beijing’s export-led growth
strategy in that it allows China access to multiple international mar-
kets on uniformly preferential terms; further, such access is ensured
through a multilateral institution not fully under the control of the
United States, thereby offering China opportunities to purse com-
mercial and political interests (including those relating to Taiwan)
outside of the restraints that may be episodically imposed within the
framework of the Sino-U.S. bilateral relationship. Finally, it provides
China with better cover against the protectionist policies of other de-
veloping countries while simultaneously accelerating Beijing’s inte-
gration into the global economy.40
In addition to these direct political and economic efforts, there are
other indirect efforts at cooptation as well. These include exploiting
U.S. pluralist society to undercut any adverse political objectives that
may be pursued by the U.S. government. In this context, corporate
America, with its significant economic interests deriving from large
investments in China, becomes a powerful instrument conditioning
the shape of U.S. strategic policy toward China. And Beijing has not
hesitated to use its sovereign powers of preferential access and large
commercial orders to encourage U.S. business groups to lobby the
U.S. government for consequential changes in its strategic policies as
the price for continued, profitable, interactions with China. 41 These
changes were usually sought in the issue-areas of human rights, the
rules governing technology transfers, and nonproliferation. To be
sure, the incentives for such lobbying exist even in the absence of
any direct Chinese governmental intervention, but that implies only
that the indirect mechanisms of prevention are even more profitable
if China can secure a variety of advantageous political outcomes with
little or no effort on its own part.
______________
40Because Beijing seeks membership as a developing country, the United States has in
the past blocked Chinese membership on the grounds that such status would allow
China to continue a variety of restrictive trading practices even as it enjoys the fruits of
preferential access to the markets of many developed countries. The rationale for
China’s wish to enter the WTO as a developing country is explicated in Wong (1996);
and in Pearson (1999), pp. 176–177.
41Hsiung (1995), pp. 580–584.
Although the method of coopting U.S. policy through its domestic

politics is perhaps the most visible element of China’s indirect ef-
forts, these efforts also occur in the realm of prevention as well, par-
ticularly at the international level. The best known attempts at influ-
encing U.S. policy here consist of the various efforts made by Beijing
over the years to orchestrate Asian sentiment against growing
Japanese power, especially where manifestation of that power out-
side the home islands is concerned.42 A similar logic underlies the
occasional Chinese efforts to encourage an “Asia for Asians” senti-
ment: Here, the effort seems focused on convincing the United
States, as well as other Asian states, that the “Asian way” remains a
distinctive alternative to the Anglo-American modes of ordering so-
cial relations and that the Asia-Pacific region writ large can manage
its affairs—whether in the arena of human rights or security—
without outside assistance.43 A more recent effort at indirect pre-
vention consists of the increasingly energetic espousal by Beijing of a
new multilateral mutual security structure for Asia—the so-called
New Security Concept. Although some controversy exists over the
meaning and intention of this concept, many observers believe that
it is intended to replace the current U.S.-led bilateral security al-
liance structure of the Asia-Pacific region.44 Irrespective of the de-
tails, the general orientation of such indirect efforts seems to focus
on communicating to the United States that its present military and,
to some extent, political, presence in East Asia, including its system
of security alliances, is a waning vestige of the Cold War and hence
should be muted considerably; nurturing a wedge between the
United States and its formal and informal allies in Asia; and, finally,
preparing the ground for an insular Asian theater where Chinese
relative capabilities will not be eclipsed by the presence of larger ex-
traregional political and military forces.
The United States is certainly the most important actor in Chinese

strategic calculations, but it is by no means the only one. Conse-
______________
42A typical example of Chinese thinking in this regard is Yu (1997).
43Such efforts do not appear to be part of a concerted, systematic strategy, however,
but rather reflect the views of individual Chinese leaders, especially more conservative
military figures.
44 The standard presentation of the New Security Concept is contained in State
Council Information Office (1998).
quently, it is not surprising that Beijing’s efforts at cooptation and

prevention are not restricted to the United States alone but rather ex-
tend to all other great powers in the international system. The objec-
tives of these efforts are broadly comparable to those pursued
against the United States and they revolve, for the most part, around
lowering bilateral tensions and encouraging the major powers to as-
sist China in its efforts at modernization. Thus, for example, rela-
tions with Russia are oriented primarily toward reducing the chances
of political and military conflict between the two former antagonists
and acquiring critical military technologies that cannot be obtained
either from the United States or the West more generally. Although
this essentially arms procurement relationship has now been bap-
tized as a “strategic partnership,” it is so only in name. 45 The eco-
nomic meltdown in Russia after the demise of the Soviet Union has
resulted in Russian defense industries scrambling for customers
simply to survive. China’s high growth rates and its increasing con-
cern with maritime, rather than continental, issues (including the
threat of Taiwanese independence) make Beijing the perfect cus-
tomer and, not surprisingly, the Russian military-industrial com-
plex—with the hesitant acquiescence of the Russian leadership—has
responded by providing a variety of weapon systems or technologies,
some of which will be license-produced in China itself.46
Where military products from Great Britain, France, and Israel are
concerned, Chinese interests revolve more around specific subsys-
tems rather than finished platforms or weapons systems, but China’s
primary strategic interest in developing relations with these states,
and with the Europeans more generally, consists of being able to en-
sure access to diversified sources of civilian and dual-use technolo-
gies and, more broadly, to preserve positive political and economic
relations that contribute to China’s overall development.47 Where
relations with China’s immediate East Asian neighbors such as Ko-
rea, Japan, and even Taiwan are concerned, the main objective of
______________
45“Can a Bear Love a Dragon?” (1997); and Anderson (1997). The notion that the Sino-
Russian relationship constitutes “the beginning of a new quadrilateral alignment in
East Asia in which a continental Russo-Chinese bloc balances a ‘maritime’ American-
Japanese bloc” (Garver, 1998, Chapter Five) is at the very least extremely premature.
46Blank (1996). At the same time, Russia’s leadership apparently disagrees over the
appropriate level and composition of Russian arms sales to China.
47Gill and Kim (1995).
cooptation seems to be an effort to encourage greater direct and

portfolio investments in and trade with the Mainland. In the specific
case of Taiwan, this interest is in large part motivated by China’s
strong desire to increase Taiwan’s overall level of involvement in and
dependence upon the Mainland, as a way to increase Chinese politi-
cal leverage over Taiwan. The benefits in terms of capital transfers,
increased employment, and domestic wealth generation are deemed
to be critical enough to encourage deeper economic participation on
the part of these countries, even if their longer-term political inter-
ests may diverge substantially from China’s. In any event, the gen-
eral principle underlying these relationships seems to be the same:
to use China’s growing market and economic wealth to secure those
resources that cannot be procured from the United States while si-
multaneously using these transactions to provide its non-U.S. part-
ners with an economic stake in China’s continued growth.
Deepened relations with China’s non-U.S. partners also has other

advantages. Where significant arms-producing states such as Great
Britain, France, and Israel (and other European states as well) are
concerned, China seeks to manipulate access to its commercial mar-
ket to prevent these states from providing arms and military tech-
nologies to Taiwan. 48 Such transfers, it is feared, could reinforce the
Taiwanese desire for independence while simultaneously vitiating
the deterrence China seeks to impose through the application of its
older and relatively more obsolescent weaponry. Apart from the
specific benefits in relation to Taiwan, deepened relations with other
powers also provide benefits in relation to the United States. At the
very least, deepened relations constitute a “diversification strat-
egy,” 49 which gives Beijing some political and economic instruments
that can be used to prevent the creation of a strong U.S.-led anti-
Chinese coalition in those issue areas where U.S. and non-U.S.
interests may not fully coincide. Thus, these relationships give Bei-
jing improved leverage in dealings with the United States and they
could become in extremis the routes by which China circumvents
any future U.S. efforts at restraining either its policies or its growth in
capabilities more generally. As one scholar summarized it, “to Chi-
nese leaders, [political] diversification offers obvious bargaining ad-
______________
48Shambaugh (1996b), pp. 1301–1302.
vantages as it signals other powers that they are not indispensable

and that China can avoid and resist foreign pressures without seri-
ously hindering its national security.”50
Policies Toward Military Modernization

As part of its current “calculative” strategy, China has sought to de-
velop a range of military capabilities to sustain an expanded level of
political and operational objectives. These objectives include (a) se-
curing the defense of Chinese sovereignty and national territory
against threats or attacks from all manner of opponents, including
highly sophisticated military forces; (b) acquiring the ability to
counter or neutralize a range of potential short-, medium-, and long-
term security threats along China’s entire periphery, but especially in
maritime areas; (c) acquiring the ability to use military power as a
more potent and versatile instrument of armed diplomacy and
statecraft in support of a complex set of regional and global policies;
and (d) eventually developing the power-projection and extended
territorial defense capabilities commensurate with the true great
power status expected in the 21st century. These complex objectives
may be summarized, at least over the near term, as an effort to re-
duce China’s existing vulnerabilities while increasing the utility of its
military forces to secure diplomatic and political leverage.51
The efforts at reducing vulnerability have materialized at two differ-

ent, though related, levels. The first level consists of a slow but de-
termined effort at nuclear modernization. As indicated previously,
the range of Chinese nuclear capabilities today are modest, at least
relative to the capabilities of the superpowers during the Cold War.
Despite the presence of much larger arsenals in the Soviet Union and
the United States, the Chinese historically seemed disinclined to in-
crease the size of their nuclear inventory presumably because, first,
they were satisfied that the mutual deterrence relations between the
United States and the Soviet Union generated sufficient positive ex-
ternalities that precluded the need for a significant expansion of ca-
pabilities—specifically, such relations meant that only a small
______________
51A good summary of the multidimensional facets of China’s military modernization
can be found in Shambaugh and Yang (1997).
strategic force capable of conducting a credible retaliatory strike

against either Soviet or U.S. cities and major U.S. military bases in
Asia was deemed sufficient to deter both states from attacking China;
and, second, their modest but not insignificant capabilities already
allowed them to support some primitive kinds of selective nuclear
operations, well before they either developed the accompanying
doctrine that justified such operations or were given credit for such
capabilities in the West.52 The ability to execute such selective
operations derived more from the diversity of their nuclear holdings,
which included small numbers of land- and sea-based ballistic
missiles, manned bombers and, more important, tactical nuclear
weapons,53 and the locational uncertainty of many of these force
elements than from a deterrence architecture that emphasized the
possession of a large “hyper-protected force for intra-war deterrence,
with long endurance and excellent communications and control.”54
Given these calculations, the Chinese are believed to have developed
a diversified arsenal of about 450 warheads—an inventory similar in
size to that maintained by Great Britain and France; for such
medium powers, a strategy of limited deterrence was deemed to be
sufficient in the face of the complex nuclear deterrence regime
maintained by the United States and the Soviet Union during the
Cold War. 55 Despite the many limitations of this arsenal, it is
obvious that the Chinese value their nuclear weapons both for the
status they bestow on them in the international system and because
they remain the only effective deterrent in all situations where
Chinese conventional military power may be found wanting.
______________
52For an analysis of the evolving doctrinal justifications of China’s nuclear modern-
ization effort, see Johnston (1995/96).
53China’s development of tactical nuclear weapons, principally in the form of artillery
warheads, atomic demolition munitions, and shells for multiple rocket systems,
apparently began in the 1970s in response to increasing military tensions with the
former Soviet Union. It has continued since, however, despite the collapse of the
USSR and the improvement of political relations with all significant military powers
along China’s borders. These capabilities have never been acknowledged by China
but observations of People’s Liberation Army (PLA) training exercises and
underground nuclear tests have led many observers to conclude that such capabilities
exist. See Caldwell and Lennon (1995), pp. 29–30.
54Schlesinger (1967), pp. 12–13.
55Goldstein (1992).
Given these considerations, China’s efforts at nuclear modernization

have not focused on increasing the size of the nuclear inventory per
se but rather on reducing its vulnerability to preemptive strikes by
the more sophisticated forces of the industrialized powers. The ef-
forts here have been directed primarily toward improving “the sur-
vivability of [its] strategic forces, develop[ing] less vulnerable basing
modes, and mak[ing] general improvements in the accuracy, range,
guidance, and control”56 of its missile forces. Consistent with these
goals, China appears to have focused primarily on developing new
land-based, solid-fueled, road-mobile missiles such as the DF-21,
DF-31, and DF-41 to replace older liquid-fueled missiles such as the
DF-5A as well as producing a new class of warheads thought to be ei-
ther miniaturized or of smaller yield and weight to increase targeting
flexibility and launcher mobility.57 Other developments include de-
veloping a new second-generation replacement sea-launched ballis-
tic missile, the solid-fueled JL-2, and possibly a small fleet of four to
six more advanced ballistic missile submarines, as well as a new
bomber, the FB-7, as a replacement for its antiquated H-5 and H-6
fleet. There is also some speculation that China’s nuclear
modernization includes improving its tactical nuclear capabilities as
well as developing new nuclear warheads for its short-range ballistic
missiles such as the DF-11 (M-11). Almost all available evidence
relating to these programs suggests that the pace of development
and acquisition is generally slow. This is usually taken to imply that
China does not view these systems as very much more than an
evolutionary progression of its already existing capabilities—a
progression required both for prudential reasons relating to the new
demands of operating in a unipolar environment (in which the
United States could conceivably target more nuclear weapons on
China) and for technical reasons relating to combating obsoles-
cence.58
______________
56Caldwell and Lennon (1995), p. 30.
57On Chinese warhead R&D objectives, see Garrett and Glazer (1995/96).
58 One caveat to this general statement could exist, however. Some observers of
China’s nuclear weapons modernization program believe that Beijing has recently
decided to enhance significantly its theater nuclear weapons capability as its only
effective means of deterring the threat or use by the United States of highly effective
long-range precision-guided, and stealthy conventional weaponry. Such weapons
were used by the United States with virtual impunity during the Kosovo conflict of
1998.
The second level of efforts aimed at reducing vulnerability occurs in

the conventional realm. China’s labors in this area are much more
concerted and its achievement much more significant. The priority
attached to conventional modernization derives from a variety of
factors. First, it reflects an appreciation that Chinese conventional
forces and weaponry are more useable instruments of power than its
nuclear capabilities. 59 Second, given China’s evolving threat envi-
ronment, Beijing believes it may be faced with “limited theater” con-
tingencies that require the use of its conventional forces in the near
to mid term and, consequently, must prepare diligently for their use
in a variety of situations where even modest differences in relative
capability could radically affect the kinds of outcomes obtained.60
Third, the economic reforms conducted since 1978 have produced
dramatic changes in China’s strategic geography, in that its most
valuable economic and social resources now lie along its weakly de-
fended eastern and southeastern territorial periphery as opposed to
the secure interior of the heartland as was the case during the Cold
War. This development, in turn, has put a premium on the develop-
ment of new kinds of conventional forces—primarily air and naval—
and new concepts of operations that are quite alien to the traditional
continental orientation of the Chinese military.61 Fourth, the nature
of China’s potential adversaries is seen to have changed: The so-
lution of a “peoples’ war,” which might have sufficed against land
powers such as the Soviet Union, is now viewed to be irrelevant in
the context of future maritime adversaries such as Taiwan, Japan,
and the United States, where “limited wars under high-tech condi-
tions” would increasingly require material and ideational resources
of the sort that China does not currently possess.62 Fifth, and finally,
China appears to have been greatly impressed by the experience of
the Gulf War where the technologically superior coalition forces
provided a sharp and pointed preview of the devastating punishment
______________
59Chu (1994), pp. 186–190.
60Munro (1994); and Godwin (1997).
61Chu (1994), pp. 187–188. Also see Swaine (1998b).
62Chu (1994); Swaine (1998b); and Godwin (1997).
that could be inflicted on any adversary possessing an obsolete force

structure, doctrine, and capabilities. 63
These five considerations, taken together, have forced a reevaluation
of China’s ability to execute effective border defense aimed specifi-
cally—at least in the near term—at preventing the loss of possessed
and claimed territories, both contiguous and offshore. Because Chi-
na’s contiguous land borders, however, are relatively secure at this
time, thanks both to Chinese diplomacy and China’s potential
neighboring adversaries’ current unwillingness to press their claims
(each for their own reasons), the most visible dimensions of the con-
ventional modernization have involved air and naval forces. This is
not to imply that land force modernization has been overlooked.
China is engaged in ongoing efforts to reduce the overall size and
streamline the structure of the PLA to improve its qualitative capa-
bilities.64 The mobility, firepower, logistics, and communications
assets of PLA ground forces are being improved as a prudential mea-
sure should they be required for combat operations in some land
border areas as well as for internal pacification. Yet despite these
initiatives, air and naval modernization has overshadowed all else
because improvements in air power are now viewed as critical for the
success of all military operations, and modernized naval capabilities
are seen as indispensable for the defense of offshore claims, espe-
cially those relating to Taiwan and the South China Sea, and for the
defense of China’s increasingly important strategic assets along the
coast.
Contingencies involving Taiwan in particular have provided a sharp

focus for China’s conventional modernization efforts in recent years.
This includes developing both interdiction (including morale-
breaking) capabilities against Taiwan as well as denial capabilities
against Taiwan’s potential defenders, primarily the United States.
The requirements pertaining to the interdiction of Taiwan have re-
sulted in a substantial effort to strengthen China’s missile order of
battle, primarily short-range ballistic missiles such as the M-9 and
M-11. These missiles are viewed by the Chinese as uniquely capable
______________
63See Frolov (1998) for a review of China’s modernization initiatives precipitated by
the lessons of the Gulf War.
64Godwin (1992).
of sowing mass panic on Taiwan or destroying Taiwanese military

installations with little advance warning. Contingencies involving
Taiwan have also resulted in consequential efforts to improve
Chinese air battle management capabilities over the Taiwan Strait
and allow China to use its recent or imminent arms acquisitions
from Russia—advanced air superiority aircraft such as the Su-27,
advanced air defense systems such as the SA-10 and SA-15, and new
surface and subsurface capabilities in the form of Soveremenny
destroyers and Kilo submarines—with consequential effect.
Although each of these Russian-built weapons systems addresses
critical deficiencies in China’s basic force structure and was almost
certainly acquired as part of Beijing’s overall modernization effort,
each system also has a particular operational relevance in the Taiwan
theater.
Because combat operations directed at Taiwan may require that
China contend with the forward-deployed naval capabilities of the
United States, Beijing has also embarked on a serious effort to ac-
quire capabilities that could increase the risks accruing to any U.S.
attempts at armed diplomacy or outright intervention. These efforts
have focused principally on improving China’s ability to detect,
track, and target U.S. carrier battle groups by multiple means as far
away as possible from the Mainland. This includes developing air-
and ground-launched cruise missile systems for standoff attack, sea
denial capabilities centered on subsurface platforms as well as anti-
surface attack and mine warfare systems, and information attack ca-
pabilities centered on antisatellite warfare, electronic warfare, and
deception and denial operations. Although many Chinese capabili-
ties in this area are modest at present, improving these capabilities
will remain a critical priority over the long term.65
This is true a fortiori because the objectives of China’s conventional

modernization effort are not near-term goals alone. Rather, Beijing’s
search for increased diplomatic and political leverage—consistent
with its growing status and in response to the changing security envi-
ronment of the modern era—will presumably require that it even-
tually be able to operate independently throughout most of the Asian
______________
65A good summary of Chinese efforts in this regard can be found in Khalilzad et al.
(1999) and Stokes (1999).
littoral. Serving this objective by itself will likely require that the Chi-
nese military be able to at least hold extraregional forces at risk, if not
master them entirely. The quest for increased diplomatic and politi-
cal leverage, therefore, has already begun in terms of efforts to opera-
tionalize extended sea and information-denial capabilities. These
include developing new maritime and space-based surveillance ca-
pabilities, new modernized diesel and nuclear attack submarines
incorporating several Russian technologies and subsystems, new
surface combatants equipped with better surface-to-surface and sur-
face-to-air capabilities, new air-, surface-, and subsurface-launched
tactical cruise missiles, possibly new directed-energy weapon
programs, and new information-warfare initiatives in addition to
exploring the offensive use of space.66 Although many of these
programs remain in the very early stages of development, when
combined with new kinds of naval aviation capabilities in the coming
decades, they could eventually coalesce into capabilities that will
allow for an extended Chinese naval presence and power projection
capability throughout much of East Asia.67
China’s current conventional military modernization programs are

thus designed to serve pressing near- and medium-term needs, while
still allowing for the possibility of an evolutionary expansion over the
long term as Chinese economic capabilities increase in size and
importance. It is important to recognize, however, that the long-
range strategic objectives associated with China’s potential long-
term economic capabilities and great power aspirations such as the
acquisition of extended sea control over maritime areas extending far
into the Pacific Ocean—especially those regions described by Chi-
nese naval strategists and leaders as the “first and second island
chains”68—do not determine current Chinese weapons acquisitions
and modernization programs in any direct, immediate, and
straightforward fashion. Rather, the role of broad strategic concepts,
such as the control over the first and second island chains, is more
regulative than constraining: That is, these concepts provide general
benchmarks for the future, they identify certain desired capabilities
that Chinese force planners likely aspire to incorporate into their
______________
66Stokes (1999).
67Godwin (1997).
68For an excellent analysis of this concept, see Huang (1994).
force structure over the long term, and they no doubt justify the PLA
Navy’s modernization agenda in competition with the other armed
services. But they do not provide programmatic guidance for near-
term military acquisitions. These acquisitions are still determined
primarily by the PLA’s focus on deterring or defeating attacks on
Chinese territory, both actual and claimed, both continental and
maritime, through the acquisition of limited air, sea, and informa-
tion-denial capabilities. The larger strategic concepts then simply
serve to ensure that these near-term military acquisitions are not
fundamentally inconsistent with China’s likely long-range aspirations
of attaining some level of extended control over or at the very least
presence within distant operational areas that will become relevant
to its security interests as its overall national power increases.
In their effort to achieve these objectives—developing a force capa-

bility that resolves near-term challenges while simultaneously being
capable of supporting longer-term aspirations—Chinese security
managers have recognized that the military modernization efforts of
the state must be built on a prior foundation of indigenous scientific,
technological, and economic capabilities. Hence, the level of re-
sources devoted to military modernization has increased at a pace
that is intended neither to undermine the attainment of essential
civilian development priorities nor to unduly alarm both the periph-
eral states and the major powers and thus erode the generally benign
threat environment facing China today. This is, in essence, the clear-
est manifestation of the “calculative” strategy. And, although the ad-
vantages of the current approach, which focuses on slowly develop-
ing indigenous capabilities (as opposed to embarking on a rapid,
highly costly, and difficult acceleration of foreign acquisitions), are
clear to Beijing, it is important to recognize that the success of this
strategy, other things being equal, could nonetheless erode the rela-
tive power capabilities of China’s major regional competitors,
including the United States, so long as the pace of economic growth
in China continues to exceed that of its competitors. Superior eco-
nomic growth rates are therefore critical because they represent, in
principle, fungible resources that can be garnered by the state and
applied to the acquisition of some specific capabilities—military or
technological—that one’s competitors may have. To that degree,
even an inward-focused modernization that greatly increases
China’s economic capabilities relative to other major powers will,

more than any other, likely contribute to a change in the overall
relative balance of power in Asia and beyond over the long term.
Policies Toward Territorial Claims and the Recourse to Force

China’s approach to territorial claims remains a subset of its general
strategic approach toward the peripheral states under the calculative
strategy. This strategy in effect has resulted in China pursuing a gen-
eralized good-neighbor policy that has focused on strengthening its
existing ties in Northeast and Southeast Asia, mending ties wherever
possible in south and west Asia, and exploring new relationships in
Central Asia.69 This omnidirectional effort at developing good re-
gional relations is centered on a sharp recognition of many critical
geopolitical realities. First, the peripheral areas will continue to re-
main highly important for Chinese security, just as they did histori-
cally, even as they continue to host new sources from which many
consequential challenges to Chinese power may emerge over time.
Second, China today remains incapable of altering the structure of
relations with many of its peripheral states through force or the
threat of force, and although Beijing may even prefer to reinstate
some of the traditional patterns of control and deference it has en-
joyed in the past, it is impossible to do so without further increases in
relative Chinese power. Third, renewed contentions with key pe-
ripheral states could obliterate the prospects for a peaceful regional
environment and, by implication, frustrate China’s desire for
“comprehensive national strength.” It is in this context that recent
Chinese initiatives at defusing old territorial disputes ought to be
considered.
China certainly has territorial disputes with many important states

on its periphery, including Russia, Japan, Vietnam, and India. Most
of these disputes derive from the colonial era when national bound-
aries were often adjusted idiosyncratically in accordance with the lo-
cal balances of power present at the time. As a result, China often
“lost” marginal portions of border or peripheral territory, as for ex-
ample when the British annexed the northern tip of Burma in 1886.
______________
69Hsiung (1995), pp. 576–577.
The actual nature of these losses is difficult to discern because the

character of Chinese control in these relatively small areas was often
weak, occasionally nonexistent, and sometimes merely a function of
the suzerain relationships enjoyed by Chinese rulers with the local
rulers of these territories. Many of these disputes remained unre-
solved because China and its Asian competitors were relatively weak
for most of the postwar period, and because the Cold War, which
dominated the bulk of this era, enforced a “pacification” of these
disputes, even when the power-political capabilities to resolve these
contentions may have existed in some cases.
Aside from these marginal losses, however, Chinese security man-

agers often refer to the much larger deprivation and humiliation
suffered by China over the centuries. If all the territories claimed,
occupied, or directly controlled by China since its unification in the
third century B.C. were matched against its current physical hold-
ings, the presently disputed marginal territories would fade into in-
significance. For example, during the early Han Dynasty, Chinese
control extended beyond its current boundaries to portions of pre-
sent day Central Asia and northern Vietnam. During the early Tang,
even larger portions of Central Asia came under Chinese rule. Simi-
larly, during the Ming Dynasty, China controlled or occupied parts of
Vietnam, and under the early Qing, China controlled Mongolia and
large portions of the Russian Far East (see the maps in Chapter
Three). In fact, even if only the more recent territorial losses suffered
during the “century of national humiliation” (lasting from roughly
1840–1940) were iterated, the previous conclusion would still hold.
Despite occasional references to these losses suffered historically,
the Chinese state appears to have by and large accepted the borders
it inherited in 1949, preferring instead to pursue mostly marginal
claims as opposed to seeking renewed control over the larger
expanses of territory it may have controlled or occupied at one point
or another in its history. The absence of these larger claims serves to
underscore China’s present conservatism where territorial
revisionism is concerned.7 0 The extent of its greater losses is
______________
70For a clear statement of current Chinese conservatism regarding territorial issues,
see Mao (1996). This work makes no reference to the possibility that China might in
future lay claim to former Chinese lands now under the undisputed control of other
states.
nonetheless worth noting if for no other reason than it serves as a

marker identifying territorial interests that in some cases might be
pursued in more concerted form if favorable changes take place in
the future regional balance of power.
For the moment, however, Chinese territorial interests are focused

mainly on disputes involving Russia, along the Ussuri River and
along the Sino-Russian border west of Mongolia; India, principally in
Aksai Chin and in the Indian northeast with respect to the McMahon
line and the status of the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh; the
South China Sea, where China and several Southeast Asian states
have claims on the Spratly Islands; Japan, over the Senkakus; and, fi-
nally, Taiwan, which remains a complex dispute over both the politi-
cal status of the island and the right to rule.
Beijing’s “calculative” strategy has resulted in a two-pronged ap-

proach aimed at securing Chinese interests with respect to these
territorial disputes. First, if the dispute in question is both intrinsi-
cally trivial and marginal to China’s larger interests, Beijing has
sought to resolve it amicably to pursue its larger goals. The border
disputes with Russia, for example, are evidence of this approach
where China’s overarching interest in improving its political rela-
tionship with Moscow and securing access to Russian military tech-
nology has resulted in quick, it is hoped permanent, solutions to the
Ussuri River dispute.71 Another similar example pertains to the
speedy resolution of the border disputes with Kazakhstan and Kyr-
gystan: Given Chinese interests both in preventing external support
to the separatist movements in Chinese Central Asia and in ensuring
access to the energy reserves of the trans-Caucasus, Beijing moved
quickly to amicably delimit its border with both these newly inde-
pendent states.72
______________
71See “Agreement Between the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
and the Government of the People’s Republic of China on the Guidelines of Mutual
Reduction of Forces and Confidence Building in the Military Field in the Area of the
Soviet-Chinese Border” (1990); and the later treaty, “Agreement Between the Russian
Federation, the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, the Republic of
Tajikistan and the People’s Republic of China on Confidence Building in the Military
Field in the Border Area” (1996).
72 “Agreement Between the Russian Federation, the Republic of Kazakhstan, the
Kyrgyz Republic, the Republic of Tajikistan and the People’s Republic of China on
Confidence Building in the Military Field in the Border Area” (1996).
Second, if the dispute in question is significant but cannot be re-

solved rapidly to China’s advantage by peaceful means, Beijing has
advocated an indefinite postponement of the basic issue. This tactic
has been adopted, for example, in the case of the territorial disputes
with India, Japan, and several of the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN) states. The basic logic underlying this approach
has been to steadfastly avoid conceding any Chinese claims with
respect to the dispute, while simultaneously seeking to prevent the
dispute from vitiating the pacific environment that China needs to
complete its internal transformation successfully. Such an approach
has at least several advantages: It positions China as a conciliatory
state seeking to resolve all outstanding disputes peacefully. It does
not increase the demands on China’s military forces at a time when
the PLA is relatively weak and when the Chinese economy needs all
the breathing room it can get. It prevents balancing coalitions from
arising against China in the event Beijing pursued more coercive
strategies. And, it delays the resolution of these disputes at least until
the balance of power changes substantially in favor of China. At that
time, both simple usurpation and coercive bargaining might become
more attractive, although it is unclear today whether the Chinese
leadership would actually conclude that the benefits of such actions
easily exceed the costs.
Under the “calculative” strategy, therefore, China has sought to avoid

further losses of territory at all costs (except when the losses are
deemed to be truly insignificant relative to the benefits of some other
competing goals). Whenever intrinsically valuable territory is at is-
sue, however, China has sought to preserve the status quo—not giv-
ing up its sovereign claims, but preferring to avoid any application of
force, so long as the other parties to the dispute do not attempt to
change the status quo ante either. This logic has applied even to the
dispute over Taiwan, where China would prefer to freeze the island’s
presently ambiguous status. It would prefer not to employ force to
resolve the issue but may nonetheless be compelled to do so because
the principle of avoiding significant territorial loss—particularly of an
area possessing enormous nationalistic significance as a Chinese
province—would demand a military reaction, no matter how costly,
if the Taiwanese sought to change the status quo unilaterally. In
general, therefore, the reluctance to employ force to resolve the out-
standing territorial disputes remains a good example of the
“calculative” strategy at work. Although it represents a sensitivity to

the logic of relative material capabilities that has been evident in
Chinese strategic behavior since the imperial era, including a
straightforward recognition that the PLA may simply not have the
capacity to prevail in some force-on-force encounters that may oc-
cur, a more important aspect is Beijing’s likely perception that most
of these disputes can be resolved down the line to China’s advantage
by any means of its own choosing if its national capabilities are al-
lowed to grow rapidly and undisturbed in the interim.
Although China’s reluctance to seek recourse to force or the threat of

force at present is intimately bound up with the demands of the cal-
culative strategy, especially as it applies to the issue of territorial dis-
putes, it is important to recognize that there is no reason why this
should be true either in principle or over the long term. That is,
China could use force for reasons that have little to do with its terri-
torial disputes, e.g., as a consequence of deteriorating political rela-
tions with other powers or simply because of dramatic increases in
China’s military strength. This is unlikely today, especially given the
imperatives of the calculative strategy, but it may become relevant as
Chinese power grows over time. It may also become relevant in the
context of a larger irredentist agenda, especially one emerging from a
chauvinistic nationalist desire to reopen the territorial questions
arising out of a century of national humiliation. Although this will
remain a concern for all of China’s neighbors confronted by its
steadily growing capability, at least in the policy-relevant future most
Chinese applications of force will probably be intimately bound up
with attempts to stave off threatened territorial losses, as opposed to
the pursuit of some other autonomous power-political goals.
Policies Toward International Regimes

The calculative strategy currently pursued by Beijing has resulted in
China adopting an “instrumental” attitude toward international
regimes. This implies that China possesses neither an intrinsic
commitment nor an intrinsic antipathy to the existing international
norms and organizations but approaches these simply in terms of a
pragmatic calculation centered on the benefits and losses of partici-
pation and nonparticipation. Consequently, it has pursued a wide
range of strategies with respect to both existing and evolving interna-
tional regimes which, depending on the issue-areas in question, can

range from full participation in search of asymmetric gains, through
contingent cooperation in pursuit of reciprocal benefits, to outright–
overt or covert–defection. The manifestation of such a wide range of
behaviors is by no means unique to China: It is in fact typical of most
states, since consistently simple and straightforward behaviors—ei-
ther in the direction of cooperation or of defection—are usually
manifested only by those few states that either disproportionately
benefit from the regime or are disproportionately penalized by it.
The established great powers usually fall into the first category, and
the manifestly revisionist states usually fall into the second. All other
states that occupy the middle ground, that is, those that are both
favored and disadvantaged by prevailing regimes in varying degrees,
would adopt behaviors similar to China’s. Since Beijing encounters a
variety of international regimes in the areas of economic
development, trade, technology transfer, arms control, and the
environment, this fundamental calculus is often reflected in different
ways.
First, China either participates or has sought to actively participate in

all regimes that promise asymmetric gains where accretion of new
power or maintenance of existing power is concerned. In this cate-
gory lie all the regimes connected with the international economy,
global trade, the diffusion of technology, and international gover-
nance. Participating in these regimes enables China to connect more
effectively to the global market system that today, more than any
other, has been responsible for the meteoric growth witnessed since
1978. Not surprisingly, China has expressed great interest and has
engaged in arduous negotiations in an effort to join organizations
such as the WTO, which could assure it uniform access to the mar-
kets of both advanced industrialized countries and developing
economies alike. Toward that end, it has made various efforts to re-
form its domestic legal and patent system to ensure the protection of
intellectual and material property rights to secure continued access
to the technology and know-how brought by multinational corpora-
tions to China. It has striven valiantly, however, to enter the WTO on
preferential terms as a developing country, since entry on such terms
provides it access to multiple international markets but would not
require that it eliminate, either immediately upon entrance or soon
thereafter, many of the domestic regulations that impose barriers to
free trade within China.73 Because of this quest for asymmetric

gains, the United States had for several years prevented China from
securing membership in the organization, and although the Chinese
leadership has often declared that membership as a developed
country is “absolutely unacceptable,” given the growing domestic
concerns about the adverse social consequences (e.g., unemploy-
ment and labor unrest) that might result from China’s deeper inte-
gration with the global economy following WTO entrance,74 it seems
that, on balance, the search for “WTO membership is still high on
China’s trade diplomacy agenda.”75 The issue of WTO membership
represents the clearest example of the search for asymmetric gains,
but China’s continued linkages with other international organiza-
tions—economic and political—provide examples of its efforts to
sustain existing power and privileges. China has profitably interacted
with the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the IBRD, and other
financial institutions that promise preferential access to capital,
technical know-how, and resources. Where international gover-
nance is concerned, China has continued to participate fully in the
United Nations (UN) for reasons connected with both status and in-
terests: Its acknowledged standing as a permanent member of the
Security Council distinguishes it from powers of lesser standing and
enables it to shape global and regional policies—especially in a
unipolar environment—that may affect Chinese interests or those of
its allies.76 As Samuel Kim has shown, China has sought to use a
wide variety of UN institutions and fora to maximize political, eco-
nomic, financial, and image benefits while minimizing any losses or
risks.77
Second, China has sought to participate in all international organi-

zations and regimes where consequential policies adverse to China’s
interests might be engineered as a result of Beijing’s absence. In this
category lie all those regional regimes that China initially resented
______________
73For an excellent summary of the issues involved in China’s quest to join the WTO,
see Rosen (1997).
74For a discussion of such concerns, which derive from China’s primary security ob-
jective of maintaining domestic order and well-being, see Pearson (1999), pp. 182–183.
75Wong (1996), p. 296.
76For instance, see speech by then PRC Foreign Minister Qian Qichen (1994).
77Kim (1999), especially pp. 60–71.
but was eventually constrained to participate in, mainly to ward off

future losses that may have accrued in its absence. The best exam-
ples here remain China’s participation in the ASEAN Regional Forum
and the ASEAN Post-Ministerial Conference.78 China’s early disin-
terest in these bodies was rooted in an effort to avoid being
“cornered” by enmeshing multilateral arrangements where China’s
greater bargaining power—visible in the purely bilateral
relationships it enjoys with its smaller neighbors—would be
neutralized by participation in a large forum that brought together all
its many potential competitors simultaneously. Once these fora
acquired a life of their own, however, Beijing realized that its lack of
participation could result in these institutions adopting policies that
might not be in China’s best interests. To forestall this possibility,
China became a late entrant to these bodies. Its initial participation
was the result of a constrained choice, but China has realized that
these institutions may offer future benefits and consequently its
desire to continue participating may be motivated as much by the
hope of future gains as it is conditioned by the current desire to avoid
immediate losses.79
Third, China has sought to undercut—through participation—those

regimes that threaten the political interests of its communist gov-
ernment. The best examples of these are in the issue-areas of human
rights, personal liberties, and political freedoms. All international
regimes in these arenas that seek to fundamentally change the
balance of power between individuals and the state are perceived to
threaten China’s governing regime which, though in evolution, still
affirms the primacy of the party and the state. Not surprisingly, Chi-
na’s political leadership, and occasionally sections of its elite as well,
have viewed universalist declarations pertaining to human rights and
political freedoms either as an interference in China’s domestic af-
fairs or, more significantly, as an insidious effort to undermine the
stability of the Chinese state with a view to preventing its rise in
power or replacing it entirely with a democratic regime.80 The Chi-
nese discomfort with such regimes, however, has usually elicited
cooptational responses when the necessity of assuaging interna-
______________
78Foot (1998).
79Klintworth (1997); Vatikiotis (1997); Wanandi (1996); and Bert (1993).
80Nathan (1999); and Nathan (1994).
tional public opinion is deemed to be critical. Thus, for example,

China supported the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in part
because support for such resolutions bestows benefits in the realm of
international public opinion, because the declaration itself is unen-
forceable, and because the language in the statement is loose enough
to lend itself comfortably to a variety of political systems and prac-
tices.81 Consistent with the objective of shaping international opin-
ion, China has in fact attempted to offer alternative visions of what
good politics entails, one of which emphasizes the communitarian
requirements of order over individual preferences of freedom and is
supposed to represent an “Asian way” that allegedly comports more
appropriately with regional traditions and values. In attempting to
offer such an alternative vision, which implicitly legitimizes the exist-
ing power relations within China, Beijing has managed to secure a
considerable degree of support from other authoritarian countries in
Asia, all of which view the contemporary concern about human
rights, personal liberties, and political freedoms as merely another
particularist, Western view of political arrangements rather than as
universal norms—a view that allegedly either intentionally or unin-
tentionally is used by Western powers to beat up on the Asian states
to perpetuate their own dominant influence.82
Fourth, China has sought to overtly or covertly undercut or defect

from those regimes that threaten its political and strategic interests
and generally to adhere to those regimes that advance such interests.
A well-known example of such Chinese behavior can be found in the
issue-area of proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. Chinese
policy has evolved greatly in this area. From an early posture that
condemned Western and Soviet-U.S. arms control efforts as a form
of “sham disarmament” designed to perpetuate superpower domi-
nance (thus leading to calls for widespread proliferation as a means
of defeating such “superpower hegemony”), China has now reached
the conclusion that “high entropy” proliferation—meaning a highly
proliferated world with few “rules of the nuclear road”83— would be
______________
81“Envoy Comments on Declaration on Human Rights Defenders” (1998).
82For one example of a defense of the “Asian way,” see Zakaria (1994).
83Molander and Wilson (1993), p. xiii.
prejudicial to its interests in principle. 84 Thus, over the years, it has

progressively joined international regimes such as the Biological
Weapons Convention (BWC) (1985), the Non-Proliferation Treaty
(NPT) (1992), the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) (1993), and
the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) (1996) (and has agreed to
abide by the guidelines of the Missile Technology Control Regime—
MTCR (1991)), though often with great reluctance and not without
several attempts to water down the level of commitments imposed
by such regimes. Although Beijing has now accepted its legal obliga-
tions under these regimes, its record at compliance, however, has in
some instances been less than reassuring.85 In practice, it has as-
sisted the WMD programs of some countries along or near its pe-
riphery such as Iran and Pakistan. In effect, those countries deemed
vital for the success of Chinese regional security policies have at
times been partly “exempted” from the universal obligations Beijing
has undertaken with respect to proliferation. Some Chinese assis-
tance in this regard has been simply a product of poor domestic con-
trol over its military-industrial complex, but it has in other more
egregious instances been a deliberate consequence of state sanc-
tioned policy.86 This behavior led one analyst to conclude that Chi-
nese proliferation behavior exemplifies a perfect case of “different
rules for different exports,”87 suggesting that in general Chinese be-
havior in the arena of export controls “does not demonstrate a clear
pattern of either compliance or violation.”88
Fifth, China has gone along with those international regimes that
notionally provide joint gains, if the initial private costs of participa-
tion can either be extorted, shifted, or written off. The best example
of such behavior is found in the issue-area of the environment,
where the efforts to control greenhouse gases, restrict carbon dioxide
______________
84For a review of early Chinese attitudes, see Pillsbury (1975). A good discussion on
current Chinese attitudes to high-entropy proliferation can be found in Garrett and
Glaser (1995/96), pp. 50–53.
85A good survey of the Chinese record with respect to participation and compliance
can be found in Swaine and Johnston (1999); and Frieman (1996). See also Garrett and
Glaser (1995/96); and Johnston (1996a).
86For details, see U.S. Senate (1998), pp. 3–16.
87Davis (1995), p. 595.
88Frieman (1996), p. 28.
emissions, and reduce the level of pollutants more generally have

been supported by China only after several attempts to shift the costs
of such compliance asymmetrically on to other states. More specifi-
cally, China’s reluctant accommodation of regime interests in in-
stances such as the Montreal Protocol has been clearly a function of
its ability to extort resources from the developed states as the price
for its participation in such regimes. As Samuel Kim succinctly con-
cluded, “China’s ‘principled stand’ on the global campaign to protect
the ozone layer was issued in the form of thinly disguised blackmail:
China refused to sign the 1987 Montreal Protocol without the
promise of big cash and greater ‘flexibility’ on the use and produc-
tion of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).”89 On this matter, as in many
others, China’s eventual participation in this and other international
regimes was conditioned by multiple considerations.90 To begin
with, Beijing has perceived that Chinese interests eventually would
be advanced, even if only marginally, by the regime in question;
hence, it has complied only after attempts at resistance, defection, or
free riding were perceived to fail.91 Further, its participation in many
instances becomes contingent on the success of institutionalized
cost shifting, that is, on China’s ability to exploit its relative im-
portance to get other participants to bear a portion of Beijing’s costs
as the price of Chinese participation in the regime. In the issue-area
of environmental protection, for example, Elizabeth Economy notes
that “fully 80 percent of China’s environmental protection budget is
derived from abroad. Overall, China is the largest recipient of total
environmental aid from the World Bank and has received extensive
support from the Global Environmental Facility, the Asian Develop-
ment Bank, the United Nations Development Program, and bilateral
sources.”92 Finally, the decision to participate usually represents a
shrewd appreciation of the relative power of stronger states involved
in the issue-area in question, especially the United States and its
other OECD partners, as well as an attempt to play “quid pro quo,” in
that the benefits of Chinese participation and support are offered in
______________
89Kim (1991), pp. 40–41.
90Sims (1996).
91Such behavior is also evident in the arms-control arena, as suggested by Swaine and
Johnston (1999).
92Economy (1998), p. 278.
the expectation that the goodwill gained could be cashed in in other

issue-areas where the gains sought by China would presumably be
higher.93 For all such reasons, China has participated in interna-
tional regimes such as the Montreal Protocol where the costs of par-
ticipation though initially high could be borne through external as-
sistance and possible future exploitation.
Sixth, China has also participated in regimes where the costs of uni-
lateral defection were very high. The best example here remains Chi-
na’s willingness to participate in the CTBT. Given the relatively
modest capabilities of China’s nuclear arsenal, all early indications
suggested that China would either abstain from participation or ex-
ploit the opposition to the CTBT emerging from other states, such as
India, to avoid signing the treaty.94 Over time, however, it became
clear that the United States had staked an inordinate amount of
diplomatic and political resources to have the treaty signed by all the
major nuclear-capable powers in the international system. The
sheer pressure applied by the United States and the implications of a
Chinese refusal to participate—perhaps affecting technology trans-
fers, membership in the WTO, and MFN status—finally resulted in a
Chinese accession to the treaty, but only after Beijing concluded a fi-
nal series of underground nuclear tests. To be sure, other considera-
tions also intervened: the declining utility of nuclear weapons, the
absence of any need to expand China’s present nuclear capabilities
in radically new directions, the recognition that China’s growing
power capabilities would always allow for a future breakout from the
treaty at relatively low cost in force majeure situations, and the not
inconsequential image concerns associated with China’s desire to be
seen as a responsible great power and as a just and principled state.
All these factors combined with a sensitivity to the high political
costs of being a nonsignatory finally ensured China’s successful par-
ticipation in the CTBT, even though, other things being equal, it
might have preferred to unilaterally “defect” on this, more than any
other, issue. 95
______________
93 This calculus is of course also evident in other policy areas, including bilateral
diplomatic, economic, and security relations with the United States.
94Garrett and Glaser (1995/96), pp. 53 ff.
95For a good discussion, see Johnston (1996b).
BENEFITS AND RISKS

Pursuit of the calculative strategy, as manifested in the four issue-ar-
eas analyzed above, has resulted in significant security gains for the
Chinese state during the past decade. First, it has greatly strength-
ened domestic order and well-being by producing sustained, high
rates of economic growth and major increases in the living standards
of many Chinese. Second, it has greatly increased China’s interna-
tional leverage, especially along its periphery, and raised its overall
regional and global status and prestige. Third, it has resulted in an
expansion in its foreign economic presence and an increase in its
political involvement and influence in Asia and beyond. Fourth, it
has also generated a huge foreign currency reserve as well as pro-
vided the Chinese state with the financial wherewithal to purchase
advanced weaponry and critical technologies from foreign states,
thus compensating, in part, for the significant continued shortcom-
ings in its military capabilities.96 Fifth, in perhaps the greatest
achievement of all, it has contributed—despite the numerous unre-
solved disputes between China and its neighbors—to the mainte-
nance of a relatively benign external environment that enables
Beijing to make the processes of internal economic growth more self-
replicating than ever before.
All told, therefore, the calculative strategy has paid off handsomely
for China: It has put it along a path that, if sustained, could make
China the largest economy in the world sometime in the first half of
the 21st century. Even more significantly, it has allowed such growth
to occur as a result of an export-led strategy that increasingly em-
ploys significant proportions of imported technology and inputs—an
amazing fact signifying that China has been able to rely upon both
the markets and, increasingly, the resources of its partners to create
the kind of growth that might eventually pose major concerns to its
economic partners, all without greatly unnerving those partners in
the interim. This does not imply that China’s partners in Asia and
elsewhere are unconcerned about the implications of China’s growth
in power. It implies only that such concerns have not resulted, thus
______________
96For example, Chinese purchases of advanced weapons from Russia are to a signifi-
cant extent a testimony to the failure of China’s defense industry to indigenously pro-
duce many such critical systems.
far, in efforts to constrain China’s growth because the desire for abso-
lute gains on the part of all (including China) has outweighed the
corrosive concerns brought about by the problem of relative gains.
This represents the true success of the calculative strategy. By being
explicitly premised on a refusal to provoke fear and uncertainty as a
result of provocative Chinese actions, Beijing has succeeded,
whether intentionally or not, not only in desensitizing its trading
partners to the problems of relative gains but it has also, by rhetoric
and actions aimed at exploiting all sides’ desire for absolute gains,
created the bases for the kind of continued collaboration that in-
evitably results in further increases in Chinese power and capabili-
ties. Carried to its natural conclusion, the Chinese transition to true
great-power status could occur in large part because of its partners’
desire for trade and commercial intercourse so long as Beijing is
careful enough not to let any security competition short-circuit the
process in the interim.
The desire to avoid such competition is certainly China’s intention,

especially given its continued weakness in certain critical measures
of economic and military power relative to the United States and key
peripheral states such as Japan, Russia, and India. This being so, it is
most likely that Chinese state-initiated revisionism of the interna-
tional arena will be minimal in the years ahead and especially before,
say, the period 2015–2020, which by most indicators is the earliest
date when relative power capabilities would begin to be transformed
to Beijing’s advantage. That fact notwithstanding, the very successes
of the calculative strategy, insofar as they precipitate unintended
external and internal developments, could produce new security
problems, for both China and the Asia-Pacific region at large, that
might worsen before 2015.
First, the significant, albeit incremental, advances in China’s military

capabilities, combined with the emergence in the late 1980s and
early 1990s of tensions over territorial issues such as Taiwan and the
Spratly Islands, have raised anxieties among both the peripheral
states and the Western powers over whether, and to what extent,
China will seek to use its steadily growing military capabilities to re-
solve local security competition and more generally to establish a
dominant strategic position in East Asia over the long term. The lack
of clear-cut answers to these questions, as a result of both Beijing’s
ambiguity and its own ignorance about its future security environ-
ment in the long term, as well as simple systemic uncertainty

(meaning, the fear of an unknown future), have given rise to a variety
of regional counterresponses. A few of the more capable regional
states have initiated a variety of military modernization programs
that are at least partly motivated by long-range concerns over Chi-
na’s increasing capabilities and the uncertainty about the future U.S.
regional presence, and several of the weaker states have begun ex-
ploring new diplomatic and political forms of reassurance.97 If these
counterresponses continue to gather steam, Beijing might be faced
with a gradually deteriorating regional environment wherein more
and more energetic military acquisitions and counter-acquisitions as
well as competitive efforts at alliance formation begin to displace all
the positive benefits of the calculative strategy over time.98 The net
result of such a dynamic would be the return to a more adversarial
regional environment. Such an outcome may not by itself arrest
China’s relative growth, but it would nonetheless degrade the
enthusiasm with which the regional states participate in China’s
economic renewal—with all the implications that has for technology
transfers, direct and portfolio investments, market access, and global
economic growth more generally—while simultaneously increasing
the premium placed on military as opposed to other less-lethal
instruments of interstate relations.99
Second, China’s rapidly expanding involvement in foreign trade,

technology transfer, and investment activities, combined with its
growing participation in various international fora, has generated
tensions with many of the advanced industrial states over issues of
reciprocity, fair access, and responsibility. In part, this has been a di-
rect result of the calculative strategy which, by positioning China in a
______________
97A good survey of these regional developments, together with the role played by the
interaction of external fears (including local rivalries) with internal growth, domestic
business interests, and the search for regional prestige, can be found in Ball (1993/94).
Beijing has attempted to reassure the international community about its intentions
through the issuance of a defense White Paper in July 1998, but the lack of authentic
information about budget expenditures and numbers and the likely disposition and
purpose of forces makes it a less-than-complete document.
98The current Asian financial crisis could significantly reduce the pace of such a de-
velopment because it has constrained the ability and willingness of many Asian
countries to expand their military arsenals in response to increasing Chinese capabili-
ties. For a broad survey of these developments, see Simon (1998).
99Friedberg (1993/94) concludes that such an outcome is in fact likely.
generally “exploitative” mode, has made it less sensitive to the exter-

nal costs of maintaining high growth rates. Not surprisingly, China
today is viewed by some Western observers, in some instances, as an
unfair economic partner and multilateral regime participant that
often chooses to free ride or defect from international and bilateral
agreements or understandings and generally resists opening up
many of its markets unless forced to do so. If such a sentiment
gathers steam, there would be an increase in economic and political
retaliation directed against China.100 Although such actions may be
intended merely to secure reciprocal “good behavior” in the eco-
nomic realm, it could have unintended consequences in other areas.
Given the strong suspicion in Beijing about emerging Western, and
in particular, U.S., efforts at containing China, even purely economic
retaliation may be read as part of a larger more concerted effort to
bring China to heel. This perception, in turn, could lead to Chinese
recalcitrance and obstructionism in other issue-areas such as prolif-
eration, attitudes toward the U.S. presence in Asia, and the like, and
before long could result in a tit-for-tat game that clouds more aspects
of Chinese relations with the West than were initially at issue.101
Third, China’s increasing dependence on foreign markets, maritime

trade routes, and energy supplies has contributed to a growing sense
of strategic vulnerability in Beijing to external economic factors, and
this could result in increased pressures for expanding China’s ability
to control events beyond its borders. These pressures are reinforced
by the fact that the concentration of China’s major economic centers
along the eastern and southern coastline, combined with the dra-
matic advances occurring in military technology, has increased Chi-
nese vulnerability to a crippling military attack executed from stand-
off distances well outside the traditional defensive perimeter sought
to be maintained by the Chinese state. Chinese responses to issues
of resource and market dependence thus far have been both re-
strained and marginal, at least in military terms. For example, for
energy dependence, China has sought to rely increasingly on the in-
ternational market (and hence, from a security perspective, contin-
ues to depend on the U.S. interest in defending the oil-rich Arab
states); develop stable, long-term energy supplies from key Central
______________
100 Sanger (1997).
101 Shambaugh (1996a).
Asian energy producers; increase internal efficiency in the extraction

of domestic resources and in manufacturing processes in general;
and maintain good relations with the Gulf states, in part through the
supply of lethal military and in some instances WMD technologies.
Thus far, China has not responded to this problem by seeking unilat-
eral solutions built around the development of power-projection
forces able to operate at great distances from the Chinese Mainland.
The problems of increased vulnerability to threats against existing or
claimed Chinese territories, however, have apparently resulted in
programmatic decisions initially aimed at acquiring military instru-
ments capable of maritime barrier operations (such as the creation
and maintenance of naval exclusion zones) and eventually securing
and maintaining nearby offshore zones of influence through at least
defensive sea control operations (such as the establishment of a
sustained naval presence able to repel armed incursions into its area
of operation).102 These solutions, although conservative today, have
the potential to develop into more powerful capabilities, including
those required for offensive sea control in the form of forward
operations throughout much of Asia-Pacific and the Indian Ocean
areas.103 Most emerging great powers in the past naturally devel-
oped such capabilities as their own perceptions of vulnerability in-
creased. If China proves an exception to this past pattern (either by
choice or because of a failure to develop the requisite economic and
military capabilities), it could face a combined regional and extrare-
gional response that makes the need for such capabilities even more
imperative over time.
Fourth, the end of the U.S.-Soviet strategic rivalry as a result of the

collapse of the Soviet Union, and the emergence of the United States
______________
102 The judgment that China’s modernization of its naval and air assets includes ele-
ments of an explicit battlespace control (as opposed to mere denial) capability is
based on both the diverse types of weapons platforms and support systems the Chi-
nese are acquiring or attempting to acquire (e.g., long-range surface and subsurface
combatants, more capable early warning and precision-strike assets, space-based
surveillance capabilities, and possibly one or more aircraft carriers), and the inherent
logic of geopolitics, technology, and operational considerations. Such factors suggest
that the maintenance of a robust sea-denial capability over time will eventually re-
quire increasingly more effective sea-control capabilities, especially if China wants to
maintain the security of maritime regions for hundreds of miles beyond its coastline,
as is implied by the “islands chain” concept.
103 The technologies required to sustain such operations are assessed in Tellis (1995).
as the sole global superpower have served to reduce Washington’s

strategic rationale for maintaining amicable security relations with
the Chinese state. This factor, combined with the images of brutality
and totalitarian repression resulting from the forcible suppression of
large numbers of peaceful Chinese demonstrators in June 1989, the
often-acrimonious Sino-U.S. disputes over economic and human
rights issues, and a growing confrontation between Washington and
Beijing over Taiwan, has significantly raised the Chinese sense of
threat from the United States in the 1990s. Indeed, in recent years,
U.S. policies toward China have been increasingly viewed as directly
threatening core Chinese national security interests. The notion of
“peaceful evolution,” 104 for example, threatens the Chinese state’s
conceptions of domestic order and well-being, continuing American
support for Taiwan (including the political and military assistance
that makes its supposed drive toward formal independence possible)
threatens the Chinese vision of territorial integrity and unity, and the
widespread discussions within the United States of the possible util-
ity of containing or “constraining” China threatens the Chinese de-
sire to recover its status and reestablish a position of geopolitical
centrality in Asia. All in all, then, the demise of the Soviet Union cre-
ated a situation in which Chinese grand strategic interests and those
of the United States do not automatically cohere. This creates an
opportunity for the growth of new irritants in the bilateral relation-
ship. If such irritants are not managed successfully, they could
eventually increase to a point where they radically undermine the
success of any calculative strategy pursued by Beijing.
Fifth, the emergence of autonomous factors in the regional environ-

ment that affect Chinese core interests but which Beijing may be un-
able to control could bring about an escalation of tensions with other
powers even before the calculative strategy runs its natural course.
Among the most critical such issues are the future of Taiwan and the
______________
104 This term is used by many Chinese elites to describe a U.S. strategy to weaken and
eventually destroy the existing Chinese political system from within, through the pro-
motion of Western political and social values and structures in China. As Betts notes,
“the liberal solution for pacifying international relations—liberal ideology—is pre-
cisely what present Chinese leaders perceive as a direct security threat to their
regime.” Betts (1993/94), p. 55.
Spratly islands.105 The democratization of the political process on

Taiwan that has taken place since the 1980s has led to a steady shift
in political power, away from pro-reunification forces associated
with the Mainlander-dominated Nationalist Party to independence-
minded forces associated with the native Taiwanese-dominated
Democratic Progressive Party. 106 Moreover, continued high growth
rates, expanding levels of foreign trade and investment across the
region, and the accumulation of enormous foreign exchange reserves
have given Taiwan new avenues for asserting its influence in the re-
gional and global arenas. These political and economic trends lay
behind Taiwan’s determined effort, begun in the early 1990s, to in-
crease its international stature and influence as a sovereign state
through an avowed strategy of “pragmatic diplomacy.”107 Such be-
havior, combined with Beijing’s increasing reliance on territorially
defined notions of nationalism, noted above, and its growing fear
that Washington is directly or indirectly supportive of Taiwan’s ef-
forts, have served to strengthen China’s sense of concern over Tai-
wan and increase its willingness to use coercive diplomacy, if not
outright force, to prevent the island from achieving permanent inde-
pendence. Hence, future attempts by Taiwan to strengthen its status
as a sovereign entity through, for example, the attainment of a seat in
the United Nations, as well as Chinese perceptions of growing West-
ern (and especially U.S.) support for such behavior, could provoke
Beijing to undertake aggressive political and military actions
(including, perhaps, a direct attack on Taiwan) that would likely pre-
cipitate a confrontation with the United States, greatly alarm China’s
Asian neighbors, and generally destroy the incentives for continued
restraint and caution basic to the calculative strategy.108
A similar outcome could conceivably occur as a result of develop-

ments in the South China Sea. Despite episodic altercations with
Vietnam and the Philippines, China has thus far generally exercised
considerable restraint in the pursuit of its claims to the Spratly
______________
105 The future of the Korean peninsula would also be an issue directly affecting China
even though no sovereignty claims are at stake here.
106 Friedman (1994), especially Chapter 8; and Tien and Chu (1996).
107 Yue (1997).
108 For a good summary of these issues see Cheung (1996).
Islands, agreeing to shelve the sovereignty dispute with other

claimants and pursue joint exploitation of any possible resources lo-
cated in the area. However, such restraint could diminish signifi-
cantly in the future if other states were to become more aggressive in
advancing their claims to the area, or if large viable oil or natural gas
deposits were discovered beneath the islands or seabed of the region.
The attraction of plentiful nearby energy resources to an increasingly
energy-import-dependent China could prompt Beijing to undertake
efforts to seize control of all or some of the Spratlys or restrict naval
transit of the area and thereby precipitate dangerous military con-
frontations with other claimants and possibly the United States.
Such a development, in turn, would almost certainly erode China’s
ability or willingness to pursue its current calculative strategy.109
Sixth, the increasing wealth and the general liberalization of society

that have resulted from the reforms have generated a variety of social
ills and economic dislocations which together have contributed to
growing fears of domestic disorder within China. These ills, which
include endemic corruption, rising crime rates, significant pockets of
unemployment, growing regional income disparities, overcrowding
in cities, and increased strikes and demonstrations, have given rise to
a perception both within China and abroad of a growing “public or-
der crisis.”110 These developments, combined with China’s increas-
ing dependence on external resources, markets, and investment
capital and growing fears over the increasing acceptance by many
Chinese of “decadent and corrupting” Western cultural products,
have led some Chinese elites and ordinary citizens to espouse a
modern version of the traditional argument favoring greater devel-
opmental autonomy, limited foreign contacts, a more centralized,
coercive state apparatus, and accelerated efforts to develop the ca-
pabilities necessary to control the periphery.111 Such arguments
might over time provide renewed power to those more isolationist-
oriented conservatives in the Communist Party and the military who,
though currently out of favor, nonetheless could gain greater popular
and elite support for their views if China’s domestic and
______________
109 An excellent discussion of China’s strategic calculus with respect to the use of force
in the South China Sea can be found in Austin (1998), pp. 297–326.
110 Austin (1995).
111 Zhao (1997), pp. 733–734; and Chen (1997).
international environment were to deteriorate rapidly, even before

2015–2020. The core of this potential internal crisis, such as it is,
derives in part from the increasing hollowing-out of the Communist
Party from below. As a result, the struggle for domestic order
becomes simultaneously a struggle for national discipline and
political survival. In such circumstances, the increasing importance
of the PLA as the guarantor of domestic security coupled with the
rising attractiveness of an authoritarian ideology of “order-first”
could combine to create domestic transformations that would make
China more fearsome in appearance and, thereby, undercut the
trustworthiness required for the success of its calculative strategy.
Any of these six developments occurring either independently or in

combination could result in enormous pressures to expand and
rapidly accelerate improvements in China’s military and economic
capabilities as well as increase its external influence to simultane-
ously establish political and economic dominance over the periph-
ery, ensure continued high rates of domestic economic growth, and
provide leverage against future great power pressure. Although these
objectives remain in some sense the distant goals to which the pres-
ent calculative strategy is arguably directed, the pursuit of these aims
will become much more fervid and may be undertaken by more
coercive means in the near to mid term if a breakdown in the calcu-
lative strategy occurs. In fact, many observers have noted that, by
the early 1990s, the Chinese state had already apparently moved
some distance in developing a military “fallback” solution in the
event of a conspicuous failure of the calculative strategy. This solu-
tion has entailed an increased level of defense spending and the pro-
gressive implementation of a new defense doctrine keyed to the
acquisition of capabilities to undertake offensive, preemptive,
conventional attacks beyond its borders, coupled with enhanced
efforts to create a more survivable and flexible nuclear deterrent
capability.112
Whether these developments materialize in “strong” form still re-
mains to be seen, but at any rate they raise two critical questions that
demand scrutiny and, if possible, an explanation. First, assuming
______________
112 Regarding PLA doctrine, see Godwin (1997). For Chinese nuclear force moderniz-
ation, see Johnston (1996b).
that no mishaps occur in the interim, how long can the calculative
strategy be expected to last? Second, what, if any, posture can be ex-
pected to replace the calculative strategy after the latter has success-
fully run its course? The next chapter attempts to provide tentative
answers to both these questions.

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Chapter Title: CHINA’S CURRENT SECURITY STRATEGY: FEATURES AND IMPLICATIONS

Book Title: Interpreting China's Grand Strategy

In recent decades, this strategy has undergone further changes, re-

relative restraint in the use of force combined with increasing efforts

This chapter discerns the specific causes and features of China’s

FACTORS SHAPING CHINA’S CALCULATIVE SECURITY

personal income levels, state revenues, foreign exchange earnings,

isting social problems, and will almost certainly challenge deep-

Changing Capabilities and Orientations of Periphery Powers

non-sinitic states such as India, have all emerged as independent,

These developments suggest that, although the Chinese state has

violent—meaning nuclear—threats that can be mounted by Beijing.

The newly independent republics of Central Asia are also potentially

Exponential Growth in the Capabilities of Industrial Powers

These developments, taken together, implied that China today faces

the constraints relating to external dependency in the near term

Growing Domestic Social and Political Challenges

Although the internal consequences of political and social corrosion

The Emergence of a More Pragmatic Program of Military

structure. Most of the advances in China’s military capabilities at-

long-standing organizational and conceptual problems plaguing

The Rise of More Institutionalized, Pragmatic Forms of

matic leaders such as Mao in the heyday of the revolutionary era. In

The gradually developing administrative institutions (including more

gain greater currency if economic growth falters seriously or if Chi-

Barring any catastrophic changes occurring outside of Chinese con-

Lowered External Threats

This turnaround in Sino-U.S. relations, along with initial signs of a

The general pacificity of its external environment allowed Beijing the

THE MAJOR GUIDING TENETS AND POLICIES OF CHINA’S

Not surprisingly, then, as has occurred at times in the past, China’s

The logic underlying this “calculative” strategy is therefore simply

Given these considerations, the “calculative” strategy that achieved

• First, overall, a highly pragmatic, non-ideological policy ap-

emphasis, through such interactions, on attaining asymmetric

Together, these elements amount to a highly modified version of

Policies Toward the United States and Other Major Powers

The efforts at both cooptation and prevention are manifested in di-

convincing the United States to accept the rise of China as a stabiliz-

forts to weaken U.S.-ROC political ties.37 Chinese objectives with re-

Besides these political dimensions of cooptation and prevention,

Although the method of coopting U.S. policy through its domestic

The United States is certainly the most important actor in Chinese

quently, it is not surprising that Beijing’s efforts at cooptation and

cooptation seems to be an effort to encourage greater direct and

Deepened relations with China’s non-U.S. partners also has other

vantages as it signals other powers that they are not indispensable

Policies Toward Military Modernization

The efforts at reducing vulnerability have materialized at two differ-

strategic force capable of conducting a credible retaliatory strike

Given these considerations, China’s efforts at nuclear modernization

The second level of efforts aimed at reducing vulnerability occurs in

that could be inflicted on any adversary possessing an obsolete force

Contingencies involving Taiwan in particular have provided a sharp

of sowing mass panic on Taiwan or destroying Taiwanese military

This is true a fortiori because the objectives of China’s conventional

China’s current conventional military modernization programs are

In their effort to achieve these objectives—developing a force capa-

China’s economic capabilities relative to other major powers will,

Policies Toward Territorial Claims and the Recourse to Force

China certainly has territorial disputes with many important states

The actual nature of these losses is difficult to discern because the

China's Security Strategy 1

China's Security Strategy 1