Chapter # 1

1. The oldest accurately dated life form is a microorganism, eubacterium isolatum which dated
back 3500 million years.
2. The resolving power of the light microscope is 250nm.
3. The magnifying power of light microscope is 10000x.
4. The magnifying power of TEM is 1000000x.
5. SEM shows the 3D image of the object.
6. Nontoxic stain which are used to living tissues is called vital stain.
7. When two stain are used, the second stain is called counter stain.
8. The final color of the aniline sulphate is yellow which is suitable for lignin.
9. Iodine solution is used for the detection of starch in a substances, the final color is blue-black.
10. Methylene blue is used for finding the nucleus in animal cell.
11. Safranin is a permanent stain.
12. Centrifugation process contain mainly three steps for animal cell.
13. Tissue culture produces clones in which all the product cells have the same genotypes.
14. A mass of loosely arranged cells which are raised from the multiplication of an explant is called
callus.
15. During spectrophotometry, the cell mass is directly proportional to the optical density.
16. The component of the cell which was discovered by Robert hook in 1665 is cell wall.
17. Cell wall is discovered before protoplast.
18. Cell wall is secreted by the protoplasm of the cell.
19. Cell wall has mainly three fundamental parts.
20. The thickness of middle lamella is about 1micrometer.
21. In woody tissue ML is lignified.
22. The thickness of primary wall is about 1-3 micrometer.
23. PW is optically active and crystalline.
24. Pectic compounds are mostly polysaccharides and hemicellulose.
25. The thickness of SW id about 5-10 micrometer.
26. SW is strongly optically active and crystalline.
27. Primary walls are formed during phase of extension of the cell and passes through a period of
cell growth in length.
28. Cell membrane is mostly chemically made about 20-40% of lipid and 60-80% of proteins.
29. Fluid mosaic model was proposed by Singer in 1972 for cell membrane.
30. Cellulose is used in the industry for paper making, cellophane, Rayan, nitrocellulose and plastics.
31. In 1959, Robertson proposed unit membrane model for cell membrane.
32. “Two layers of lipid molecules only” the model was proposed by Gorter and Grendel in 1925.
33. J F Danielle and Davon demonstrated a model of “lipid bilayer is covered with protein and
protein pores” about cell membrane in 1935.
34. Extrinsic protein are the receptors which receives the stimuli from the environment.
35. Integral protein are also called permeases that regulate diffusion, osmosis and active transport
of ionic materials.
36. Membrane carbohydrates provide receptor site for different types of stimuli such as HRS.
37. Membrane carbohydrates are responsible for endocytosis due to which it also called cell surface
marker.
38. Plasma membrane is a dynamic structure only about 7nm wide.
39. The soluble portion of the cytoplasm between cell organelles is called cytosol.
40. The cytosol is composed of mainly 90% of water.
41. Colloidal solution is of two type.
42. Gel is viscous and Sol is non-viscous.
43. Cytosol is a site for metabolic pathways such as glycolysis.
44. The streaming active mass movement of cytoplasm is called cyclosis.
45. The spherical or tubular membranes one above the others in ER called cisternae.
46. ER is of two morphological structures.
47. RER is mostly present outside the nuclear membrane and involve in protein synthesis.
48. SER helps in the metabolism (lipid synthesis) and in the detoxification of harmful drugs.
49. SER is also responsible for the transmission of impulse in some cells like nerve and muscles cells.
50. The main function of ER is Circulation, synthesis, detoxification, mechanical support and
communication.
51. The tiny cell organelles about 20nm which was discovered by Palade in 1955 is ribosome.
52. Eukaryotic ribosomes are composed of equal amount of protein and RNA, due to which it is
called RNP particles.
53. The RNA in ribosome is rRNA.
54. Ribosomes exist in two forms.
55. In young hemoglobin is formed by the synthesized protein of free ribosome.
56. Ribosomes are synthesized by the nucleolus of the nucleus.
57. Svedberg is unit used for ultracentrifugation.
58. The ribosomes in prokaryotes are 70S.
59. The ribosomes in eukaryotes are 80S.
60. Ribosomes consist of two subunits.
61. The two subunits are attached with each other require Mg++ ions.
62. In eukaryotic ribosomes, the smaller subunit is of 40S and larger subunit is of 60S.
63. In prokaryotic ribosomes, the smaller subunit is of 30S and larger subunit is of 50S.
64. In 1898, Camillo Golgi discovered under special staining techniques Golgi bodies.
65. GB consists of stacks of flattened, membrane bounded sacs called cisternae.
66. Cisternae + vesicles = Golgi complex.
67. Golgi complex is made up of units called Dictyosomes.
68. Each Dictyosomes consist of two distinct faces, Cis and Trans face.
69. Cis face towards the nucleus and Trans face toward the cell membrane.
70. Golgi bodies helps in the storage, modification and packaging of different secretory products.
71. GB also helps in the production of glycolipids and glycoproteins.
72. Lysosomes were firstly demonstrated as a separated components of the cell by De Duve in 1949.
73. Lysosomes are single membrane bounded organelle and are simple sacs.
74. Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes called hydrolases.
75. The enzymes which are present in the lysosomes are synthesized by RER and further processed
by GB.
76. The processed enzymes are budded off as Golgi vesicles and are primary lysosomes.
77. The disease in which the enzyme for conversion of glycogen to glucose is absent is called
glycogenesis type II.
78. The disease in which the accumulation of glycogen on liver and muscles cell takes place is called
glycogenesis type II.
79. The disease in which the accumulation of lipid on brain cell takes place is called Tay-Sach’s
disease.
80. Metamorphosis is an example of liysosomal activity.
81. Peroxisomes are small sub-cellular bodies approximately 0.5micrometer in diameter,
surrounded by membranes
82. Peroxisomes also called micro bodies.
83. Peroxisomes are present in animal mostly in liver and kidney cells.
84. Peroxisomes are similar to lysosomes but they are somewhat dense and contain different
enzyme systems.
85. Peroxisomes contain enzymes for the breakdown of hydrogen peroxides into oxygen and water
86. Peroxisomes protect cells from the corrosive effects of hydrogen peroxides.
87. Peroxisomes are present in the green leaves of plants for photorespiration.
88. Glyoxisomes are present only in plant cells which contain enzymes glycolic acid oxidase and
catalase.
89. Glyoxisomes are mostly abundant in the plant seedlings.
90. Glyoxisomes are present in lipid rich seed like coaster oil seed for short period.
91. Glyoxisomes are absent in lipid poor seed like pea.
92. Cytoskeleton was firstly suggested by Koltzoff in 1928 under microscope i.e. the fibrous network
of skeleton in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.
93. The suggestion of Koltzoff was confirmed by Cohen in 1977 with the help of electron
microscope.
94. Cytoskeleton is of three types.
95. Cytoskeleton is composed of mainly proteins like tubulin (microtubules) , actin, myosin,
tropomyosin and other which are present in muscles cells.
96. Cyclosis and amoeboid movement are because of microfilament.
97. Microtubules play an important role in the assembly and disassembly of the spindle of the
structures during cell division.
98. Microfilament are thin cylinders made up of contractile actin protein.
99. Centrioles are small hollow cylinders about 0.3-0.5micrometer long and 0.2micrometer in
diameter.
100. Each centrioles consists of cylindrical array of nine microtubules.
101. Each centrioles consists of cylindrical array of 27 tubules.
102. The two centrioles are placed at right angle to each other.
103. Centrioles are absent in the higher plants.
104. All cilia and flagella possessing central bundle of microtubules called axoneme.
105. Each axoneme contain nine outer doublet microtubules.
106. Mitochondria is absent in the RBCs.
107. Mitochondria was firstly seen as granules in 1850 under light microscope.
108. Mitochondria appears like cesicles, rods or filament and complex morphology under electron
microscope.
109. Mitochondria is also a double membrane organelle.
110. The folds present in the mitochondria is called cristae.
111. The membranes of the mitochondria is made up of protein and lipids.
112. Mitochondria contain its own DNA and ribosomes of 70S due to which it is a self-replicating
organelle.
113. One cellular respiration produced 38 ATPs.
114. The inner surface of cristae in the mitochondrial matrix has a small knob like structures called
elementary particles or F1 particles.
115. The mitochondrial matrix consists of oxidative enzymes, co-enzymes, organic and inorganic
salts which are vital Krebs’s cycle.
116. Krebs’s cycle takes place in the mitochondrial matrix.
117. Plastids are of three types.
118. Chlorophyll is resembles with hemoglobin but different is in the Mg++ instead of Fe++
119. Chloroplast vary in their shape and size with a diameter of about 4-6micrometer.
120. Under electron microscope it shows three main portion.
121. Stroma covers most the volume in the chloroplast.
122. The fluid inside the chloroplast is called stroma.
123. Stroma is fluid which surround the thylakoids, contain proteins, ribosome of 70S and small
circular DNA.
124. Collection of thylakoids are called granum.
125. The flattened vesicles in which chlorophyll are present is called thylakoids.
126. About 50 or more thylakoid piled to form one granum.
127. Each granum is interconnected with one another by non-green part called interregnum.
128. Chloroplast are also self-replicating organelle like mitochondria.
129. The plastid which impart color other than green to the plant is called chromoplast.
130. Petals of the flower contain chromoplast.
131. The colourless plastid which are present in the underground part of the plant is called
leucoplast.
132. Leukoplast are in triangular and tubular in shape.
133. Nucleus was firstly reported by Robert brown in 1838.
134. The most important organelle which controls all the activities of cell and contain all the
heredity information in the form of chromosomes is the nucleus.
135. Nucleus consists of mainly four parts.
136. Nuclear envelope is mainly composed of two membrane.
137. An egg contain about 30,000 nuclear pores per nucleus.
138. Erythrocytes have only 3 to 4 nuclear pore per nucleus.
139. Nucleolus is not a membrane bounded structure but darkly stained structures inside the
nucleus.
140. The rRNA is synthesized and stored inside the nucleolus.
141. Nucleolus is composed of mainly two regions.
142. The colloidal mixture of organic and inorganic salts inside the nucleus is called nucleoplasm.
143. Nucleoplasm serves as storage place for enzymes, raw material needed for DNA replication
and synthesis of RNA.
144. Each chromosome is the combination of two identical structures called chromatids.
145. The Pigeon has 40 pairs of chromosomes.
146. Drosophila has 8 chromosomes.
147. Chromosome is made up of nucleoproteins.
148. All the heredity information are encode in the chromosome in the form of gene.
149. Amoeba is a protest.
150. Prokaryotes have ribosomes of 70S.
151. Mitosis is missing inside the prokaryotic cells.
152. The cell wall of the prokaryotic cells is made up of murein.
153. Murein is a glycoproteins.
 Chapter # =
1. All material things in this world are made up of chemical elements.
2. About 95% by weight of human body is made up of Carbon, Hydrogen and oxygen.
3. Protoplasm is chemically made up of two types of compounds, organic and inorganic
compounds.
4. Water is most abundant of all compounds of the protoplasm about one-fourth by weight.
5. After water, proteins are the most abundant compound in the protoplasm.
6. Proteins are the most abundant organic compound in the living cell.
7. Water in mammalian animal cell is about 70% while in bacteria is also 70%.
8. Proteins in mammalian animal cell is about 18% while in bacteria is also 15%.
9. RNA in mammalian animal cell is about 1.1% while in bacteria is also 6%.
10. There are four types of fundamental biological molecules present in the protoplasm.
11. Protein plays most important role in the structure and function of the cell.
12. Carbohydrates are mostly stored as reserve food in cells.
13. DNA stores genetic information and transfer these information to the next generation.
14. DNA and RNA are involved in the protein synthesis.
15. Starch is the polymer of glucose unit molecules.
16. Proteins are the polymers of the amino acids.
17. Sucrose is the polymer of the glucose and fructose.
18. The bodies of living things contain about 70-90 % of water.
19. Water is a polar molecule.
20. Water is a universal solvent due to polar nature.
21. Water has high specific heat and high heat of vaporization.
22. Without H-bond water will boil at -800C and freeze at -1000C.
23. Water has a unique property, as it expands when temperature falls below 40C.
24. Water has a high surface tension.
25. Monosaccharaides are sweet in taste.
26. Glucose contains aldehyde functional group.
27. Fructose contains keto-functional group.
28. Trioses are the simplest monosaccharaides.
29. Glyceraldehyde is triose with aldehyde functional group.
30. Ribose is the pentose with aldehyde functional group.
31. Ribulose is the pentose with ketonic functional group.
32. Monosaccharaides are white crystalline powders.
33. The monomers in the polysaccharides are bonded together by glycosidic linkage.
34. Lactose found in milk that contain glucose and galactose.
35. Maltose found in fruits that contain two glucose units.
36. Maltose is found in our digestive tract as a result of starch digestion.
37. Polysaccharides are tastless and insoluble in water.
38. Starch is stored in plant cells.
39. Glycogen is stored in animal cells.
40. Cellulose cannot be digested by human digestive system due to lack of cellulase enzymes.
41. Cotton fiber is the example of cellulose.
42. Cellulose is a polysaccharides, formed of the unbranched chain of the glucose units.
43. Chitin is a polysaccharide found in the exoskeleton of arthropods like crabs, insects etc.
44. Chitin is a polymer of glucose but an amino group is attached to each molecule.
45. Chitin is also not digestible.
46. Human blood contains 100mg of glucose per 100ml of blood.
47. Grapes contain 27% of glucose.
48. There are twenty different amino acids were known for the synthesis of different types of
proteins.
49. Each amino acids has a central carbon attached to four different groups.
50. All amino acids are differ from each other in the different in the alkyl group.
51. Glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, methionine and isoleucine are non-polar aliphatic amino
acids.
52. Phenlalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan are aromatic amino acids.
53. Proline, asparagine, serine, threonine, cysteine and glutamine are polar uncharged amino
acids.
54. Lysine, arginine and histidine are positively charged amino acids.
55. Aspartate and glutamate are negatively charged amino acids.
56. Haemoglobin Is an oxygen carrying protein which consist of four polypeptide chains.
57. Insulin molecule consists of two polypeptide chains.
58. A chain containing four amino acids and three peptide bonds is known as tripeptide bond.
59. Amino acids are linked together with a bond known as peptide bond.
60. Haemoglobin has 574 amino acids
61. In sickle cell anemia glutamic acid is replaced by valine.
62. In sickle cell anemia the normal globular shape of haemoglobin is changed to sickle shaped.
63. The molecules of fibrous proteins are composed of one or more polypeptide chains which are
arranged linearly in the form of fibers.
64. Keratin is an example of fibrous proteins.
65. Collagen is the most abundant protein in higher vertebrates.
66. Globular proteins are globular or spherical in shape due to folding of polypeptide chains.
67. Haemoglobin, albumin, enzymes, antibiotics and the proteins of cell membrane are the
examples of globular proteins.
68. In 1951, Sanger was the first person who determined the sequence of amino acids in insulin.
69. A polypeptide chain having a linear sequence of amino acids is called primary structure.
70. A polypeptide chain having spirally coiled sequence of amino acids is called secondary
structure.
71. When secondary structure of proteins are arranged in three dimensional structure is called
tertiary structure.
72. The structure of haemoglobin is an example of quaternary structure.
73. All enzymes are proteins in nature.
74. Some hormones such as insulin are proteins.
75. Myosin and actin fibers play an important role in the contraction of muscles and movement.
76. Most lipids are nonpolar and insoluble in water.
77. Acylglycerol are lipids which are composed of glycerol and fatty acids.
78. Glycerol is soluble in water due to polar nature of hydroxyl group.
79. Palmatic acid is an example of saturated fatty acids.
80. Oleic acid is an example of unsaturated fatty acids.
81. The triglyceroids release as much energy per gram as twice of carbohydrates.
82. Phospholipids are composed of one glycerol molecules, two fatty acids and one phosphoric
acid.
83. The head of phospholipid is hydrophilic.
84. The tail of phospholipid is hydrophobic.
85. Waxes are formed by long chain fatty acids bonded to long chain alcohol.
86. Steroids are lipids that do not contain fatty acids but contain a back bone of four fused carbon
rings containing 17 carbon atoms.
87. Terpenoids are lipids that do not contain fatty acids.
88. Steroids are different from one another due to the type of functional group attached to
carbon rings.
89. Cholesterol is a representative example of steroids.
90. Aldosterone helps to regulate sodium content of blood.
91. Sex hormones help to maintain male and female characteristics.
92. The terpenoids are formed of units called isoprenoid units.
93. Carotenoids are lipids that are yellow, orange, red or brown pigment.
94. Carotenoids are of two types.
95. The most widespread and important carotene is beta-carotene.
96. The human body breaks beta-carotene to form two molecules of vitamin A.
97. Auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, are plant hormones that are lipids in nature.
98. Aldosterone and testosterone are animal hormones.
99. Nucleotide is composed of three components.
100. In a typical nucleotide, the nitrogenous base is attached to carbon no.1 of pentose sugar while
phosphate group is attached to carbon no.5 of pentose sugar.
101. The bond formed between phosphoric acid and hydroxyl group of pentose sugar is called ester
linkage.
102. Pyrimidines are single ring compounds.
103. Purines are double ring compounds.
104. ATP is a common example of mononucleotides.
105. ATP is also called the energy currency of living cells.
106. An ATP molecule is hydrolyzed into ADP and P and almost 7kcal energy is produced.
107. The adenine dinucleotide in combination with different vitamins form important compounds
called coenzymes.
108. NAD, NADP and FAD are the important examples of coenzymes.
109. DNA and RNA molecules are polynucleotides.
110. The diameter of DNA molecule is 2nm.
111. The base pair in DNA molecule are flat with a distance of 0.34 nm between them.
112. Adenine forms two hydrogen bonds with thiamine.
113. Guanine forms three hydrogen bonds with cytosine.
114. RNA is a single stranded polynucleotide.
115. Messenger RNA carries message from the DNA to the ribosomes for protein synthesis.
116. Transfer RNA transfers the specific amino acid from the cytoplasm to the ribosomes for
protein synthesis.
117. Ribosomal RNA in combination with proteins form body of ribosomes.
118. DNA is the data bank of living organisms.
119. All the genetic information is encoded in the DNA molecule in the form of genes.
120. A gene is the unit of heredity in living organism.
121. UAA, UAG and UGA are stop codons.
122. AUG is the start codon.
123. A code specify the way in which an amino acid is to be bonded in polypeptide chain of protein
molecule.
124. Transcription is the transfer of genetic code from DNA molecule to RNA molecule.
125. Translation is the transfer of genetic code from mRNA to a sequence of amino acids in a
polypeptide.
126. Glycoproteins are integral components of plasma membrane.
127. Glycolipids are important components of brain and plasma membrane.
128. Chromosome is a nucleoprotein.
129. Lipoprotein are the basic structural framework of plasma membrane.
130. Amylose has the greatest number of glycosidic bonds.
131. DNA is more or less present in all of the following except;
a. Nucleus
b. Chromosome
c. Cytosol
d. Mitochondria
What role does mRNA play in the synthesis of protein?
a. It catalyze the process.
b. It provides genetic blueprint for protein.
c. It translates the genetic code to a specific amino acid.
d. It modifies mRNA molecules prior to protein synthesis.