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Synthetic languages
Analytical languages
Analytical verb-forms:
- function words only express grammatical categories of P, N, T, A, V, M
- full /content /notional word (infinitive or participle) has lexical meaning
he has come; I am reading
Analytical verb-forms:
- continuous forms
- perfect forms
- forms of the future
- interrogative forms
- negative forms
- forms of the passive voice
Synthetic verb-forms:
- inflectional morphemes
- inner flexions
CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS
COMMON NOUNS vs PROPER NOUNS: names of individuals + of a group of individuals
CONCRETE NOUNS (definite objects) vs. ABSTRACT NOUNS (quality, action, state,...
COLLECTIVE NOUNS – refer to groups of people or things.
MASS / MATERIAL NOUNS
– do not require limiting modifiers (a, two, several, many)
– they usually have no plural forms
3) COMPOUND NOUNS:
= two words joined together referring to a single object (the meaning of a CN often differs
from the meaning of its elements): pickpocket, chairman
N stem + N stem:
Adj stem + N stem:
Verb stem + N stem:
Adv stem + N stem:
CN with –ing forms:
CN with a linking element:
- a vowel/consonant:
- a preposition:
- a conjunction:
Lexicalized phrases:
DERIVATIONAL COMPOUNDS: housekeeper, mill-owner, narrowmindedness
NOUNS - the same form of sg and pl = V is in sg. or pl.: series; means; species;
COLLECTIVE NOUNS
NOUNS in sg. followed by Vs in sg.: foliage, machinery;
UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS:
stand for sth -can be measured but not counted, for things without shape or precise limits;
- describe:
- material, liquids, substances: snow, iron, water, gold, paper
- abstract qualities and ideas: courage, success, peace, literature
Some of them may be countable: idea, hour, mistake, word, day
- a unique thing: the moon, the earth (= this world)
- a proper name: Shakespeare, London, the Atlantic
- have only one form
- generally without any article or numerals; only with “the“
- little, a little, much, plenty of
- in exclamations: What nice weather!
Non-counts in English but counts in Slovak:
gossip, information, hair, homework, news, luggage, soap, thunder
Non-counts in their plural form indicate various kinds, extension or intensity:
fruits, wines, waters, sands, heats, colds
Some Ns = non-counts in one meaning and counts in a different meaning
U = coal, glass, hair, ice, iron, paper, room, stone, wood
C= a coal, a glass, a hair, an ice, a paper, a room, a stone, a wood
Partitives: a loaf of bread; slice, packet, piece, bit, tin, drop, item, bar, pinch, cup,
THE GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF GENDER
DEPENDENT GENITIVE
- personal names: Paul´s car;
- personal nouns: My sister´s school;
- personal indefinite pronouns: someone´s passport;
- names of animals: a dog´s life;
- collective nouns: the government´s decision;
- geographical names: Slovakia´s export; BUT: the longest river of SK, Europe´s future –
European future;
- institutional names: the school´s history;
- expressions of time, space, weight, distance: the river´s edge;
journey´s end; two week´s work; BUT: the two-week plan
- name of seasons/months/days: Sunday´s newspaper. BUT a Sunday newspaper
- with words: sun, moon, earth, world: the earth´s surface;
- with words: ship, boat, vessel: ship´s cargo; the vessel´s engine;
- with personification (in poetry): wind´s whistle; the sea´s roar;
- fixed expressions: to be at death´s door; by a hair´s breadth; for heaven´s sake; the
= words used in front of common nouns, they determine (affect) the meaning of the noun
PREDETERMINERS
= precede the required central determiners in a N phrase:
- the quantifying:
- the fractional:
- intensifying:
- multiplying:
POSTDETERMINERS
= follow the required central determiner in a N phrase:
- cardinal numerals:
- ordinal numerals:
- many, much + its relatives:
- the forms of other:
- the phrasal quantifiers:
PRONOUNS point out objects / qualities without naming them
SPECIFIC PRONOUNS
1) PERSONAL PRONOUNS: I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they
= refer to the person speaking, spoken to, spoken about
Gram. categories of P, N, C, G – 3rd sg.
Common case is replaced by:
- subjective case:
- objective case:
2) POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs
my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their
= refer to parts of the body and personal belongings
Gram. categories: P, N, G
- the dependent / attribute form = the possessive determiners
- the independent / the nominal form
3) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS: this, these, that, those, such, same
= express the number contrast:
= point at what is nearer or farther in time and space:
Such = of this/that kind: Such as:
Same - always with the:
4) REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS: myself, himself, herself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
= indicate that the action expressed by the V passes back to the S
Gram. categories: P, N, G – 3rd sg.
In the sentence they are usually used:
- as direct O:
- as indirect O:
- after a preposition:
- as part of the predicative of the V to be:
- in fixed phrases:
- after “by“ meaning alone, without help:
- to emphasize sth.:
= used with reflexive Vs:
5) INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS: who, whom, whose, what, which
= form questions; always precede the V; if the pronoun is the subject, no “do/did“ is used
WHO = 3 case-forms, used only for persons:
Subjective: Who
Objective: Who(m)
Genitive/Possessive: Whose
WHAT = no case-forms; used:
- for things:
- for an activity:
- to ask for a person´s profession, character, etc.:
- in idiomatic expressions:
WHICH - used for things and persons; sg. or pl; subject or object;
- implies choice among a certain number of things:
- often followed by an of-phrase:
Compound interrogatives - used for emphasis:
6) RELATIVE PRONOUNS: that, who, whom, whose, which, what; as
= point out back to a N or Pron. mentioned before;
= conjunctive power: introduce a subordinate clause (= relative clause)
The word they refer to is called antecedent. When the antecedent is a whole sentence = which
Forms:
- personal: subject; object; possessive;
- non-personal: subject; object; possessive;
THAT:
- used for persons or things in restrictive relative clauses:
- can sometimes be left out of a sentence:
- cannot be preceded by a preposition:
- is used: - after the superlative:
- after most indefinite pronouns:
- after the opening It is..., It was..., Is it.... Was it ...:
- when the antecedent is both a person and a thing:
WHAT
- is used when an antecedent is not expressed:
Compound relative pronouns: whichever, whatever, whoever
The relative pronoun AS is used:
- always after such:
- after same:
BUT also that can be used after same :
2 types of comparison:
- synthetic comparison: ...-er; the ...-est;
- monosyllabic adjectives:
- disyllabic adjectives: -y, -ow, -er, -le;
- analytical comparison: more ...; the most ....;
2) NON-GRADABLE
= cannot be graded; no degrees of comparison;
SUBSTANTIVIZED ADJECTIVES:
- wholly substantivized: have all the characteristics of nouns: pl., G, articles
- partially substantivized: only some of the characteristics of nouns: definite article:
- a whole class:
- abstract notions:
- nationalities:
MORPHOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF ADJECTIVES
3) Compound adjectives:
N + Adj:
N + pres. participle:
N + past participle:
Adj + Adj:
Adj + N + -ed:
N + N + -ed:
Num + N + -ed:
Adv + N +-ed:
= a word class which expresses some circumstances that attend an action, state, or points out
some characteristic features of an action or a quality;
- can modify:
- verbs:
- adjectives:
- indefinite pronouns:
- other adverbs:
- nouns:
- whole sentences:
3) COMPOUND:
4) COMPOSITE:
GRADABILITY OF ADVERBS
1) GRADABLE
- synthetic = one/two syllabic adverbs: -er; -est;
- analytical = adverbs of manner in -ly, adverbs of frequency: more/less; most/least;
Irregular forms of comparison:
2) NON-GRADABLE
- of manner:
Look at this photo carefully.
It snowed heavily last January.
Mary angrily slammed the door.
Quietly, he moved forwards to her.
- of time:
We went to the theatre yesterday. / Yesterday we went to the theatre.
I have just finished.
He is still working.
He still studies.
Have you finished yet? No, I haven´t finished yet.
- of frequency:
I was always very good at maths.
He seldom smiles at her.
I get paid on Fridays usually/regularly/normally/generally
Do you come here often? I don´t come here often.
Do you usually have cream in your coffee?
Sometimes we go to the cinema.
Have you ever been to England? Does anyone ever visit them?
If you ever need any help, you know where to find me.
Hardly/scarcely/barely ever did they manage to meet unobserved.
I never go to bed before midnight.
I never smoke. (= I don´t smoke.)
VERBS
- clause element
- word class
A sentence:
- a single verb = the finite verb phrase (VP) is simple:
- a cluster of Vs = the VP is complex:
Within a complex VP = up to 4 auxiliaries in front of the main V:
Grammatical categories:
TENSE
ASPECT
MOOD
VOICE
PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERBS
= assist the main V to express grammatical contrasts (in person, number, tense)
= a separate class
= called operators for their syntactic function
TO BE
= unique, 8 forms; uncontracted negative forms x contracted negative forms:
2 functions: 1. as an aspect auxiliary for the progressive:
2. as a passive auxiliary:
Lexical V = when combined with Adj., Adv., Pron., Ns:
Forms: present; past; present perfect; past perfect; future; future perfect;
progressive present; progressive past;
TO HAVE
= base, -s, past, -ing, -ed; contracted x uncontracted negative forms;
Lexical V = to possess;
Forms: present; past; present perfect; past perfect; future; future perfect;
TO DO
= present; -s; past; contracted x uncontracted negative forms;
Lexical V = to perform; to work at or be engaged in st.;
Forms: -ing; -ed; ...
Auxiliary V:
- negated imperative, simple present, simple past:
- in questions: simple present, past tense:
- in tag questions (V in simple present, simple past):
- in emphatic or persuasive constructions:(in simple present/past, imperative):
- in inversion caused by introductory words (negative adverbs: hardly, seldom):
- in simple present / past tense):
NEED
= in the negative; Yes/No questions:
- after negative adverbs (hardly, seldom, scarcely, rarely):
- in formal style, expressing doubts:
- in informal use = ordinary (lexical) V form:
NEEDN´T + perfect inf.= sb did it but it was not necessary: She needn´t have gone to school
= she went but it was not necessary. Compare: It was Sunday, she didn´t need to go to school
DARE:
- in questions and negatives:
or with bare inf.:
or a full V:
- in informal style:
the negative DAREN´T:
YOU DARE! or: DON´T YOU DARE! = to discourage people from doing
I DARE SAY means probably:
USED TO
=PAST habit = only in simple past form:
also with stative Vs:
- USED NOT or USEDN´T:
= in the negative;
= in questions:
However, DID is more common in negative or questions:
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF VOICE
1) ACTIVE VOICE
The clause with transitive Vs contains:
a) 3 grammatical elements: S + V + O
b) 3 semantic units: A + P (A) + G
2) PASSIVE VOICE
- indicates that the SUBJECT should not be interpreted as the AGENT
(it may be the goal, a person or thing involved in the event):
The AGENT (NP) is preceded by the preposition by.
The AGENT (unknown, obvious, unimportant) may be unexpressed:
- reflects the way in which the verb action is “regarded“ or „experienced“ with respect
to time.
- is closely connected in meaning with tense
2 types of aspectual contrast:
1) THE PERFECTIVE ASPECT
2) THE PROGRESSIVE (CONTINUOUS) ASPECT
1) THE PERFECTIVE ASPECT
- is associated with time orientation + various time indicators (already, since, for, so far,
lately, recently, up to now, how long, ever,...)
THE INFINITIVE
- present infinitive active: to write
- present infinitive passive:
- present progressive infinitive active:
- perfect / past infinitive active:
- perfect / past infinitive passive:
- perfect / past progressive infinitive active: