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Transactions of the SDPS MARCH 2007, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 1-11
TRANSDISCIPLINARITY:
REACHING BEYOND DISCIPLINES TO FIND CONNECTIONS
Azad M. Madni
Intelligent Systems Technology Inc., California, USA
We live in an era in which the world is becoming increasingly more connected or, as Tom
Friedman puts it, “flat.” The inevitable consequence of this interconnectedness trend is that
problems are becoming much too complex to successfully solve by applying methods from within a
single discipline. This recognition is most evident in the growing trend toward multidisciplinary
and interdisciplinary collaboration among traditionally independent disciplines. As such
collaboration intensifies, existing disciplines are being enriched and occasionally new disciplines
are beginning to emerge. At the same time, the knowledge gaps among the disciplines are
beginning to surface. What appears to be lacking is a new way of thinking that strives to
harmonize traditional disciplines by reaching beyond their traditional boundaries to fill the
knowledge gaps not addressed by them. Transdisciplinary thinking promises to reach beyond
disciplinary boundaries to identify and overcome knowledge voids and incompatibilities in the
quest for knowledge unification. Achieving these objectives is key to fostering new relationships
among traditionally independent disciplines and, in so doing, begin to address problems of
national and global significance. This paper discusses the aims of transdisciplinarity, the road to
transdisciplinarity, successes resulting from transdisciplinary thinking, and recommendations for
a research and education agenda embracing trandsdisciplinary thinking.
Keywords: intradisciplinary, multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary, biomimicry
1. Introduction
The digital age and netcentricity have succeeded in making the world ever more “flat” (Friedman,
2005) making collaboration among people from different cultures and in different locations a common
occurrence. It is also the case that the world is becoming more nuanced and the problems much too
complex to be dealt with successfully using methods from within a single discipline. This fact has not
escaped the research and business communities as evidenced by the growing trend toward
multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary studies worldwide.
Today there is a growing recognition that such collaboration, while essential, is neither
straightforward nor easy. This is because the gulf between independent disciplines needs to be bridged
before such collaboration can start paying real dividends. Bridging independent disciplines typically
requires extending them, reconciling their differences, and unifying the knowledge associated with
them in new and novel ways. This recognition inevitably leads to the notion of transdisciplinarity, the
quest for and discovery of new connections among disciplines leading to novel approaches for unifying
their knowledge. It is not surprising, therefore, that there is a growing interest in transdisciplinary
thinking to address problems that appear to be intractable when viewed from the perspective of a single
discipline.
Transdisciplinarity is a global perception of the ultimate connection of multiple (possibly all)
disciplines (Nicolescu, 1997). From this perspective, not only science, but all human activities appear
as a unitary whole, and part of the unity of the universe. According to Rodriguez Delgado, an eminent
Spaniard systemist, unity and diversity (within transdisciplinarity) are not viewed as opposing, but
complementary perspectives.
Despite its obvious allure, transdisciplinarity faces many challenges. To begin with, there is no
single, agreed upon definition of transdisciplinarity. In particular, academic and societal viewpoints
differ. This lack of a common definition is further exacerbated with the formation of new societies,
each promoting their own language for discourse. Fortunately, the academic and business communities
remain undaunted as evidenced by the growing interest worldwide in infusing transdisciplinary
concepts and projects into their educational and research agendas. For example, when it comes to
public health, the National Academies (National Academies, 2002) recommends moving from research
dominated by a single discipline or a small number of disciplines to transdisciplinary research. They
define transdisciplinary research as involving broadly constituted teams of researchers that work across
disciplines to develop significant research questions. In these recommendations, transdisciplinary
research implies the conception of research questions that transcend individual disciplines and
specialized knowledge bases because they are intended to solve applied public health research
questions that are, by definition, beyond the purview of any single discipline. In transdisciplinary
research, different specialties combine their expertise (and that of community members) to collectively
define the health problem and their solutions. The National Academies sum up their position by
pointing out that the one qualitatively different and unique aspect of the transdisciplinary process is the
holistic blending of expert and community inputs to produce greater integration across disciplines.
Transdisciplinary research (Fairclough, 2003, Fairclough 2005) implies a dialogue between the
different disciplines and theories with a view to advancing both methodological and theoretical
developments. This characteristic sets transdisciplinary research apart from some forms of
interdisciplinary research which tend to “assemble” different disciplines around particular themes and
projects without a commitment to changing the boundaries and relations between them.
In light of the foregoing, it is worth clarifying the differences among intradisciplinary,
multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary research. Intradisciplinary research involves
problems that can be successfully tackled from within a single discipline such as engineering or
medicine. Multidisciplinary research involves problems that require cooperation among individuals
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from different disciplines. Interdisciplinary research involves cooperation among disciplines leading to
enrichment of one or more contributing disciplines and occasionally resulting in new discipline.
Transdisciplinary research involves looking beyond traditional disciplines to find new connections
among disciplines that facilitate knowledge unification. Table 1 compares and contrasts these various
forms of research initiatives.
It is worth recognizing that transdisciplinarity originates from the increasing demand for relevance
and applicability of academic research to societal challenges (Nicolescu, 2002). Not surprisingly, the
two popular definitions of transdisciplinary research today center around academic research and
societal challenges. The academic research-oriented definition characterizes transdisciplinarity as “a
special form of interdisciplinarity in which boundaries between and beyond disciplines are
transcended and disciplines as well as non-scientific sources are integrated.” The societal challenge-
oriented definition characterizes transdisciplinarity as “a new form of learning and problem-solving
involving cooperation among different parts of society (including academia) to meet complex societal
challenges. Solutions devised are a result of collaboration and mutual learning among multiple
stakeholders.” As can be seen from the preceding two definitions, there is no standard definition of
transdisciplinarity. What is common to both, however, is the unity of knowledge.
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Table 1. Research typology
Research
Types
Intradisciplinary Multidisciplinary Interdisciplinary Transdisciplinary
Comparison
Factors
Scope Collaboration Collaboration Collaboration Knowledge
among individuals within among individuals among disciplines unification across
a discipline from different disciplines
disciplines
Focus One branch of Complex Creation of Finding
specialization within the problem management integrative solution hidden connections
research field (e.g., and incompatibility resulting in mutual among knowledge
quantum physics within resolution through enrichment of disciplines elements from
physics) collaboration different disciplines
Key Generally, Har Devel C
Characteristic study the same monize multiple, opment of shared hallenge the norm
s “research objects,” but occasionally concepts, methods, and generate
not always (e.g., contradictory/ epistemologies for options that appear
multiple branches of incompatible aspects explicit information to violate convention
modern physics) Inte exchange and L
Tend to gration between integration ook at problems
have methodologies in disciplines limited to Can from a discipline-
common linking research produce an entirely new neutral perspective
Tight
results discipline, e.g., software E
communications Susceptible economics (Tharp et. al., mploy themes
to misunderstanding 2001, Boehm 2001) around which to
Mostly
speak a common
(“traps”); specialized Specialization conduct research
languages creates greater and build curricula
language
De knowledge R
Add to
cision makers can be edefine disciplinary
the BOK of a branch/ fragmentation and
left unsure about final occasionally boundaries and
discipline resolution (lack of interfaces among
contradictory knowledge
coherent view) disciplines
While on the subject of definitions, it is also worth clarifying the subtle differences between system
science and transdisciplinary science. One of the objectives of system science is the unification of
knowledge residing in different “worlds.” In subtle contrast, transdisciplinary science is concerned with
discovering hidden connections between different disciplines with a view to establishing a common
platform for discourse among people from diverse disciplines. Peter Checkland (Checkland, 1981)
offers a practical perspective when he recommends that “what we need is not interdisciplinary teams,
but transdisciplinary concepts; concepts which serve to unify knowledge by being applicable in areas
which cut across the trenches which mask traditional academic boundaries.” Norbert Wiener (1948)
was among the first to write about growingly interconnected complex of concepts and models, and
about ways of interaction among elements and organization of complex situations and systems. These
perspectives lead to the notion of “transdisciplinary synthesis,” potentially a new language of
interconnected concepts and models applied to reasonably accurate descriptions of complex wholes or
“multi-domain ontologies.” However, while being cognisant of the ills of hyperspecialization, it is also
important to be mindful of the fact that a “theory of everything” does not devolve into a “theory of
nothing.” This paper takes a practical view in discussing transdisciplinary thinking and how it can be
infused into research and education.
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The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 describes the movement toward
transdisciplinarity research. Section 3 discusses the transdisciplinary mindset and how to stimulate
transdisciplinary thinking along with specific examples. Section 4 presents strategies for creating a
transdisciplinary education and research agenda. Section 5, the concluding section, discusses the
changes needed to create a transdisciplinary curriculum and emphasizes the importance of themes in a
transdisciplinary syllabus.
2. Road to Transdisciplinarity
The movement toward transdisciplinary research has been several years in the making as societal
problems continue to grow ever more complex requiring ever-increasing collaboration among the
various disciplines. Intradisciplinary research is characterized by collaboration among individuals
within a single discipline. Multidisciplinary research is characterized by collaboration among
individuals from different disciplines. Interdisciplinary research is characterized by collaboration
among different disciplines. Transdisciplinary research is characterized by interdisciplinary teams
engaged in transdisciplinary thinking to fill knowledge gaps that exist among disciplines. This
movement towards trandisciplinary research is portrayed in Figure 1.
LEGEND:
Pi : person i Transdisciplinary
Collaboration
Dj : discipline j
direction of increasing
Pi
problem complexity
Looking back a few decades ago, problems tended to be relatively well-circumscribed and
amenable to analysis and solution approaches using methods from a single discipline (e.g., mechanical
engineering, electrical engineering). Years later, led by the aerospace industry, the discipline of systems
engineering was born. Systems engineering required people from different disciplines to collaborate to
solve problems that were deemed unsolvable using techniques from within a single discipline. With the
advent of systems engineering, the emphasis shifted from applying the right technique to solve a
problem to identifying and bringing together the right mix of people from different disciplines to solve
complex problems. This was the beginning of multidisciplinary problem-solving which has its roots in
multidisciplinary collaboration.
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Collaboration among people from different disciplines led to the recognition that some problems
required extensions to the contributing disciplines thereby enriching the disciplines. Quite frequently,
an entirely new discipline (e.g., electro-magnetics, biomechanics, cognitive engineering, software
economics) with a new set of concepts may emerge from such collaboration, and become an object of
research in its own rights. For example, electro-magnetics was the result of collaboration between
electricity and magnetism. Researchers collaborating from these two disciplines found that the
movement of a charged object created a magnetic field. When this hidden connection between these
two disciplines was discovered, it created an entirely new field - - electro-magnetics.
Along with cross-fertilization and cross-pollination among disciplines came the recognition that
there were incompatibilities among disciplines arising primarily from differences in underlying
assumptions and theoretical foundations. These differences, in part, stood in the way of knowledge
unification across disciplinary boundaries. It is this recognition that leads to the realization that we
need to transcend (i.e., go beyond) disciplines to fill in knowledge voids and harmonize disciplines.
This new awakening provides the impetus for transdisciplinary research collaboration as a means to
achieve knowledge unification across disciplines and domains.
Transdisciplinary research is conducted by interdisciplinary teams working on a complex problem
requiring expertise in different disciplines and knowledge of different domains. The product of such
collaboration, if successful, is not merely a solution to the complex problem but also unification of
knowledge from different domains and from different disciplines. Ultimately, the goal is unity of
knowledge which includes not only knowledge associated with different disciplines but also knowledge
between and across disciplines. Figure 2 presents a notional depiction of these ideas.
Complex Problem
Characterization
• different perspectives
• different domains
• different disciplines
Research Results
• new knowledge
• unity of knowledge
• unified ontology
• contributions to individual
disciplines
• lessons learned
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In the following paragraphs, I present examples of transdisciplinary thinking that led to the creation
of new technologies and capabilities needed to satisfy overarching goals.
First Responder
Goal:
Aiding and Training
Cost-effective Shared
New Performance
Just-in-Time Ontology
Capability: Support Systems
Training
Simulation Human
Participating Learning Intelligent
Engineering Performance
Disciplines: Sciences Agents
Modeling
(physics, computer science) (cognitive science) (behavioral science) (computer science)
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As shown in Figure 3 starting with a set of base disciplines (e.g., computer science, cognitive
science) and combining subsets of them through collaborative research, we can create new
technologies that either enrich the contributing disciplines or give rise to a new sub-discipline. Further
combination of new technologies and sub-discipline can give rise to new capabilities (e.g., cost-
effective just-in-time training, performance support systems). The new capabilities are what enable the
attainment of “first responder aiding and training” capability.
It is important to realize that invariably there will be mismatches in the terminology and key
concepts underlying cost-effective just-in-time training and on demand performance support systems
given the fact that they have different origins. This problem can be overcome through the development
of a shared ontology for aiding and training first responders. This shared ontology is a
“transdisciplinary intervention” that harmonizes the two capabilities and assures proper semantic
interoperability.
Adaptive MAU
Models New Technology
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processes and either mimics them or takes inspiration from them to solve human problems.
Biomimicry also views nature as a mentor in that it strives to learn from nature. And finally,
biomimicry uses an ecological standard to judge our innovation. After all, who better than Mother
Nature to say what works and what lasts after 3.8 billion years of evolution? One of the means of
harnessing this knowledge is to frame problems in a larger context than has traditionally been the case.
This is precisely what DaimlerChrysler did when it undertook the development of a concept car.
Daimler Chrysler achieved convergence among multiple disciplines when it patterned the design of its
concept car after a boxfish. A model of aerodynamic efficiency, this rather squat, snub-nosed, brilliant
incarnation was a result of harnessing biology, aerodynamics, automotive design, and manufacturing
technology. This breakthrough in effective transportation resulted when engineers framed the problem
in a larger context that involved marine biologists in the dialogue. This was a novel insight on the part
of the engineers who recognized that natural selection has been at work for millennia on problems of
mechanical and aerodynamic efficiency. The transdisciplinary bridge in this case was looking to nature
while framing the problem in a larger context that allowed the inclusion of marine biologists in the
design process.
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ontologies, and analogical reasoning approaches. Figure 5 presents a conceptual framework for
conducting transdisciplinary research and adding to its body of knowledge.
Fig. 5 Framework for creating and exploiting BOK for transdisciplinary R&E.
5. Conclusions
As science moves deeper into the workings of the universe, we will increasingly develop models
and methods that unite disciplines. Electromagnetics, biostatistics, cognitive engineering,
psychophysiology and medical informatics are but a few examples of this phenomenon. Today, we can
engineer materials atom by atom, working very nearly at the boundary between matter and energy. At
this level, disciplinary distinctions become almost arbitrary as physics, chemistry, biology and
engineering begin to converge upon shared possibilities (Upham, 2006). The “promise of converging
spaces” can be profound and far-reaching. Some of the pressing challenges that can be addressed
through such convergence include: mitigating the damage we inflict on the environment; producing
new materials to support the rapid development of worldwide infrastructure, defending ourselves
against escalating chemical-biological threats; and increasing computing power while reducing size
and cost. Such pressing priorities are beyond the purview of a single discipline, a single institution, or
even a single culture.
This is the essence of the transdisciplinary approach. However, the promise of transdisciplinarity
comes with its fair share of challenges. To begin with, the transdisciplinary approach requires “going
beyond the laboratory” and into the realm of politics. No far-reaching reform or advance is possible
without getting into the realm of politics. Very simply, politics is the process by which humans express
desires, establish priorities, and allocate resources (Upham, 2006). The key question, of course, is
whether politics will advance or hinder the advance of promising technologies. Clearly, while these
type of questions are addressed in the realm of politics, scientists must step forward to represent the
possibilities that may otherwise go unvoiced, unnoticed, or worse yet, misunderstood.
For transdisciplinary research discussions to go beyond the abstract into making a difference to
pressing issues in the realworld, researchers need to initially identify regional problems and issues at
various scales and, after demonstrable successes, elevate their sights to issues of national and global
significance. Regional issues can be identified in a variety of venues such as energy conservation and
use, environment management systems, global climate change management, healthcare, sustainable
development, and educational reform. Once such problems have been identified, an appropriate mix of
disciplinary breadth and depth can be specified based on the theme, issue or problem addressed. It is
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almost inevitable that addressing such socio-economic and socio-political problems will require linking
specific scientific disciplines with humanities.
However, realizing a transdisciplinary educational curriculum requires several changes at the
content, instruction, and institutional levels. To begin with, course content needs to be focused on those
real problems and issues that are not amenable to solution or resolution from within a single discipline
and that require interdisciplinary teams. Second, there is a need for faculty members who can skillfully
discern emergent connections among disciplines and develop new insights. Third, educational
institutions need to not only be accepting of this paradigm shift but in fact create an environment that
attracts and incentivizes transdisciplinary educators and researchers. Fourth, the curricula need to be
viewed not merely from the perspectives of depth and breadth but from a thematic perspective. The
syllabus needs to be theme-focused, integrated with the appropriate disciplines, and at a level of depth
and breadth consistent with the theme. Fifth, since the internet has dramatically facilitated the conduct
of transdisciplinary research (Hunsinger, 2005) it should be exploited in distance learning programs.
Finally, concrete examples of theme-related transdisciplinary solutions and experiences need to be
covered to develop transdisciplinary thinking skills. In conclusion, the time has come for us to begin
for exploiting the “flatness” of this world with open minds and a commitment to transdisciplinary
research and education, the next frontier in the intellectual and societal growth of human kind.
6. References
Benyus, J., Innovation Inspired by Nature, Copyright © Janine M. Benyus, Harper Collins Publishers Inc.,
New York, September 1, 2002.
Boehm, B., Software Engineering Economics (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1981).
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Management), 1981.
Ertas, A., Tanik, M.M., and Maxwell, T.T. Transdisciplinary Engineering Education and Research Model,
2000.
Fairclough, N., Analyzing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research, Routtedge, 2003.
Fairclough, Norman, “Critical discourse analysis in transdisciplinary research on social change: transition, re-
scaling, poverty and social inclusion,” 2005.
Friedman, T.L., The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century, Copyright © Thomas L.
Friedman, 2005.
Gibbons, M., Limoges, C., Nowotny, H., Schwartzman, S., Scott, P., Trow, M., The New Production of
Knowledge, The Dynamics of Science and Research in Contemporary Societies (Sage Publications, London,
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Madni, A.M., and Freedy, A. Decision Aids for Airborne Intercept Operations in Advanced Aircrafts,
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Cybernetics Society, October 26-28, 1981b, pp. 224-234.
Madni, A.M. Integrated Modeling Approaches in Advanced Cockpit Automation, Proceedings of the 1983
SAE Aerospace Congress & Exposition, Long Beach Convention Center, Long Beach, CA, October 1983.
Nicolescu, Basarub, La Transdisciplinariet, Paris, France: Rocker, International Congress. What university
for tomorrow? Towards a transdisciplinary evolution of the university, Locarno, Switzerland, April 30 – May 2.
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Tanik, M.M. and Ertas, A. “Interdisciplinary Design and Process Science: A Discourse on Scientific Method
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7. Appendix
Dr. Azad Madni is the founder and CEO of Intelligent Systems Technology, Inc. His research
interests are in transdisciplinary approaches and their application to systems-of-systems architecting,
planning and decision aiding, and interactive stories as the basis for simulation-based learning. He is
the recipient of several prestigious, international and national awards including the 2006 C.V.
Ramamoorthy Distinguished Scholar Award from the Society of Design and Process Science at the
Ninth World Conference on Integrated Design and Process Technology. He is also the recipient of the
SBA’s National Tibbetts Award for California for excellence in research, technology innovation, and
transition. In 2000 he received the Blue Chip Enterprise Award for entrepreneurship from Mass Mutual
and U.S. Chamber of Commerce. He is a two-time winner of the Developer of the Year Award from the
Software Council of Southern California. He has been a Principal Investigator on more than sixty-five
R&D projects sponsored by approximately thirty different Federal R&D organizations. He has received
special awards and commendations from DARPA, the Office of the Secretary of Defense, and the U.S.
Navy for his pioneering R&D contributions in modeling and simulation and for their application to
national “agility” and concurrent engineering initiatives. He is an elected Fellow of the IEEE,
INCOSE, SDPS, and IETE, and an Associate Fellow of AIAA. He is currently serving as the President
of the Society of Design and Process Science, a society of renowned international scientists and
researchers committed to transdisciplinary education and research. He is the Editor-in-Chief of the
Transdisciplinary Journal of Integrated Design and Process Science, a journal devoted to covering
transdisciplinary research and education worldwide. Dr. Madni has been a Visiting Industrial Fellow of
Caltech’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in the Space Microelectronics Center. He received his Ph.D., M.S.,
and B.S. in Engineering from UCLA. He is also a graduate of the Executive Institute at Stanford
University. He is listed in the Marquis’ Who’s Who in Science and Engineering, Who’s Who in
Industry and Finance, and Who’s Who in America.
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