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7. Relationship to GIS
Orthophoto Phenomenon
Orthophotography first came into use in the 1960's, but they did not become commonplace until the
1970s due to cost. Digital Orthophotos are commonly used as a backdrop for vector
digitizing. Orthophoto show the actual land feature of an area as opposed to the generalizations
found on a map.
Change Analysis
Change analysis refers to the process of comparing changes to the same area using remotely-sensed
images that are temporally separated. Change analysis developed in the 1970s at a time when GIS
was in its early, developmental stages. Raster based data laid the ground-work for GIS and remote
sensing analysis. "Vegetation indices" and Dana Tomlin's "Map Algebra" were developed in this
era.
This page is available in a framed version. For convenience, a Full Table of Contents is
provided.
Introduction
This unit introduces basic concepts of remote sensing of the environment. It is intended to provide
you with the background information necessary to successfully use remotely sensed imagery in
conjunction with GIS technology to answer questions about the world in which we live.
In recent years, technological advances have changed the way geographic analyses are done.
Increasingly, computers are used to automate aspects of cartography and remote sensing, producing
data that are easily integrated into a GIS.
Many GIS systems have the capability of incorporating aerial photography, satellite data, and radar
imagery into their data layers. The process is simple, as images may be scanned or read off a data
tape. However, to use this technology effectively, it is important to know the strengths and limitations
of remotely sensed data, and to understand which types of imagery are suited to particular projects.
This unit was developed with these concerns in mind. The information and exercises contained within
it are intended to familiarize you with the interface between remote sensing and GIS.
The USGS defines the electromagnetic spectrum in the following manner: "Electromagnetic radiation
is energy propagated through space between electric and magnetic fields. The electromagnetic
spectrum is the extent of that energy ranging from cosmic rays, gamma rays, X-rays to ultraviolet,
visible, and infrared radiation including microwave energy."
Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves are radiated through space. When the energy encounters an object, even a
very tiny one like a molecule of air, one of three reactions occurs. The radiation will either be reflected
off the object, absorbed by the object, of transmitted through the object. The total amount of radiation
that strikes an object is referred to as the incident radiation, and is equal to:
In remote sensing, we are largely concerned with REFLECTED RADIATION. This is the radiation
that causes our eyes to see colors, causes infrared film to record vegetation, and allows radar images
of the earth to be created.
Wave Descriptions
The electric field and the magnetic field are important concepts that can be used to mathematically
describe the physical effects of electromagnetic waves.
The electric field vibrates in a direction transverse (i.e. perpendicular) to the direction of travel of the
electromagnetic wave.
The magnetic field vibrates in a direction transverse to the direction of the em wave AND transverse
to the electric field.
Infrared Radiation
Aerial Photography
Introduction
Aerial photography has two uses that are of interest within the context of this course: (1)
Cartographers and planners take detailed measurements from aerial photos in the preparation of maps.
(2) Trained interpreters utilize arial photos to determine land-use and environmental conditions,
among other things.
Although both maps and aerial photos present a "bird's-eye" view of the earth, aerial photographs are
NOT maps. Maps are orthogonal representations of the earth's surface, meaning that they are
directionally and geometrically accurate (at least within the limitations imposed by projecting a 3-
dimensional object onto 2 dimensions). Aerial photos, on the other hand, display a high degree of
radial distortion. That is, the topography is distorted, and until corrections are made for the distortion,
measurements made from a photograph are not accurate. Nevertheless, aerial photographs are a
powerful tool for studying the earth's environment.
Because most GISs can correct for radial distortion, aerial photographs are an excellent data source
for many types of projects, especially those that require spatial data from the same location at periodic
intervals over a length of time. Typical applications include land-use surveys and habitat analysis.
This unit discusses benefits of aerial photography, applications, the different types of photography,
and the integration of aerial photographs into GISs.
Novice photo interpreters often encounter difficulties when presented with their first aerial
photograph. Aerial photographs are different from "regular" photos in at least three important ways:
o Tone (also called Hue or Color) -- Tone refers to the relative brightness or color of elements on a
photograph. It is, perhaps, the most basic of the interpretive elements because without tonal
differences none of the other elements could be discerned.
o Size -- The size of objects must be considered in the context of the scale of a photograph. The scale will
help you determine if an object is a stock pond or Lake Minnetonka.
o Shape -- refers to the general outline of objects. Regular geometric shapes are usually indicators of
human presence and use. Some objects can be identified almost solely on the basis of their shapes.
the Pentagon Building
(American) football fields
cloverleaf highway interchanges
o Texture -- The impression of "smoothness" or "roughness" of image features is caused by the
frequency of change of tone in photographs. It is produced by a set of features too small to identify
individually. Grass, cement, and water generally appear "smooth", while a forest canopy may appear
"rough".
o Pattern (spatial arrangement) -- The patterns formed by objects in a photo can be diagnostic. Consider
the difference between (1) the random pattern formed by an unmanaged area of trees and (2) the
evenly spaced rows formed by an orchard.
o Shadow -- Shadows aid interpreters in determining the height of objects in aerial photographs.
However, they also obscure objects lying within them.
o Site -- refers to topographic or geographic location. This characteristic of photographs is especially
important in identifying vegetation types and landforms. For example, large circular depressions in the
ground are readily identified as sinkholes in central Florida, where the bedrock consists of limestone.
This identification would make little sense, however, if the site were underlain by granite.
o Association -- Some objects are always found in association with other objects. The context of an
object can provide insight into what it is. For instance, a nuclear power plant is not (generally) going to
be found in the midst of single-family housing.
o
Austin, Texas
Color
Color Infrared
In 1903 or 1904 the first reliable black and white infrared film was developed in Germany. The film
emulsion was adjusted slightly from regular film to be sensitive to wavelengths of energy just slightly
longer than red light and just beyond the range of the human eye. By the 1930s, black and white IR
films were being used for landform studies, and from 1930 to 1932 the National Geographic Society
sponsored a series of IR photographs taken from hot air balloons.
Throughout the 1930s and 1940s, the military was hard at work developing color infrared film, eager
to exploit it for surveillance. By the early 1940s the military was successful in its attempts. It
developed a film that was able to distinguish camouflaged equipment from surrounding vegetation.
Within months, however, an IR reflecting paint was developed for use on military vehicles,
effectively making IR film technology useless to the military. So, they dropped it.
The scientific community, however, has made continuous use of the film technology.
Color infrared film is often called "false-color" film. Objects that are normally red appear green, green
objects (except vegetation) appear blue, and "infrared" objects, which normally are not seen at all,
appear red.
The primary use of color infrared photography is vegetation studies. This is because healthy green
vegetation is a very strong reflector of infrared radiation and appears bright red on color infrared
photographs.
Basic Photogrammetry
Geologic Mapping
Archaeology
Humans are adept at visually interpreting data. We can distinguish millions of colors, several shades
of gray, and have a demonstrated ability to identify water, vegetation, and urban forms on several
types of imagery. Why try to expand on this?
(1) There are limits to a person's ability to distinguish small differences in color. We are especially limited in
our resolution of shades of gray. If data are collected using 256 shades of gray, but an analyst can only
distinguish 8-10 (optimistically) of them, a great deal of information is potentially lost. The human interpreter
is outpaced by the precision of the data. Computers, however, have no trouble distinguishing 256 shades of
gray. Each one is individually recognizable. And, the analyst has control over the conputer's presentation of
the data. She can group it any way she pleases, extract a portion of it, or display it in false color. Data sets
can also be combined, compared, and contrasted with more ease and precision (not to mention speed) than
if the task were left to humans alone.
(2) Human interpretations are highly subjective, hence, not perfectly repeatable. Conversely, results
generated by computer--even when erroneous--are usually repeatable.
(3) When very large amounts of data are involved (a series of photos of an orange grove taken at 5 day
intervals over an entire growing season) the computer may be better suited to managing the large body of
detailed (and tedious) data.
The processes of manual image interpretation and digital image interpretation are similar in many ways. The
goals of analysis are often the same, though the routes may vary.
Image Enhancement
Data Classification
Satellite Imaging
Introduction
Landsat
LANDSAT refers to a series of satellites put into orbit around the earth to collect environmental data
about the earth's surface. The LANDSAT program was initiated by the U.S. Department of Interior
and NASA under the name ERTS, an acronym which stands for Earth Resources Technology
Satellites. ERTS-1 was launched on July 23, 1972, and was the first unmanned satellite designed
solely to acquire earth resources data on a systematic, repetitive, multispectral basis. Just before the
launch of the second ERTS satellite, NASA announced it was changing the program designation to
LANDSAT, and that the data acquired through the LANDSAT program would be complemented by
the planned SEASAT oceanographic observation satellite program. ERTS-1 was retroactively named
LANDSAT-1, and all subsequent satellites in the program have carried the LANDSAT designation.
Over time, the sensors carried by the LANDSAT satellites have varied as technologies improved and
certain types of data proved more useful than others. The table which follows outlines the sensors
onboard each satellite, their launch dates, and the dates they were decommissioned.
Table 1
The various Landsats have had Multispectral Scanners (MSS) , Return Beam Vidicon (RBV)
scanners, and Thematic Mapper (TM) scanners. Each type has its own spectral range and spatial
resolution.
The images discussed in this section are the property of the University of California, Santa Barbara.
Click here to get to the Center for Ecological Health Research Home Page, then click on the image
indicated below, then back up to this page with the image still visible to read the discussion that
pertains to the image. Detailed explanations of the images will be added soon.
Click on the first image, labeled "California". This is a false color image that has been processed by
computer.
Now, close the image of California and return to the CEHR Home Page. Click on the third image,
labeled "San Francisco Bay Delta, Northern California". more to come
SPOT
NOAA AVHRR
NOAA GOES mission overview and history. The GOES graphic was prepared by the
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, which provides additional information about the GOES
project.
The first visible GOES-8 image. Look carefully and you can make out Baja California on
the lower left and Lake Michigan on the upper right.
Further Reading
Bauer, M.E., T.E. Burk, A.R. Ek, P.R. Coppin, S.D. Lime, T.A. Walsh, D.K. Walters, W.
Befort, and D.F. Heinzen. Satellite Inventory of Minnesota Forest Resources.
Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, in press.
Thermal infrared radiation refers to electromagnetic waves with a wavelength of between 3.5
and 20 micrometers. Most remote sensing applications make use of the 8 to 13 micrometer
range. The main difference between THERMAL infrared and the infrared discussed above is
that thermal infrared is emitted energy, whereas the near infrared (photographic infrared) is
reflected energy.
Multispectral Scanning
There are some limitations of thermal imagery you should be aware of if you plan to use it in
your GIS:
It is very expensive.
Most thermal imaging systems have very strict operational parameters. For example, the detector
must be kept extremely cold during use.
Thermal infrared imaging systems are notoriously difficult to calibrate.
The data collected has extensive processing requirements. A PC isn't going to cut it.
Thermal images can be quite difficult to interpret when compared with other types of imagery.
Thermal imagery is NOT geometrically correct.
Thermal images of water measure only the very top layer of the water. They tell you nothing of the
water's characteristics below the top few micrometers.
FLIR systems
Imaging Spectrometry
SLAR
LIDAR
ERS Program
Radar Images
The following radar images come from sites all over the world. The files at NASA's Jet Propulsion
Laboratory have explanations accompanying the images.
Spaceborne Synthetic Aperture Radar, Oetxal, Austria. This file was created by NASA's
Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, CA.
Remote Sensing and GIS
To sum up, remotely sensed images have a number of features which make them ideal GIS data
sources.
Gis (Geographic Information System) is a system of hardware and software used for storage,
retrieval, mapping and analysis of geographic data. Where as remote sensing is the science of
obtaining information from a remote platform. Thus gis remote sensing is integrated. To
understand gis remote sensing integration, first we should know what is gis. Gis differs from
other computer application program in the sense that it can only produce geo-referenced map
with reliable spatial data as well as attribute data. in gis softwares we can produce 'topology'
which depicts the interrelation between spatial objects. Most well known softwares used in
gis are -
• autocad
From raw raster data or map we produce vector data which is represented in the form of
various forms of maps and diagrams. There are three fundamental concepts that a gis have.
These are -
• point (for showing point features like post office, fire stations etc)
• line (for showing linear features like road, railways etc)
The most common source for collecting gis data includes -
• aerial photography – photographs are taken from aerial platforms with automatically
shuttered camera after a specific time interval.
• ground survey – it includes GPS survey as well as other methods of survey.
• scanned images – soft copy images are scanned as input to use in gis.
In the first two sources gis remote sensing relation lies. As aerial photography and satellite
images are two major sources of remote sensing data. In todays topic gis remote sensing, our
work is to emphasize on gis remote sensing integration in the context of satellite imagery. Or
it can be said gis remote sensing relation on the basis of satellite imagery. Remote sensing
data need to be rectified before it can be used in gis. As those data contains some error due to
-
• Pre-processing – it removes the geometric as well as radiometric errors fro image.
• Image enhancement – it includes the improvement of image quality for a better visual
representation.
• Analysis – it includes the generation of spatial and attribute information on the area of
interest.
After those all aforesaid techniques a remote sensing data can directly be used in gis. Thus
gis remote sensing relationship becomes possible. Some fields where gis remote sensing are
used vigorously are -
• ocean color study and also many other many fields
Some most common satellite that are used for remote sensing to use in gis to sustain a gis
remote sensing relation are -
• LANSAT
• IKONOS
• Cartosat
After all these taken techniques remote sensing data is used in gis for producing maps. Thus
we may say that gis remote sensing integration becomes possible. Some vectorized data
using remote sensing softwares also used in gis. With new technical era gis remote sensing
integration becomes a obvious part of todays study.
Benefits from merging of GIS and remote sensing technologies are well recognized. On one side, GIS
can be use for improving the information extraction potential of remotely sensed data. On the other
side, remotely sensed data can be used for updating GIS information. For the context of this study, a
brief review about the uses of remotely sensed data is limited to their roles in updating GIS
information only.
Remote sensing and image processing are powerful tools for many research and application areas.
Remote Sensing may define as the process of deriving information by means of systems that are not
indirect contact with the objects or phenomena of interest. Image processing specifically refers to
manipulating the raw data produced by remote sensing systems.
Remote sensing often requires other kind of ancillary data to achieve both its greatest value and the
highest levels of accuracy as a data and information production technology. Geographic information
systems can provide this capability. They permit the integration of datasets acquired from library;
laboratory and field work with remote sensed data. On the other hand, applications of GIS are heavily
dependent on either the timeliness or currency of the data they contain, as well as the geographic
coverage of the database. For a variety of applications of remote sensing, while only one source of
potential input to a GIS, can be valuable. Remote sensing can provide timely data at scales appropriate
to a variety of applications. As such, many researchers feel that the use of geographic information
systems and remote sensing can lead to important advances in research and operational applications.
Merging these two technologies can result in a tremendous increase in information for many kinds of
users (Star and Estes, 1990).
Remotely sensed data is almost always processed and stored in raster data structures. When working
simultaneously with an image processing systems and a raster geographic information system, it is
usually easy to move data between the two. Typically, a single theme of information is extracted from
the remotely sensed data. Once the remotely sensed data has been converted to a desired data type,
transferring this data to a raster GIS is relatively simple. Header and trailer records of files may need
to modify during the conversion process, but converting between different raster data structures, most
operational image processing and raster geographic information systems provide mechanisms to read
and write them.