DRUG ABUSE IN NIGERIA

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION OF THE STUDY

1. The genesis of illicit drug consumption in Nigeria and other African countries could

be traced to the age of antiquity. Now illicit drugs are used almost exclusively by

young people throughout the world Nigeria is no exception. The production of

illicit drugs and its trafficking contribute to the world drug problem.

The drug problem has enticed, captivated and in the absence of serious effective

control and prevention polices, will ultimately destroy people from all works of

life. The growing drug menace has invaded homes, the work place and educational

institutions affecting individuals of all ages and classes (Navatnam and Vemala

1996:135).

The drug scourge is one of the more serious social problems in Nigeria. The

current drug problem is not perceived as purely a social malaise but as a

community problem with the potential for becoming a national threat if not

controlled.

The spread of corruption, violence and terrorism that is linked to illicit drug

trafficking undermines the very security and political stability of nations. (Othman

1996:135).
 The Vulnerable age group for drug addiction are those between the ages 15-29

years. The addict profile shows that 36.5 percent are between the ages of 20-24

years, 26.8 percent between the ages of 25-29 years and 12-2 from 15-19 years

(Othman 1996:136).

Drugs commonly used in Nigeria are Indian Hemp, Heroine and cocaine. Drug

abuse in Nigeria is not a recent phenomenon. Its history is closely associated with

the early economic development of the country.

Drugs are used for different purpose in society. The most common use of drugs is

for medical purpose. Drugs could be used for religious purpose. For instance,

Native Americans used myriad of psychotropic substance for spiritual

enlightenment. Drugs can also be used a tool to enhance life, e.g caffeine. In other

word’s drugs can save lives, alleviate pains and physical suffering and other useful

purposes in the society. But it is when drugs are used irresponsibly by people that

it become criminalized and defined as illegal.

11. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

According to United Nations Development Programme (1997:83) a significant

minority of young people experiment with illicit drugs a phase of rebellion or as

part of a process of seeking identity and independence. Because of their inability to

asses the affects of their behavior, this may make them more vulnerable to
 dependence. Besides, the earlier the use of drugs in one’s life, the more likely such

an individual will take other types of drugs and will consume them more

frequently.

In Nigeria, available information from National Drug Law Enforcements Agency

(NDLEA) reveals that the use and presumed effect of drugs on individuals and

society have aroused a great deal of concern in Nigeria. Production, sales and illicit

use of drugs occupy the centre stage among the list of contemporary social

problems in Nigeria.

1.2 DRUGS COMMONLY ABUSED IN NIGERIA

This section focused on drugs commonly abuse by young people in Nigeria. The

types of drugs abuse include: ganja, heroine, and cocaine.

1.2.1 INDIAN HEMP (GANJA)

Ganja tars contains more than 150 hydrocarbon, including chemicals which caused

cancer (carcinogens). In the U.S.A, ganja/Marijuana are often used with PCP, LCD

or other chemical substances. To enhance profits, ganja is mixed with herbs and

dried cow pats (Anti Narcotics Task Force 1992:32,34).

Indian hemp is from the plant cannabis sativa. It is called Igbo, Marijuana, ganja,

we-we. It can cause the following: Lung disease such as cancer, chest pain,
bronchitis, destroys testes in men, increased apatiry, mental problems which

degenerate to full blown madness, increased heart beat and blood pressure and

affects the immune response of the body to infections eg - increasing the risk of

developing full-blown AIDs.

1.2.2 HEROIN

Heroin base is diacetyl morphine which is then mixed with caffeine, strychine,

quinine and scopolamine to make heroin No 3. In Malaysia heroin No.3 is also

known as Fit, Fun Cik Putih, Barang and Penang pink because of its colour (Anti-

Narcotics 1992:12). Heroin is the most destructive, having an intensely bitter taste.

It produces an intense amphora making it the most popularly abused narcotic.

Heroin is synthesized for morphine, and grain for grain. It is up 10 times more

potent in its pharmacological effects-pure heroin is “cut” or diluted by the

trafficker with substance like milk, sugar or quinine (U.S. Department of Justice

1986:12).

Heroin is very addictive and usually results on continuous or persistent craving for

the drug. An attempt to stop it leads to significant and painful withdrawal

symptoms. The effects include the following: can cause abscess at the site of

injection, overdose can lead to death, for women who use heroin during pregnancy

it can cause heart disease, hepatitis, pneumonia, miscarriages, malnutrition because

it suppresses hunger, and can lead to HIV infection because exchange of needles

and syringes.

1.2.3 COCAINE

Cocaine is highly addictive and can kill. It is a very strong stimulant to the CNS

including the brain and can cause colossal damage to the body such as: Heart

attack, restlessness, irritability and anxiety, nastal congestion, running nose, weight

loss and impotence.

1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Studies have shown that prevalence of substance abuse among prison inmates has a

higher magnitude. Nigeria is a country in West Africa. It shaves borders with the

Republic of Benin in the West. Cameroon in the East and linked to gulf of guinea

in the South and Lake Chad in the north east axis.

Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa. Its heterogeneity accounts for large

scale unemployment and high crime rate especially in drug related issues.

The National Agency for food and Drug Administration and control (NAFDAC)

was established in 1993 to regulate and control the importation, exportation,

manufactures, sale and use of food, pharmaceutical drugs, cosmetics or medical

devices, bottle, sachet water, chemicals etc. By this act no drug products, cosmetics
or medical devices shall be manufactured, imported, exported, advertised, sold or

distributed in Nigeria unless it has been registered in accordance with the provision

of the regulations made under the act.

1.4 DEFINITION OF DRUG/ABUSE

The world health organization in a world drug report (1997:10) defines drugs as

“all psychoactive substances when taken into a living organism, may modify it

perception, mood and cognition behavior”.

A drug is any substance other than food and water which due to its chemical

components, which when taken into the body alters the structure and function of

the body (Fishbain 1996, Kendall 2001).

Drug Abuse refers to the use of illicit drugs in ways that deviate from the norms of

its usage in a group or society. And its usage is harmful or excessive. This pattern

of using is usually identified on the basis of quantity taken, frequency of use and

the context or social situation in which the drug is taken (National Institution on

Drug Abuse 1991).

The American psychotic Association defines drug abuse as continued use of

psychoactive substance despite knowledge of having a persistent or recurrent

social occupational, psychological or physical problem that is caused by deliberate

use of this substance.

From a legal dimension, drug abuse refers to any use of illicit drugs such as Indian

hemp, cocaine, heroin etc. it also refers to the use of an illicit drug by those

prohibited by the norms of a group or society. For example, children of certain age

are not allowed to drink alcohol, smoke cigarettes, etc.

1.5 FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH DRUG ADDICTION

Most of the proponents of the causes of drug addiction have emphasized several

factors that could lead to drug addiction. The reasons why people turn to narcotics

are as varied as the types of people who abuse them. However, whatever the

causes, the important fact is that the abuse of drugs for non-medical reasons is

wrong and harmful to the body (Goode 1989:54).

Macdonald (1989:87), suggested some factors that are associated with drug

addiction among young people. These factors include: peer influence, low self

esteem, and a feeling of loneliness.

Peer pressure

Peer influence objectively and observable influence drug use. “The single main

determinant of whatever a young person uses marijuana is whether or not his

friends use it. Peer pressure is a strong force indeed. It is felt by all ages, but by the

adolescent most of all. An individual who is looking for his own identity most
often finds it in establishing his position within a peer group. However, strong peer

pressure may either encourage or discourage drug use.

Low self-esteem

Low self-esteem is a by-product of progressive drug use in the developing child.

Drug use produces low self-esteem, and low self-esteem promotes drug use.

Macdonald in his study as cited above found that pre-existing poor-image was

identified in almost all the adolescents who went on to dangerous drug use pattern.

Self-esteem is not static. It varies in all of us from day to day, and we all

susceptible to inappropriate behavior.

Feeling of loneliness

Loneliness was also typical of the children who were susceptible to drug

problems. There is a basic human need to belong, some individuals do not feel they

belong or are needed in their families. For a child to feel himself a full family

member, he must participate in the work of the family. Children who have no

responsibility to their schools, churches and country are not likely to have school

spirit, church spirit or patriotism. Hence, they may involve in negative behavior.

Gossop and Grant (1990:31), in their research on drug dependence, have suggested

a number of factors as the causes of drug dependence. Such factors include self
medication, family disruption, predisposition, personality/psychological factors,

availability, social and economic factors, urbanization and unemployment.

Self- Medication

A number of drug related problems originate in this way. People decide to use

certain drugs when they have health problems or when recommended by a doctor.

At times these drugs are taken unintentionally or accidentally. Most often, people

use drugs wrongly thinking that it would solve a particular problem. For example,

a peasant in Thailand may use opium because he has no remedy for cough and

diarrhea. Also a young mother in an area uses and later abuses sedatives and minor

tranquilizers, because she is mildly depressed and mildly distressed, a condition

that has no exact psychiatric label (Gossop and Grant 1990:31).

Family Disruption

According to Gossop and Grant (1990) drug addiction has been attributed to

certain types of family background. Most children from a family background that

lacked morals and values may end up as misfits in the society. They lacked

positive values that enable them to reject the opportunity to experiment with drugs.

As they continue to experiment with drugs, they may eventually become addicted

to such drugs.

Genetic Predisposition
Gossop and Grant (1990:32) suggested that drug abuse may be related to some

with some genetic predisposition. Individual who abuse drugs may have some

genetic problem probably inherited from their parents. But they also pointed out

that it could be unreasonable to assert that all drug users have personality

disorders.

Availability

Gossop and Grant (1990:32) maintained that a number of individual use and abuse

psychoactive substances because of their availability. The more rampant the

circulation of such substances, the higher its rate of abuse.

Social and economic factors

Social scientist have interpreted drug abuse as a partly a response to ‘alienation’ or

‘anomie’. People who are not well rewarded in the mainstream of society opt out

and seek alternative gratification such as drugs. More generally, such theories

suggest that, even if drugs are not a response to educational failure or economic

deprivation, it may be engendered by other social pressures and changes. There can

be no doubt that in societies and sections of society where the ordinary social

fabric has been disrupted by poverty, migration or rapid socioeconomic change,

drug problems flourish (Gossop and Grant 1990:33).

Urbanization and Unemployment

In many parts of the world, people migrate from rural to urban areas for a better

living. As people are separate from their family members, they encounter certain

difficulties such as loneliness, unemployment and even difficulty resulting from

the nature of the city life. Many problems associated with creating a new life-style

can lead individuals to turn to drugs (Gossop and Grant 1990:33).

In its report on prevention and reduction of illicit demand of drugs, the United

Nations, U.N. (1989:16) has listed a number of factors that could lead to drug

addiction. It points out that use of drugs for non-medical reasons is wrong and

harmful to the individual. Some of the more obvious contributing factors as

suggested by the U.N are outlined below:

Peer pressure

The impact of pressure on an individual depends on the quality of the group. A

peer group may have a positive or negative impact on the individual. At times,

peers may adopt a conventional or unconventional ways of behavior. It is

unconventional behavior that could led them to experiment with drugs. Those that

have experimented with may convince others to join in their habit as a way of

seeking acceptance (United Nations 1989:16).

Ignorance
People may be misinformed about the dangers of illegal drugs due to the limited

information available. Hence individuals who experiment with these drugs have

little knowledge about their adverse effects (United nations 1989:17).

Alienation

Naturally, human beings need love, belongingness and recognition in society.

When these are lacking, an individual may feel isolated and may take steps to find

a group where he will belong. Unfortunately, this group may be composed of

isolated people who turn to dugs (United Nations 1989:17).

Urbanization and Unemployment

In many parts of the world, people migrate from rural to urban areas for a better

living. As people are separated from their family members, they encounter certain

difficulties such as loneliness, unemployment and even difficulties resulting from

the nature city life. Many problems associated with creating a new life-style can

lead individuals to turn to drugs (United nations 1989:17).

Changing Social Structures

When there is a disturbing deterioration or shift in the social fabric in the society,

deviation from social values in the society could lead to an increase in drug abuse.

A change in the social structure will effect the change of the components parts.
Individual who are unable to adjust may begin to change and they may refuge in

drugs (United Nations 1989:18).

1.6 EFFECTS/CONSEQUENCES OF DRUG ADDICTION

The effect of drug dependence on individuals depends on the type of drug, dosage,

route of administration (whether it is swallowed, injected, sniffed, smoked or used

with other types of drugs), length and frequency of use, individual variation (age,

tolerance, previous experience with drugs), and social situation during use. These

different methods of getting drugs into the body have important implications for

drug effect, risk of dependence and risks to health. For example, a substance that is

eaten produces effects that are far less rapid in onset and less intensive than when

the same drug is injected. Nevertheless, some smoked drugs produce the same

rapid impact on the brain as intravenous injection. (Anti Narcotic Task 1992:17).

Some drugs are harder than others. The harder drugs will have more drastic effects

than the softer ones on the addicts. The volume (dosage) of drug consumption is

another determinant factor. Higher volume certainly produces stronger effects than

mild application. Heroin a highly addictive agent has debilitating effects on

physiologic functioning (Gullotta 1995:169).

Dangerous drugs have some implication in the body system. Among the major

psychological disorders that can affect the adolescents are anxiety disorders, mood
disorders, eating disorders, personality disorders, and schizophrenia (Muisener

1994:205).

Nowlis (1975:26) asserted that the side effects of drugs used illegally are often

critically important and may include common effects as drowsiness, distractibility,

irritability, temporary laps of memory and more rarely, hallucinations, intoxication

and hyperexcitability.

According to Jones and Curtis (1979:33), abusive dosages of narcotics have

several effects on the drug addicts. Long-term addicts tend to be pale and

emaciated and they suffer from sever constipation. Their appetites are poor, and

they show little or no interest in sex. Some of them steal in order to maintain their

habit.

Some research on the drug problem has shown that effects of drug dependence on

the individual is related to the nature of mood-modifying, the quantity used and the

emotional, social environmental characteristics of the individual. Drugs exerts a

powerful influence on the user’s emotions and mental capacity. Those that take

drugs forget themselves and their world. They drown in disillusionment. In

addition, drugs also disturb one’s peace of mind and destroy one’s well being and

family harmony (Anti Narcotic Task Force 1992:127).

According to Dzulkifli, the editor of the Professional Bulletin of Nation Poison

Centre Malaysia (1996:22), the initial effects of narcotic are often unpleasant. This

leads many to conclude that those who persist in their illicit use may have latent

personality disturbances. Narcotics tend to induce pinpoint pupils, reduce vision

and cause drowsiness, apathy decreased physical activity and constipation.

O’ Donnel and Clayton (1966:60) assert that drug addiction contributes to an

increase in crime. This is mainly because it ends to perpetuate petty criminal

careers which otherwise would have been transient stages ending with adolescence.

The impact of drug addiction among drug dependents could be seen in their

behavioral pattern. Most drug addicts distance themselves from society. They

prefer to communicate only among other addicts. They feel nonchalant in their

work or studies. Physically they incur loss of weight and energy. They may have

problems of sexual disability, fainting spells, mood changes and stomach pains and

may even die due to overdose. They may have a low immune system, thereby

making them more susceptible to diseases like fits and seizures, importance and

others ( Anti Narcotic 1992:49).

Gossop and Grant (1990:9-10) have suggested some behavioural and social

problems associated with drug addiction. Some of these problems are: suicide,

absenteeism and delinquency.

Suicide

The authors emphasized that the risk of suicide is increased in all forms of drug

dependence except tobacco smoking. The suicide rates in alcoholics and tobacco

smoking are less striking with other forms of drug dependence, including teenage

suicide in association with solvent sniffing.

Delinquency

Substance abuse is usually correlated with high rates of delinquency. The

organized crime associated with the use of illegal drugs has been identify in some

countries. For instance, multiple drug users in Switzerland show a sharp increase in

delinquency after the onset of abuse (Gossop and Grant 1990:10).

Social problems

Gossop and Grant (1990) emphasized that there are some social problems

associated with abuse of drugs. The most dangerous in this respect are those with

highest dependence liability, namely heroin and cocaine. There are some

personality changes produced by these drugs which affect the abusers themselves.

Some of these drug abusers lack initiative and at times they may steal in order to

purchase these drugs.

The widespread abuse of drugs has become a human tragedy. A good number of

intravenous users are AIDS victims. A much higher percentage are regular users of
variety of illicit drugs such as marijuana and cocaine, which are known to suppress

the user’s immune system (United Nations 1989:19).

1.7 DEFINITION OF YOUTH (YOUNG PEOPLE)

The Collins dictionary defines “youth” as the quality of being young. These are

young adults within the period of maturation and full adults. Casson (1979:2)

defined youth as the age group fourteen to twenty-four inclusive, with a further

distinction between teenagers that is, those aged fourteen to nineteen inclusive, and

young adult, aged twenty to twenty-four.

Donald (1989:1) defined youth as those individuals within adult maturation

development, and between 15-24 year age. Kuczynski (1988) defined youth as all

young people within the period of physical maturation, often up to the age of 30.

The United Nations on Narcotic addition (1989:41) defined youth as young adults

between the age of 18 and 30.

The Anti Narcotic task Force (1992:76), emphasized that a preponderant number

of drug abusers are youths within the age group 15-30 years. For this study, the

researcher choose youths within the age of 18 and 27 because the majority of the

current youth research focuses on this range.

1.8 DRUG ADDICTION AMONG YOUNG PEOPLE

The worst aspect of drug problem is that it makes its deepest impression on those

who are vulnerable – Youth. The use of drugs has strong appeal to those beginning

their struggle for independence (from teenagers to young adulthood) as they search

for self identity.

The drug addiction profile in Malaysia indicates that a major proportion of the

addicts fall within 15-25 year age group. A substantial of them are youths who are

still schooling in either government or private schools, or institutions of higher

learning, they may have been motivated towards drug abuse for the following

reasons: pleasure, curiosity, peer influence, to heighten sexual pleasure,

medication, accidental and to overcome mental stress (Anti Narcotic Task Force

1992:48).

However, there is evidence that addiction amongst school children is very limited.

The Former State Director of Narcotics Agency, Hilal (The Star, 5 th May 1999:14),

said that in 1998 16 new drug users were identified out of 270,000 students in

Penang schools. In 1997, 14 new drug users were identified. He said these students

were not hard-core addicts but were just “starting to experiment with drugs”. He

also said that in 1998, out of 4.5 million students (Primary and secondary) in the

country, only about 300 were identified as drug users.

According to Prof. Dora Akunyili drug abuse among youth is increasing and they

go unto it the to various reasons, including ignorance and peer pressure.

1.9 AIM OF THE RESEARCH

The main aim of this study is to investigate the source of availability drug among

prison inmates. And as well discover their non-resistance to drug while serving

terms as a punitive measure.

1.10 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The study will attempt to answer the following research questions.

How do the prison unmated get assess drugs?

Why are they still using drugs ever when they are in prisons.

1.11. IMPORTANCE/JUSTICATION OF THE STUDY

This study is indispensible because it focuses on young people who are the future

hope of the society. Youths are the future leaders of tomorrow; if a substantial of

them is addicted the society has lost contributing citizens and has acquired a

crippling social burden. Winston Churchill once said that, “the future of the world

is in the hands of disciplined people not undisciplined people” (Churchill 1999:

20).
Drug taking is dangerous and extremely socially evil. Besides, those that died from

the action of drug users and those sent to jail or executed as a result of their

criminal actions have grave implication for families and society at large. The

young people are supposed to build the nations and should not be lying in drug

rehabilitation centers or roaming the streets where they are useless to themselves

and the nations: the future, the pride and tomorrow of our nation depends on our

youth.

1.12 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The study will be restricted to Anambra and Enugu state. However these states

have a large number of drug related crimes.

CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

2.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter begins with further literature review on the study. It discusses the

review of theories and focus mainly on the sociological theories. A theoretical

model was propounded based on the theories reviewed.

2.1 THEORIES OF DRUG USE AND ABUSE

Many explanation have been proposed for drug use and abuse. Each focuses on a

different range of factors as in determining why people use and abuse psychoactive

substances. Before examining these theories, it might be useful to mention that the

most widely accepted approach to drug use and abuse, not exactly a theory but a

way of looking at the phenomenon, is called the medical or pathological model. Its

basic assumption is that non medical drug use is very much like a disease- a

malfunction, an abnormality, a pathology (Young 1971:49). Based on this study,

the researcher will focus mainly on sociological theories. While biological,

psychological and transitional theories will help to provide background

information for the study.

2.1.1 Biological Theory

This theory postulates that some combination of genes in certain individuals

compel them to experiment with drugs and abuse these drugs. According to
Schuckit (1980), this “genetic loading” in combination with environmental and

personality factors make a significantly higher level of drug abuse in certain

individuals or group in the population.

Dole and Nyswander (1980:256) argued that metabolic imbalance is the causal

factor of narcotic addition. According to them,

Heroin addicts suffer from a metabolic disease or disorder, much like diabetes,
Repeated does of a narcotic complete their metabolic cycle, narcotics act as a
stabilizer, normalizing an existing deficiency. The narcotic abuser can never
withdrawn from drug use because his or her body will continue to crave opiates.
Here it is enough to know that hormonal imbalance has been proposed as a
factor influencing drug abuse in certain individuals, even though its existence
has never been established empirically. The only evidence supporting it is that
some addicts behave as if they suffer from a metabolic (Dole and Nyswander
1980:256).
2.1.2 Psychological Theories

The psychological theories of drug use rely on the notion of psychological

pathology, defect or inadequacy: there is something wrong in the emotional or

psychic life of certain individuals.

Wurmser (1980:71-72) suggests that individuals who experiment with drugs have

some emotional problems. There is something wrong with them that makes drugs

attractive to them. These individuals think that drugs will enable them to cope with

societal or life’s problems. Thus the problems never get solved, but covered up.

Hence drug us itself generates more serious problems.

This theory emphasized that the more inadequate the personality, the greater

likelihood of becoming highly involved with drug use, and the more the use

becomes abuse and eventually addiction. The theories also suggest that individuals

with low esteem have quick response to drug use and abuse (Wurmser 1980).

Further psychological theory emphasizes the mechanism of reinforcement.

According to this theory there are different types of reinforcement – positive

reinforcement and negative reinforcement. According to McAuliffe and Gordon

(1980:137), the continued use of drugs that stimulate euphoria is caused by their

extreme potent reinforcing effects. Negative reinforcement occurs when an

individual does something to seek relief or to avoid pain, thereby being rewarded –

and hence motivated to do whatever it was that achieved relief or alleviated the

pain.

McAuliffe and Gordon (1980:137), argued that while positive reinforcement can

occur with any euphoric drug indeed, with any pleasurable sensation, the theory

emphasizing the mechanism of negative reinforcement as a major factor in drug

abuse is largely confined to drugs that produce physical dependence.

2.1.3 Sociological Theories

While the biological and psychological theories lay emphasis on the characteristics

of the individuals, sociological theorists deal with the situations,, social relations or
social structures in which individuals is or has been located. Within this

sociological context, three sub sociological theories have been propounded to

explain drug use: (1) social learning theory, (2) subculture, (3) selective

interaction/ socialization.

2.1.3.1 Social learning Theory

The social learning theory was propounded by (Bandura and Walters 1963). This

theory stipulates that parents are responsible in bringing up psychological healthy

children.

This theory argues that primary socialization starts from home or family where

children are taught positive values. therefore parents should be a good model in

order for them to acquire these positive values.

It is believed that children who have a good moral background at home could

negate negative peer pressure and are much less likely to fall to them. They would

be able to say ‘no’ to drugs when friends persuade them to experiment with drugs.

However, in the absence of positive influences in the family, adolescents become

more susceptible to peer pressure (bandura and Walters 1963).

2.1.3.2 Subcultural Theory

The main idea behind the subcultural theory is that involvement in a particular

social group that uses drugs will encourage one’s use. But a group with negative

attitudes towards drug use tends to discourage such use. An individual experiences

the drug subculture participation in a specific social group. For example, if a

person is or whishes to become a member of a group that smokes marijuana, that

person will be expected to sue marijuana. The persons will be expected to abide by

the group norms. It is pertinent to note that it is only the drug or drugs of choice

that are used distinguished subcultures from one another. Some individuals are

members of two or more subcultures, and thus what happens to him or her affects

the other members (Johnson 1973:10).

This theory suggest that an individual involvement in drugs or not is dependent on

the subculture he or she belongs and the attitude of this subculture towards drug.

Marijiuana users from a kind of sub community. This does not mean that a

powerful bond of identity holds all users together in a closely-knit social group.

But it does mean users are more likely to identify and interact with other users than

with someone who does not smoke marijuana (Goode 1969:50). The more that an

individual smokes marijuana, the greater the probability of his being involved in

the subculture. The more that he smokes, the more extensive and intense are his
social bonds and activities among smokers and weaker are his social bonds and

activities among non-smokers.

Probably, the most effective argument against the use of marijuana has inhered in

the fact that it ‘it leads to’ the use of truly dangerous drugs, particularly heroin.

This is the classic position of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics, now Bureau of

narcotics and Dangerous Drugs (Goode 1969:50).

2.1.3.3 Selective Interaction/Socialization

The term ‘selective interaction’ refers to the fact that potential drug users do not

randomly fall into social circles of user; they are attracted to certain individuals

and circles (subcultural groups) because their own values and activities are

compatible with those current users. There is a dynamic element in use: even

before someone uses a drug for the first time, he or she is prepared to socialized

with those of drug subculture. As a result, one choose friends who shares these

values, and who are likely to be attracted to use and to current users.

2.1.4 Transition theories

Glantz and Pickens (1991:9) state that “in general drug use appears to be more a

function of social and peer factors, whereas abuse appears to be more a function of

biological processes”. Also it could be noted that peer and community influences

play an important role in transition from use to abuse. An adolescent’s transition

from use to abuse of any drug may be conceived of resulting from interaction

among three factors: Firstly, genetic or biological predisposition; secondly, use of

drugs becomes a central element in the user’s life; third, the user’s identification

with the addict role and fear of withdrawal.

Abusers persist in drug taking despite negative consequences because drugs have

become part of the abusers life style. According to Holland and Skinner (1961:70)

“the adolescents abuser goes to school under the influence of drugs, plays sports

under the influence, socializes under the influence, works under the influence and

so forth and discontinuing drug taking would disrupt the abuser’s entire life”.

Given an opportunity to sue drugs, abusers of drugs commonly begin by

experimenting. Drug abuse through experimentation depends on the nature of the

drug. Hence’ regular users are more likely to progress to the use of dangerous

drugs such as heroin than the infrequent or episodic user. In addition, the more one

experiments with marijuana, and the earlier in life, the greater the likelihood of

becoming seriously involved with dangerous drugs (Goode 1989:155). However,

soft drugs are the less addictive drugs.

Besides, the main concern of the researcher in this transition is why some

individuals progress from the use of cigarettes to marijuana and finally to heroin,

while some stop at the first or second stage without dependency. Two schools of
thought have suggested certain explanations for this. The first is ‘intrinsic school’

and the second is the ‘sociological school’.

The proponents of the ‘intrinsic school’ (Jones 1974;236-237) argues that there is

something inherent in marijuana use itself – from the experience of getting high on

the drug to the pharmacology and physiology of use that leads to the use of and

dependency on more dangerous drugs. According to this theorist, the causal

mechanism here lies within the drug itself-or, more properly, within the interaction

between marijuana and the human body. He argues that the relationship between

marijuana and the use of dangerous drugs is a constant, and occurs in all social

categories at a more or less uniform rate. A given number of marijuana smokers

translates into another specific number of heroin addicts after a given period of

time – a smaller number, naturally, to take account of exceptions, dropouts, the use

of substances which might be substituted for either – alcohol, and so on.

The ‘sociological’ argument holds that the progression from marijuana to other

drugs takes place when it does, not because of the physiological action of the drugs

itself, but because of the activities, friends and acquaintances the user is involved

with during the course of use. Users tend to make friends who have attitude

towards drug use that are more favourable than those of the non users; the more

one uses marijuana, the higher the proportion of one’s friends who use not only

marijuana but other drugs as well, the more positive their attitudes towards use are
likely to be, and the more opportunities they will offer to experiment with other

drugs as well.

However, two sociologists (O’Donnell and Clayton 1982) decided to test the

validity of the ‘intrinsic’ school: they claim that their evidence shows that

marijuana is the cause of heroin addiction in United States. They make their claim

on the bases of a rule that dictates that if (1) two variables are statistically

associated (2) one variable is prior to the other at the relevant time, and (3) he

association does not disappear when the effect of third is removed, then the

relationship between this variables is causal in nature.

The metaphor used by the ‘intrinsic school’ is that of a conveyor belt. Heroin

addiction, and the heavy, dependent of use of all dangerous drugs, is seen as a later

stage of a process that begins with experimental marijuana use. If marijuana use is

halted, slowed down or diminished, fewer users of hard drugs will be produced at

the other end.

2.2 RESEARCH ON THE CAUSE OF DRUG ADDICTION AMONG

YOUTHS

Goode (1989:74) argued that there is a strong correlation between use of marijuana

by one’s friend and the frequency with which one used the drug. He arrived at a

conclusion that selective peer group interaction an socialization comprised the

probability the most single factor related to drug use among adolescents imitation

and social influence play a significant role in initiating and maintaining drug use

among teenagers.

Layman (1999) conducted a study to ascertain whether young people drug users in

custody in the Northern region of the state Missouri perceived the reasons for the

use of drugs as resulting from peer influence or from another variable such as

euphoria effects of drugs themselves. The findings indicate that although peer

pressure plays a role in the causation and continuation of drug abuse by youths,

there exists a strong desire to experience the euphoria effects of drugs as well.

Studies have reported that the initiation, use maintenance, use rates, use frequency,

and prevalence among adolescents are related to society’s attitudes, cultural

background race, ethnicity, and other social variables (Ellickson & Bell, 1990,;

martin & Pritchard, 1991).

Studying drug use in a college setting, Johnson (1973:10) made use of both

subcultural and socialization models. He demonstrated that use occurs because

adolescents are socialized into progressively more unconventional groups. He

stated that the more adolescents are isolated and alienated from the parental

subculture, the greater the likelihood that they will experiment with and use a

variety of different drugs. Johnson’s study found that if one has marijuana-suing
friends, one tend to use marijuana. His study asserts that adolescents are socialized

by a number of different “agents”. Socialization theorists locate four main agents

of socialization: parents, peers, school and media. The parental influence on drug

use of teenagers is small but significant.

Johnson (1973) also demonstrated that adolescents who are strongly attached to,

influenced by, and committed to the parent subculture tend to adhere more closely

to its values and follows its norms of conduct. As a consequence, they are more

likely to abstain from the drugs than teenagers who are isolated from their parents

and are involved with peers who favour more unconventional norms. In the latter

situation, adolescents are likely to accept certain forms of recreational drug use,

especially marijuana smoking. Kandel supported this view.

Adolescents vary with respect to a range of individual and social background

characteristics. Likewise, adolescents social gatherings or groups have different
and varying characteristics. Some are more compatible with a given adolescents’
own traits; some are so less so. As a general rule people of all ages, adolescents
include tend to gravitate to groups whose characteristics are compatible with or
similar to their own, and to avoid those that are incompatible or dissimilar.
However, in early adolescents, young people tend to be “drifters” – That is, their
early drug use or nonuse is dependent mainly on accidental, situational factors
(Kandel 1980:127).
2.3 ETHNIC DIFFERENCES IN DRUGS ABUSE

In a review of research on African American rural youth and white rural youth, the

findings indicate that American rural adolescent youths had less knowledge about

drugs than did the white rural youth (Dawkins 1980, in harper 1988).

Again, in a large adolescent study by McIntosh et al. (1979) reported that urban

and rural African American females had the lowest overall drug use rates of all

sub-groups. However, their use of hallucinogens, heroin, cocaine and solvents

equaled or exceeded all other subgroups.

Chavez et al. (1986), reporting on a Hispanic and Anglo sample in a Southwestern

community, found higher use of rates of alcohol, uppers, tranquilizers, and heroin

than a national sample. Among Hispanics there was higher reported “ever tried”

for cigarettes, marijuana, stay-awaka pills, tranquilizers, and PCP. Hispanic

females reported higher rates for alcohol, cigarettes, uppers, and diet pills than all

other groups.

Mata and Andrew (1988) examined inhalant use among a rural Anglo and Mexican

American sample from 6th to 12th grades. The Mexican American students were

more likely to have used inhalants than the Anglo in their sample.
2.4 A THEORETICAL MODEL

The model was developed form the theories of drug addition reviewed in this

chapter. It presents a picture of the stages that drug users may go through, and the

factors that may influence the transition between stages, both positive and

negative. (See Figure 2.1).

It is not the intention of the researcher to undertake a quantitative testing of the

theoretical model. The model was developed as a summary of the literature review

and to provide some direction to the areas to be covered in the interview. The

cross-sectional design of the study does not allow for an ideal exploration of the

model.

The intrinsic and sociocultural theory (1974:236-237), has informed the transition

stages in the theoretical model. The intrinsic school argues that there is something

inherent in marijuana that leads to the use of and dependence on more dangerous

drugs. The sociocultural view holds that the progression from soft to hard drugs or

more dangerous drugs is a result of the activities, peers association and

acquaintances the user is involved with during the course of use.

When an individual is unable to resist the opportunity to use drugs, he may then go

on to experiment with drugs. As this individual continues to experiment with drugs

his experience with drugs increases and, as his experience increases, he may have
more desire for other drugs. He may then move to regular use of soft drugs. Some

of the drug users might stop at this stage, while some will progress to hard drugs.

The model suggests factors that may encourage or inhibit this transition. For

example, the initial stage of experimenting with drugs is socially learned through

peer groups. As a social being, individuals are heavily influenced by values, beliefs

and social norms through relationships with others. Peer groups play an important

role in molding its members to experiment with drugs.

Social and personal problems, such as unemployment and under employment,

medical or health problems, environmental problems and school problem that

evoke strong feelings, are often said to be some of the causes of drug abuse. Some

individuals with these problems may use drugs as a solution. Studies have shown

that sensation seekers or pleasure seekers with low motivation for integration are

prone to drug addiction (Khairuddin 1994:21).

The model suggest that cigarette smokes are more likely to go on use marijuana in

the future, and heavy or regular users are more likely to progress to the use of hard

drugs such as heroin and cocaine. This will be more likely if they are connected

with the drug subculture, if their perception of laws related to drug use is not

threatening enough, or if the influence of peer groups towards transition is strong

and positive. At this juncture, it becomes difficult for the addict to stop, because

withdrawal symptoms are inevitable or difficult to resist.

As an individual becomes a regular user of hard drugs, dependence occurs because

drugs such as heroin, cocaine and opiate produce addiction. However, whether

addition occurs may depend on an individual’s biological predisposition. And the

transition from use to abuse is a gradual process, normally taking four to five years

(Newcomb and Bentler 1989:242).

Restraining factors, such as the perception of social laws, may help to inhibit

experimentation with drugs. For example, if hard drugs are prohibited by law,

individuals may decide not to progress to hard drugs. Besides, outlawing a drug is

supposed to make it unavailable to everyone. In reality, however, outlawing a

popular drug only drives it into a black market. Anyone who has cash can buy

drugs from market dealers, who seldom have any hesitation about selling drugs to

youth (Gullota 1995:62).

 CHAPTER THREE: METHODS

3.0 INTRODUCTION

As stated in chapter I, the purpose of this study is to examine why young people in

prisons still involve in taking drugs and to discover the source of availability. The

consequences of drug addiction have been discussed in the previous chapters.

Anambra State and Imo State is selected for this study. The respondent of this

study will be chosen from Onitsha, Awka and Enugu prisons. These towns are

urbanized as well have the high incidence of the problem to be investigated.

3.1 DEFINITION OF BASIC CONCEPTS

The major concepts used in this study are defined as follows:

Drug Addiction

A state of periodic or chronic intoxication, detrimental to the individual and society

produced by the repeated consumption of a drug. There is an overpowering desire

or need to consume, continue taking drug and obtain it by any means (Anti

Narcotic Task Force 1992). This definition is in consistent with that of World

Health Organization.

Since the researcher is a sociologist, he cannot study addition from a medical point

of view. Hence, he has measured addiction in terms of frequency of use. That is,
the number they use drugs daily or weekly example, three or four times a day, two

times a week, etc. Given that the drug addicts studied use drugs on a continuous

basis, the focus has been on continuous basis, the focus has been on continuous

rather periodic use.

Drug Abuse

The Anti Narcotics Task Force (1992:201), define ‘drug abuse’ as psychoactive

chemical substances which when consumed over a prolonged period of time can

cause dependency and bring about harmful effect upon the user, the family, society

and the national well-being. As shall be used in this research, it is the usage of

drugs without any medical prescription.

Hard Drugs

Hard drugs are highly addictive in nature. They have more effect or impact on the

body than other drugs. Example of hard drugs are: heroin, morphine, codeine and

paregoric (united Nations Drug Control Programme 1997: 331). The use of hard

drugs is globally prohibited.

Soft Drugs

Soft drugs and those drugs that are less addictive in nature. They have a lesser

effect when taken into the body than hard drugs an example of a soft drug is

marijuana/ganja (United Nations Drug Control Programme 1997:331).

Primary Socialization

This refers to the initial training an individual receives from his or her parents.

Family is the primary agent of socialization. What happens to an individual during

this period could affect his or her adulthood stage. Family plays an important role

in early childhood (Webster 1991:12).

Normal Family

The concept of normal family used in this study refers to a family where there is

minimal conflict that is generally intact and provides good care for its children.

Strong values connote moral principles and beliefs that are thought by parents.

This is in contrast to weak values.

Peer Influence

Peers are people who are of the same status, perhaps of the same age. Peers have to

extent the power of control among their group. One’s demeanour or behavior is

partly influenced by his peers. Sociologically, socialization in the early years of

life is not confined to the family. As the childe gets older, other agencies get in on

the act. For example, other children with whom a child comes into contact; friends,

playmates and so on can have a significant socializing influence. This agency,

called the peer group, is probably the first means by which an individual

encounters ideas and ways of behaving different from those at home (Webster

1991:13).

Personal Problems

This refers to the difficulties or challenges the respondents are facing. It could be

stress, depression, family problem, unemployment, problems in social relations

health problems, career problems and financial predicament. It is important to

clarify that the personal problems for the institutional addicts were before they

were admitted in the centre, but for the street addicts it is the current situation.

Perception of illegal drug laws

This is the opinion or knowledge of the drug users have about laws on dangerous

drugs. It is the intention of the researcher to examine whether the drug users are

aware of these drug laws. And if they aware of it, does it hinder them from using

those drugs.
Posted by ukatu benedict at 05:56

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