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OPTICS
Introduction:
Until the beginning of 19th century, light was considered to be a stream of tiny particles (corpuscles) that were
emitted by a light source. This particle theory or corpuscular theory was proposed by Newton. With this theory,
Newton was able to explain the law of reflection and refraction. Most scientists accepted Newton’s particle
theory of light. However, during Newton’s life time another theory called wave theory, was proposed.

In 1678, Huygens showed that the wave theory of light could explain the law of reflection and refraction.
However, the wave theory did not receive immediate acceptance for several reasons,
I. Sound, water waves need a medium for propagation, but we receive light from the sun which travels
through empty space.
II. If light were some form of wave motion, the waves could bend around obstacles.

History of Optics
 Although experimental evidence for the diffraction of light was discovered in 1660. Most scientists
rejected the wave theory for more than a century.
 The first clear demonstration of the wave nature of light was provided in 1801 by Young. He showed
that that under a suitable condition light exhibits interference behaviour.
 In 1810-1829, Fresnel performed a number of detailed experiments dealing with interference and
diffraction phenomena. These behaviours couldn’t be explained at that time by Newton’s particle
theory.
 In 1873, Maxwell predicted that light was a form of high frequency electromagnetic waves have a speed
of about ms-1.

 In 1877, Hertz confirmed Maxwell’s prediction by producing and detecting electromagnetic waves in
laboratory.

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 Hertz and other investigators showed that these waves exhibited rejection, refraction, Polarization,
interference, diffraction and other characteristic properties of waves.
 However, some experiments (E.g Photoelectric effect) could not be explained by assuming that light as
wave.

 Photoelectric effect, also discovered by Hertz, is the ejection of electrons from a metal whose surface is
exposed to light, experiments showed that kinetic energy of an ejected electron is independent of light
intensity. This is a contradiction with the wave theory.
 In 1905, Einstein explained the phenomena by using concept of quantization developed by Max Planck
(1990).

The quantization model assumes that the energy of light wave is present in mass less that the energy of light
wave is present in mass less bundles of energy (like Newton is corpuscles) called photon.
The energy of photon is proportional to the frequency of electronic wave
where h - Planck’s constant 6.63
[Photon has wave-like characteristics because its energy is determined by the frequency]

It is important to note that the theory retains some features of both the wave theory and particle theory of light.
Wave theory provides an adequate explanation of light propagation and of the effects of interference. On the
other hand, the photo electric effect and other experiments involving the interaction of light with matter are best
explained by assuming that light is a particle.

Therefore the question “Is light a wave or a particle?” is an inappropriate one.

In view of these, one must regards light as having a dual nature.
ie) In some cases it acts like a wave and in the others it acts like particle.

However, in a new experiment reported in November

2012, researchers observed light photons acting like
both particles and waves simultaneously, providing a
new dimension to the quandary that could help reveal
the true nature of light, and of the whole quantum world.

This illustration shows the dual nature of light, which acts like both particles and waves.

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Huygens’s Principle
In 1678, Huygens proposed a wave theory for light accounted for the law of reflection and refraction. It is
remain useful for many practical aspects of the propagation of light. Huygens assumed that light is some form of
wave motion rather than a stream of particle.

Huygens Principle states that all points on a wavefront can be taken as point sources for the production of
secondary wavelets. At some later time, the new position of the wavefront is the surface tangent to these
secondary wavelets.

t=0 t=Δt t=Δt

Wavelet
t=0

New wavefront
Old wavefront

Spherical wave
Plane wave

rays

Wave fronts

Wave fronts

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Chapter I – Geometric Optics (Ray Optics)

Geometrical Optics treats light as a collection of rays that travel in straight lines and bend when they pass
through or reflect from surfaces. In certain circumstances, light waves do travel in straight lines to high degree
of accuracy. This can explain the phenomena of image formation by lens.

Ray approximation
Let us assume that for the study of mirrors, lenses, prisms and associated optical instruments, such as
telescopes, camera and eye glasses.

d ~λ d<
d>>λ

Wave front

(a) (b) (
Note:-
c
(i) Wavefront always perpendicular to the rays.
(ii) Velocity of light in vacuum c and velocity of light in a medium c/M
(iii) Optical path = (Normal path)

If the wave meets a barrier with a circular opening whose diameter is large relative to the wavelength, the ray
approximation continues to be valid.

On the other hand, if the diameter of the opening of the barrier is of the order of the wavelength, the wave
spread out from the opening in all directions. We say that the outgoing wave is noticeable, diffracted. [We shall
return to the subject of diffraction (where in the wave optics section].

d ~λ d<<λ
d>>λ

Wave front

(a) (b) (c) 4

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Thin lenses
If the thickness of a lens is very small compared to the radius of curvature and the focal length of the lens, then
it is called a thin lens.
Consider a convex lens

M C N
A B

O I

u Ao Bo v

Co

r1 r2

Time taken for light to travel from A to B , c-velocity of light in air

Time taken for light to travel from M to N

t
x x

(2r-t)

Sign Convention
I. Distances are measured along the principal axis.
II. Distances are measured in the direction of incident light is taken to be (+) ve.

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III. Distances are measured in the opposite direction of incident light is taken to be (-) ve.
Using sign convention,

Using sign convention

Combination of thin lens

X
h Y
h1 1
h1
h2
1

O1 O2
F I
f
f2
f1

f1
, the and

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Thick Lens
Focal Points and Principal Points

A1 A2 A1 H2 A2
F1 H1 F2

In the first diagram, diverging rays from the primary focal point F1 emerge parallel to the axis.
In the second diagram, parallel incident rays are brought to focus the secondary focal point F2
In each case, the incident and refracted rays have been entered to their point of intersection between the
surfaces. The transverse planes through these intersections are called the primary and secondary principal
planes. These planes cross the axis at points H1 and H2 which are called the principal points or conjugate points.

Note: There is a point to point correspondence between the two principal planes. Each is an erect image of the
other with same size.
We may define the principal planes as those two planes having unit positive, lateral magnification. For
these same reasons they are also called unit planes.

Nodal Points

θ
N1 N2

Nodal Points are two conjugate points on the principal axis having unit positive angular magnification. Of all
rays that pass through a lens from an axis, object point to its corresponding image point, one incident ray and
corresponding emergent ray would be parallel. The points at which the incident is emergent rays intersects
with principal axis are called Nodal points.

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Focal Points, Principal points and Nodal points are called cardinal points.

When

µ1 µ µ2

D S1 S2

T1 T2

H1 N1 H2 N2 F2
F1

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The lens equation for a thick lens

X1 X2
1
h1 1 I

O H1 H2 F2
F1 h2

Y1 Y2

f1 f2

U V

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Refraction through thick lens

R1 R2
µ=1
x A2 µ=1

y
h1
µ h2
O1 H2 O2
V I’

V’

Consider the first face,

Consider similar triangles xI’O1 and yI’O2 and similar triangles A2VH2 and YVO2

This equation gives the focal length of a thick lens and is called lens equation for thick lens.
For thin lens (if t=0)

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Position of the cardinal Points
Second focal point
The distance of the second focal point F2 from the second surface of the lens is f2.
From

Second principal point

The distance of the second principal point H2 from the second surface of the lens is .

First focal point

R1 R2
µ=1
A2 µ=1

µ
O1 H1 O2

If the incident ray PQ is coming from the right to left, then R1 and R2 become opposite. Now, the distance of the
first focal point F1 from the first surface is f1

Second principal point

The distance of the second principal point H1 from the second surface of the lens is .

Since, the lens is in air, so the nodal points N1 and N2 are the same as the principle points H1 and H2
respectively.

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Eg:-

Examples of principal planes of a thick lens in air

1
=
2

Focal Points

F1
F1

Primary focal
point

F2 F2

Secondary focal
point

A combination of two or more thin lenses may be referred to as a thick lens because the optical properties of
causally mounted lenses can be conveniently created in terms of only two focal points and two principle points.

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S1 S2

T1 T2

F2
F1 H1 N1 H2 N2

µ1
µ2
µ1 µ2

Image formation by cardinal point

I. A ray parallel to principal axis passing through
II. A ray passing through emerges parallel to the principal axis.
III. A ray meeting first principal plane at a height h emerges through the second principal plane from the
same height on the same side.
IV. A ray directed towards a nodal point emerges through the other nodal point parallel to the precious ray.
Newton’s Formula

A Q1 Q2

H1 H2 I

O F1 F2

R1 R2
B
x f1 f2 x’

Consider the similar triangles

F1H1R1 and AR1Q1

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combination of two lenses

Z1 X2
X1
Z2
1
h

H1 H2
O1 O2 F2 P

f1 f2
f1

Let are principal points of the combined lens.

Consider

For the second lens,

Image distance
Object distance
Using lens equation,

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Aberrations
The departures of real images (imperfect) from the ideal image predicted by the simple theory are called
aberrations.
ie) the deviations from the actual size shape & the position of an image calculated from the equation derived
so far are called aberrations produced by the lens.

Spherical Aberrations

B
A
x

The failure of rays to pass through a single point after reflection or refraction from curved surfaces is known as
spherical aberrations. The image is not sharp at any point on the axis.

Chromatic Aberrations
The aberration produced by the variation of refractive index with wavelength of the light used are called the
chromatic aberration.
Cauch’s equation , where A, B are called Cauch’s constant.

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Ik
Ib

fb
fr

is mean focal length and given by the following equation.

The dispersive power of the lens material is defined by,

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Achromatic lenses

Reducing Spherical Aberrations

I. The spherical aberration can be reduced by using slopes which reduces the effective lens aperture.

II. It may be reduced to a minimum by a suitable choice of the curvature of the faces of the lens.
Calculations show that the longitudinal spherical aberrations produced by a thin lens for a parallel
incident beam is,

Radius of the lens aperture, Secondary focal lengths and

To minimize , 

III. It can also be minimized by two plane convex lenses separated by a distance equal to the difference in
their focal lengths.

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In this arrangement, the total deviation is shared by the two lenses.

When

For the second lens,

This is condition for minimum spherical aberration.

IV. Spherical aberration can also be minimized by combining suitable concave and convex lenses.

Optical Instruments

Huygen’s eye piece

3f f1 f2 f

Huygens’s eyepiece

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Disadvantage
Cross wire cannot be used.
Ramsalen eyepiece
f

f f

As both lenses are plano-convex with their surfaces focusing each other, the aberration produced is very small
(reduces both spherical chromatic aberrations).

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