DEFORESTATION CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL STRATEGIES

ABSTRACT

Nigeria is naturally endowed with vast expanse of forest land, the swamp

forests in the extreme Southern part of the country, the tropical rainforest

in the South- western axis and the wooded savannah in the middle belt.

Nigeria ranks among the countries of the world with abundant forest

resources. This work was on the causes, effect and control strategies for

Deforestation . the research work employed descriptive statistics for the

analysis. causes, effects, and ways of controlling deforestation was

discussed with data from both primary and secondary data sources.

conclusion and recommendations were made.

TABLE OF CONTENT

ABSTRACT

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the studies

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

1.6 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDIES

1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS

1.8 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDIES

CHAPTER TWO

literature review

World Deforestation Pattern

Deforestation in Africa
Deforestation in Nigeria Trends

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

DATA SOURCES

3.2 Population of study

3.3 Sample Size and Sampling Technique

3.4 Data Gathering Method

3.5 Data Analysis

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Causes of Deforestation in Nigeria

4.2 Effect of Deforestation in Nigeria

4.3 CONTROL STRATEGIES FOR DEFORESTATION

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

References
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the studies

Nigeria is naturally endowed with vast expanse of forest land, the swamp

forests in the extreme Southern part of the country, the tropical rainforest

in the South- western axis and the wooded savannah in the middle belt.

Nigeria ranks among the countries of the world with abundant forest

resources. Mfon, et al (2014) said forests in Nigeria occupied about 110,

890km2 of the country total land mass of about 910,770km2 in other

words, forests is about 012.18% of vegetation cover of the country. Park

(1992), has stated that at least 60 percent of all known species of plant,

about 90 percent of all the world’s non-human primates such as monkeys,

about 40 percent of all the birds of prey and about 80 percent of all the

insects live in the tropical rainforests of the world. In other words forest

provides us a wide variety of ecosystem services, including provisioning

regulating, cultural, and supportive services. These ecosystem services not

only deliver the basic material needs for survival, but also underlie other

aspects of well being, including health, security good social relations and
freedom of choice. In the past, timber production was regarded as the

dominant function of forests. However, in recent years this perception has

shifted to a more multifunctional and balanced view. Today, it is

understood that forest biodiversity underpins a wide ranges of goods and

services for human well being. Ecologically intact forests stores and purify

drinking water, they can mitigate natural disasters such as drought and

floods, they help store carbon and regulate the climate, they provide food

and produce rainfall, and they provide a vast array of goods for medicinal

cultural and spiritual purposes (CBD, 2009). Similarly, most Nigerians have

always depended on the forest for their survival, economic development,

as well as environmental amelioration. The level of community nutrition is

sometimes linked to fuel wood availability and cost, others depended

directly on forest for their livelihood; among them are a high number of

forest and wood worker ( Aliyu et al, 2014) This is a part from contributing

substantially to the National Gross Domestic Product (GDP). In spite of its

importance, the natural forest has continued to diminish rapidly in the

world especially in Africa continent and particularly in Nigeria. According to

EFC, (2010), the world continues to lose some 15 million hectares of

forests every year. Deforestation over the period 1980 to 1990 reached
8.2% of total forest area in Asia, 6.1% in Latin America and 4.8% in

African. Most modern deforestation takes place in developing countries,

particularly in tropical areas. Deforestation and forest degradation directly

threaten as many as 400million people including 50million forest

indigenous people who depend on forest for subsistence in sub-Sahara

Africa (EFC, 2010). Deforestation estimates for some. African countries

have been given by Lanly (1983). For example, the of forest depletion in

Cote divoire and Nigeria is estimated as high as 5 to 6% per year while

Ochanda and Epp (1982) stated that in Kenya the indigenous forest now

covers only 1.9% of the land area and remote sensing have shown that

about 16% of the forest is being lost in each ten year period. In Nigeria,

the scenarios is not different, regional breakdown of deforestation from

1979 to 1995 shows that total forest declined by 48% in the North-central

7% in the North East, 60% in the North West, 53% in the south East, 13%

in the South-South and 12% in the South West (FORMECU 1996). In 2000

the forest cover was estimated at 13.5 million hectares compared to 17.5

million hectares in 1990 (FAO, 2001), indicating a forest cover loss of close

to 400 thousand ha per annum, or a decline of about 2.6%.

Forest/woodlands now stand at only 13% of the total land area (FAO,
2001). With global outcry on the consequences of continuous

unsustainable forest destruction topping major intellectual discourses the

needs to examine the current deforestation situation in Nigeria requires a

work of this nature.

The year 2011 is ‘The International Year of Forests’. This designation has

generated momentum bringing greater attention to the forests worldwide.

Forests cover almost a third of the earth’s land surface providing many

environmental benefits including a major role in the hydrologic cycle, soil

conservation, prevention of climate change and preservation of biodiversity

(Sheram, 1993). Forest resources can provide long-term national economic

benefits. For example, at least 145 countries of the world are currently

involved in wood production (Anon., 1994a). Sufficient evidence is available

that the whole world is facing an environmental crisis on account of heavy

deforestation. For years remorseless destruction of forests has been going

on and we have not been able to comprehend the dimension until recently.

Nobody knows exactly how much of the world’s rainforests have already

been destroyed and continue to be razed each year. Data is often

imprecise and subject to differing interpretations. However, it is obvious

that the area of tropical rainforest is diminishing and the rate of tropical
rain forest destruction is escalating worldwide, despite increased

environmental activism and awareness. Deforestation is the conversion of

forest to an alternative permanent non-forested land use such as

agriculture, grazing or urban development (van Kooten and Bulte, 2000).

Deforestation is primarily a concern for the developing countries of the

tropics (Myers, 1994) as it is shrinking areas of the tropical forests

(Barraclough and Ghimire, 2000) causing loss of biodiversity and enhancing

the greenhouse effect (Angelsen et al., 1999). FAO considers a plantation

of trees established primarily for timber production to be forest and

therefore does not classify natural forest conversion to plantation as

deforestation (but still records it as a loss of natural forests). However, FAO

does not consider tree plantations that provide non-timber products to be

forest although they do classify rubber plantations as forest. Forest

degradation occurs when the ecosystem functions of the forest are

degraded but where the area remains forested rather cleared (Anon.,

2010). Thirty per cent of the earth’s land area or about 3.9 billion hectares

is covered by forests. It was estimated that the original forest cover was

approximately six billion hectares (Bryant et www.intechopen.com 4 Global

Perspectives on Sustainable Forest Management al., 1997). The Russian

Federation, Brazil, Canada, the United States of America and China were

the most forest rich countries accounting to 53 per cent of the total forest

area of the globe. Another 64 countries having a combined population of

two billions was reported to have forest on less than ten per cent of their

total land area and unfortunately ten of these countries have no forest at

all. Among these countries 16 are such which had relatively substantial

forest areas of more than one million hectares each and three of these

countries namely Chad, the Islamic Republic of Iran and Mongolia each had

more than ten million hectares of forest. The forest area remained fairly

stable in North and Central America while it expanded in Europe during the

past decade. Asian continent especially in India and China due to their

large scale afforestation programme in the last decade registered a net

gain in forest area. Conversely the South America, Africa and Oceania had

registered the net annual loss of forest area (Anon., 2010; 2011).

ined by densely-tall woody and non-woody vegetations as well as other

communities of flora and fauna in symbiotic relationships. Forest is an

intricate system made up of plants and trees that protect biodiversity,

providing home to terrestrial biodiversity and improving the quality of life

forms on earth (Popoola, 2014). Onyeanusi and Otegbeye (2012) defined

forests as large areas of land covered with trees and brush that grow thick

but forest according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Forest

Resources Assessment (2002) is an area where trees cover ten percent or

more of the land. Forest was originally used to mean a vast expanse of

land covered by trees usually associated with game hunting. Forest has

been variously used to define any tall densely packed area of vegetation,

even underwater vegetation such as kelp forests, or non-vegetation such

as fungi and bacteria but a typical forest is composed of the overstory

(canopy or upper tree layer) and the understory which includes shrub

layer, herb layer, and moss layer, and also soil microbes. Forests are found

in all regions capable of sustaining tree growth at altitudes up to the tree

line, except where natural fire frequency or other disturbances is too high

or where the environment has been impaired by anthropogenic activities.

Forests are naturally endowed with numerous resources that are valuable

to mankind (FAO, 2003). Forest functions depend on the daily needs of

livelihood of people living close to it. For instance, rural populations depend
most fundamentally on forests in terms of subsistence, health, income and

culture (Van et al., 1997; Adebisi, 2008). The forest is a source of

resources that are of environmental, economic, socio-cultural and aesthetic

benefit.

Types of Forest Forests vary considerably in composition, structure and

geographic distribution. It can be classified into different types based on

the following criteria:

a. Based on spontaneity: natural and artificial forest

b. Based on indications of human activity: primary/frontier and secondary

forest

c. Based on leaf longevity: evergreen and deciduous forest

d. Based on leaf broadness: broadleaf tree, coniferous trees or mixed

forest

e. Based on geographic zone: temperate forest, sub-tropical and tropical

moist forest, sub-tropical and tropical dry forest

f. Based on physiognomy: old growth and second growth

g. Based on dominant species

Functions of the forest: Forest are important to sustainability of the earth

and hence the existence of man. Broadly, functions of the forest can be

categorized as follows:

a. Environmental function Biodiversity protection and conservation

• Moderation of weather elements e.g. rainfall,

• temperature etc. Carbon sequestration

• Soil management

• b. Socio-cultural function and economic function Food security

• Provision of medicinal products

• Source of fuel wood

• Source of employment and income

• Source of raw materials for industries

• Source of national revenue and exchange

• income earnings Provision of religious and cultural sites

• Aesthetic and sporting

Concept Of Deforestation, Forest Degradation And Fragmentation

Deforestation: Deforestation is basically the conversion of forested areas to

non-forested land for several purposes basically agricultural, industrial and

urbanization. Deforestation is a process whereby trees are felled for several

purposes but without replanting to replace the ones felled (Aina and Salau,

1992). It is the large scale removal of forests resulting to nonforest areas

for urbanization, agriculture and for some other reasons without

corresponding re-afforestation of the area (Fiset, 2011). According to FAO

(2005), deforestation is the conversion of forest to another land use or the

long term-term reduction of tree canopy cover below the 10% threshold.

On a broad sense, deforestation can apart from conversion of forest areas

to non-forest ones, include reduction of forest quality in terms of its

density, structure of the trees, the ecological and other essential services

supplied, biota biomass and species diversity as well as the genetic

diversity of the composing biota. Deforestation is a major problem in many

parts of the world, and the idea underlying the phenomenon can be a

diminution of vegetal covers from thick forest to light forest, from heavy or

light forest to open area under development. It can also be from heavy or

light forest to savannah or grassland and or from savannah to open or

isolated land (Okorie, 2012). In spite of the multi-various usefulness of the

forest resources, rapid population growth and changes in land uses have

put the forest resources under pressure. For instance, majority of logging

operations in tropical countries are considered unsuitable and damaging.

The widespread failure of forest governance – characterized by illegal

logging, associated illegal trade, and corruption-directly undermines

sustainable economic growth, equitable development, and environmental

conservation. It puts at risk poor and forest-dependent populations, which

rely on timber and non-timber forest products; undermines responsible

forest enterprises by distorting timber and reducing profitability; and

results in a loss of government revenue that could be invested in

sustainable forest management or general economic development (World

Bank, 2006).

Forest degradation Forest: degradation is a process leading to a temporary

or permanent deterioration in the density or structure of vegetation cover

or its species composition (FAO, 2007). It results from disturbances that

cause changes in the forest attributes that leads to a reduced productive

capacity of the forest. For the purpose of having a harmonized set of forest

and forest change definitions, that also is measurable with conventional

techniques, forest degradation is assumed to be indicated by the reduction

of canopy cover and/or stocking of the forest through logging.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Deforestation is a major problem in our environment today, this is because

the effect of deforestation is felt not only by the animals who loss their

natural habitat, the indigenous people who also loss their homes, and the

climate which has change drastically which has led to global warming. This

study examine the cause, effect and possible solution to deforestation.

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

1)The main objective of the study is to evaluate the effect and proximate

causes of deforestation

2) to ascertain the causes of deforestation

3) to examine the effect of deforestation

4) to evaluate the benefit of stopping deforestation

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION

i) what are the challenges of deforestation to our economy?

ii) what are the strategies to adopt to stop deforestation?

iii) what measures has department of forestry put in place to stop?

deforestation?

iv) what avenues can be adopted to stop deforestation?

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

It is conceived that at the completion of this research the findings will help

to:

The department of forestry to curtail illegal deforestation

The environmentalist to curtail the unlawful degradation of our forest

The researchers who will be interested in furthering the research

recommendation.

1.6 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDIES

The studies cover the effect, causes and control strategies of deforestation

in Nigeria. However the research work has some limitation which include:

Availability of research material is a major impediment to the expansion of

the scope of research.

Finance is one of the major constrain to this research project as the

finances available limit the scope of the work.

Time allocated to the study does not give room for a more wider coverage.

1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS

a) FOREST: Forests are vast areas of land predominantly defined by

densely-tall woody and non-woody vegetations as well as other

communities of flora and fauna in symbiotic relationships. Forest is an

intricate system made up of plants and trees that protect biodiversity,

providing home to terrestrial biodiversity and improving the quality of life

forms on earth (Popoola, 2014). Onyeanusi and Otegbeye (2012) defined

forests as large areas of land covered with trees and brush that grow thick

but forest according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Forest

Resources Assessment (2002) is an area where trees cover ten percent or

more of the land. Forest was originally used to mean a vast expanse of

land covered by trees usually associated with game hunting. Forest has

been variously used to define any tall densely packed area of vegetation,

even underwater vegetation such as kelp forests, or non-vegetation such

as fungi and bacteria but a typical forest is composed of the overstory

(canopy or upper tree layer) and the understory which includes shrub

layer, herb layer, and moss layer, and also soil microbes.
Deforestation: Deforestation is basically the conversion of forested areas to

non-forested land for several purposes basically agricultural, industrial and

urbanization. Deforestation is a process whereby trees are felled for several

purposes but without replanting to replace the ones felled (Aina and Salau,

1992). It is the large scale removal of forests resulting to nonforest areas

for urbanization, agriculture and for some other reasons without

corresponding re-afforestation of the area (Fiset, 2011). According to FAO

(2005), deforestation is the conversion of forest to another land use or the

long term-term reduction of tree canopy cover below the 10% threshold.

On a broad sense, deforestation can apart from conversion of forest areas

to non-forest ones, include reduction of forest quality in terms of its

density, structure of the trees, the ecological and other essential services

supplied, biota biomass and species diversity as well as the genetic

diversity of the composing biota

Forest degradation

Forest degradation is a process leading to a temporary or permanent

deterioration in the density or structure of vegetation cover or its species

composition (FAO, 2007). It results from disturbances. Deforestation

that cause changes in the forest attributes that leads to a reduced

productive capacity of the forest. For the purpose of having a harmonized

set of forest and forest change definitions, that also is measurable with

conventional techniques, forest degradation is assumed to be indicated by

the reduction of canopy cover and/or stocking of the forest through

logging.

Forest fragmentation: Forest fragmentation is any process that converts

once a continuous forest area into fragments or patches of forest

separated by non-forest lands. Fragmentation is a complex phenomenon

resulting from dynamic interactions between the natural landscape and

society’s ever-increasing demands on the land, creating a mosaic of natural

and human modified environments (FAO, 2007). Forest fragmentation is

basically the conversion of large areas of contiguous native forest to other

types of vegetation and /or land use leaving remnant patches of forest that

varies in size and isolation.Deforestation

1.8 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDIES

The research is organized in five chapters for easy understanding as

follows: chapter one is concern with the introduction which consist of over

view of the studies, statement of problem, objective of the studies,

significance of the study, and definition of terms, chapter two is concern

with review of related literature, chapter three is concern with research

methodology, chapter four is concern with data collection, analysis and

presentation of findings. Chapter five give summary conclusion and

recommendation. Deforestation
 CHAPTER TWO

literature review

The use of the term “deforestation” at times is associated with distortion of

forestry issues. It is used to denote activities that use the forest, for

instance, felling of wood for fuel, commercial logging and activities

associated with temporary removal of forest cover such as slash and burn

techniques which is a major component of shifting cultivation agricultural

systems or clear cutting. It is equally used to describe clearing of forest for

grazing or ranching (Mfon et al 2014). Also, an activity such as the

establishment of industrial plantation may be considered as deforestation

by some people while others will view it as afforestation. Accordingly, it is

imperative for one to specify what is meant by deforestation in order to

reduce all forms of ambiguity. Therefore, many specific terms such as

forest decline, forest fragmentation and degradation, loss of forest cover

and land use conversions are used (Wikipedia, 2008)

For instance FAO considers a plantation of trees established primarily for

timber production to be forest and therefore does not classify natural forest

conversion to plantation as deforestation (but still records it as a loss of

natural forests). However, FAO does not consider free plantation that

provides non-timber products to be forest although they do classify rubber

plantations forest (Chakravarty et al 2012)

According to Mfon et al (2014) there are three major schools of thought

associated with the causes of deforestation. The first is the impoverishment

school which is of the opinion that, the major cause of deforestation is the

increase in the number of poor people; that is small holders are the

principal agents of deforestation. The second school is the neoclassical

group which believes that, deforestation is caused by open access property

rights that is, there are various agents with respect to deforestation. The

third school is the political ecology group which believes that, deforestation

is caused by capitalist entrepreneur.

World Deforestation Pattern

Extensive tropical deforestation is a relatively modern event that gained

momentum in the 20th century and particularly in the last half of the 20th

century. The FAO 2001 reports indicate considerable deforestation in the

world during 1990-2010 but this was almost entirely confined to tropical

regions. (Chakravarty et al 2012). Rowe et al (1992) estimated that 15

percent of the world’s forest was converted to other land uses between

1850 and 1980. Deforestation occurred at the rate of 9.2million hectares

per annum from 1980-1990, 16million hectares per annum from 1990-2000

and decreased to 13million hectares per annum from 20002010

(Chakravarty et al 2012). The net change in forest area during the last

decade was estimated at – 5.2milliom hectares per year or 140km2 of

forest per day.

South American with about four million hectares per year suffered the

largest net loss of forests during the last decade followed by Africa with

3.4million hectares annually and the least Oceania with seven lakh hectares

annually. Brazil and Indonesia had the highest lost of forest in the 1990s

accounting for almost 40 percent of net forest loss. Brazil was the top

deforesting country by area; the forests in Brazil are so extensive that this

represents a loss of 0.4 percent per year. The forest area in North and

Central America remained stable during the past decade the forest area in

Europe continued to expand although of a slower rate of seven lakh

hectare per year during the last decade than in the 1990s with nine lakh

hectares per year. Asia lost some six lakh hectares annually during 1990s
but gained more than 2.2 million hectares per year during the last decade.

The five countries with the longest annual ness loss of 2000-2010 were

Comoros (-9.30%), Togo (-5.1%), Nigeria (-3.7%), Mauritania (-2.7%) and

Uganda (-2.6%). The area of other wooded land globally decreased by

about 3.1 million hectares per year during 1990 – 2000 and by about

1.9million hectares per year during the last decade. The area of other

wooded land also decreased during the past two decades in Africa, Asia

and South America (Chakravarty, et al 2012).

Deforestation in Africa

Forest loss in Africa is particularly troubling, and this is due to the fact that;

two-thirds of the continent’s population depends on forest resources for

income and food supplementation and 90 percent of Africans use fuel

wood and charcoal as sources of energy (FAO, 2010). Hence, the over-

reliance on forest resources and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has

accounted for the huge change in forest cover and that; deforestation in

Africa is estimated at around 3.4 million hectares per year (FAO, 2010;

CIFOR, 2005).
According to Naoto (2006), between 1990 and 2000 Africa had the highest

rate of deforestation of about 0.8 percent, followed by Latin America with

0.4 percent, and 0.1 percent in Asia. Some scholars associated the

deforestation rate in Africa to their sluggish economic growth. However,

the significance of deforestation to Africa has led to a number of

recommendations on how to reduce the rate of deforestation on the

continent. Poverty on the African Continent has led to continued loss of

tree cover. According to the United Nations Economic Commission for

Africa (Henceforth referred to as UNECA), the proportion of land covered

by forests in Sub-Saharan Africa is estimated to have decreased by 2.2

percent between 1990 and 2000. Due to over reliance on forests to meet

the energy needs, with little access to alternative and affordable energy

sources, the rate of loss of forests is increasing at an alarming rate.

Sixty percent of Africa’s energy demand is met by forests (UNECA, 2005).

Deforestation in Nigeria Trends

History has it that as at the beginning of the 1500 A.D, with the exception

of cities such as Ibadan, Benin and Calabar, all the Southern part of Nigeria

was covered by forests (Akachuku, 2006). However, between the year

1500 and 1960 the rain forest were seriously depleted mainly as a result of

demand for wood by the colonial masters (Mfon et al 2014). The depletion

of the forest within this period reduced the forest into two large blocks with

scattered fragments between 1960 and 1981; continuous degradation of

the remaining blocks persisted. Hence, by the early 90’s very few

considerable patches of the patches of the rain forest were left in some

forest reserves and natural parks for protection. Today, the damage to

Nigeria, forests invariably has become tremendous.

According to Mfon et al (2014) Nigeria has eight National parks (Table 1)

Table 1: National Parks and their Sizes

S/N Park Size (km2)
1. Gumpti 6,670
2. Kainji lake 5,341
3. Cross River 3,720
4. Old Oyo 2,512
5. Chad Basin 2,258
6. Yankari 2,244.1
7. Kamuku 1,127
8. Okomu 1,127

Adapted from Mfon et al (2014)

The 1,160 constituted forest reserves in Nigeria are said to cover an area

of 107, 527. 02km2 (FORMECU 1996). This figure represents about 11% of

the total land area of the country. These reserves vary in size and are
located in 362 local government areas in 36 states of the country. Borgu

forest reserve in New Bussa, Niger state is the largest with an area of

3,786.58km2 while Lewechi forest reserve in Okigwe in Imo State is the

smallest with an area of 0.47km2 (Mfon et al 2014)

These forest reserves and others have over the years been the major

theatre of large scale human activities culminating into serious

consequences upon the Nigeria flora and fauna despite decade of collective

effort to combat deforestation.

The forest resources in Nigeria are under pressures from urbanization,

infrastructure development, residential construction, population growth,

nonadic farming and expansion of agricultural crop cultivation. Evidence of

these pressures is the growth degradation of both community and National

forest. Eboh et al (2005) said that about 25% of forest cover was lost from

1991 to 2003 with the remaining forest now standing at about 16 to 17%.

FAO (2011) reported that the country loss 55.7% of its total primary forest

between 2000 and 2005, and the rate of forest change increased by 31.2%

to 3.12% per annum

 The spread of deforestation is also noticeable near urban countries. The

growth of urban areas bring about appreciable demands for fuel wood,

charcoal and sawn wood and this account for much of the observed decline

in forest stock (Ogundele, 2012) cooking with fuelwood or charcoal has

remained the only alternative to ever increasing cost of fossil fuel in Nigeria

(there is persistent increment in the cost of kerosene, cooking gas and

electricity tariff). It is therefore predicted that the demand for biomass

energy in urban areas would remain strong and continue to account for

much of the spread of deforestation. Forests in the country are said to

contribute substantially to the natural gross domestic product (GDP) and

sustenance of the livelihood of the people. This probably may be the

reason why the trend of deforestation across the country is on the increase

and the GDP from the forestry sector decline. According to Central Bank of

Nigeria (CBN) (2006), the national GDP by forestry sector was high in the

early 80’s up till 1987. The early 90’s till today witnesses a drastic drop in

the contributions of forest to the national GDP.

 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

The methodologies used in this research work are, in the main, doctrinal or

library research in nature. The doctrinal method of the research, which is

mainly theory-based, would enable this writer to consult, refer to, review,

study and fill the gaps in the works of authors, contained in textbooks,

journals, and the internet.

DATA SOURCES

The data collected through library research in which the researcher reads,

writes and gathers pertinent information related to the topic of this project.

After having information from relate d documents such as international

legal instrument, books, scientific journals, and others regarding the main

problem as the object of this research, then the researcher tries to make

conclusion.

3.2 Population of study

The target population for this study comprised of multinational companies

in Nigeria. There is no current document specifying the figure for the total

number of MNC in Nigeria, however it suffice to say that there are over 100

mnc in Nigeria.

3.3 Sample Size and Sampling Technique

In view of the researcher’s inability to reach out to the entire population

the research used sample cases of tax evasion by Multinational companies

in Nigeria that are published.

3.4 Data Gathering Method

The data we collected through library research in which the researcher

reads, writes and gathers pertinent information related to the topic of this

project. After having information from related documents such as

international legal instrument, books, scientific journals, and others

regarding the main problem as the object of this research, then the

researcher tries to make conclusion.

3.5 Data Analysis

In this study, the researcher uses qualitative prescriptive analysis in which

the researcher analyzes and gives interpretation or disclosure of subject

and object of research undertaken.

 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Causes of Deforestation in Nigeria

Distinguishing between the agents of deforestation and its causes is very

important in order to understand the major determinants of deforestation

(Chakravarty et al 2012). The agents of deforestation are those slash and

burn farmers, ranchers, loggers, firewood collectors, infrastructure

developers and others who are cutting down the forest. Causes of

deforestation are the forces that motivate the agents to clear the forests.

(Chakravarty et al 2012)

Similarly, Pearce and Brown, (1994) identified two main forces that affect

deforestation. (a) Competition between humans and other species for the

remaining ecological niches on land and in coastal regions. This factor is

substantially demonstrated by the conversion of forest land to other uses

such as agriculture, infrastructure, urban development, industry and

others.

(b) Failure in the working of the economic systems to reflect the true value

of the environment. Basically, many of the functions of tropical forest are

not marketed and as such are ignored in decision making. Additionally,

decisions to convert tropical forests are themselves encouraged by fiscal

and other incentives.

This latter factor has been termed indirect cause of deforestation but

remained by far the most important. From Nigeria deforestation situation,

though the forests contribute substantially to the GDP, but the policies to

regulate human interference with the forests so as to safeguard against

depletion of this important resources have not been seriously pursued. This

thus reflects a government fiscal policies working at cross- purposes with

the value of the forest resources. In addition most incentives which the

government suppose to provide for the people to serve as alternative to

forest resources are not provided, for examples the high cost of fossil fuels

has forced people to utilize firewood and charcoal as alternative energy,

high rate of unemployment has made people to turn to forest for means of

survival and therefore has resulted to serious forest depletion.

Furthermore, defective forest policies of the government greatly

encourage deforestation, for instance most laudable policies like

afforestation programmes, rainforest management (like enrichment

planting, taungya system), creation of forest reserves, in-situ conservation

processes among others are underfunded and neglected. The resultant

effect of this is further deforestation. Notwithstanding, the above scenarios

the following factors have been noted to contribute substantially to

deforestation in the country

i. Expansion of Farming Land

About 60% of he clearing of tropical most forests is for agricultural

settlement (Myers 1994). Taking into consideration the fact that more than

80% of the Nigeria populace are into farming then one can understand the

concern of environmentalists on agricultural induce deforestation in the

country. During agriculture the site is prepared through under brushing and

felling leading to deforestation the slash and burn activity in tropical forests

which is utilized during shitting cultivation has led to the permanent

destruction of the rainforest (Nwoboshi 1982). Mostly all reports indicated

shifting agriculture as responsible for about one half of

tropical deforestation and some put it up to two thirds (Chakravarty et al

2012)

ii. Urbanization, Industrialization and Infrastructural

Development
Clearing the forest is a prequisite for expansion of cities and towns for the

establishment of infrastructures necessary to support growing population

(Sands, 2015), for instance, the 60million hectares of land in Nigeria in

1897 declined to 9.6 million hectares after 100 years this represents a loss

of 50 million hectares in 100years (Carty, 1992). The site of Ajaokuta steel

plant claimed 18, 390 hectares of Ajaokuta forest reserve in old Kwara

State while the Federal capital territory claimed approximately 27, 330

hectares of forest reserves (Carty 1992; Aderounmu, Akarue,and Ette,

1992). The construction of roads, railways, bridges and airports opens up

the land to development and brings increasing numbers of people to the

forest frontier. Whether supported or not by the governmental

programmes, these settlers have usually colonized the forest by using

logging trails of new roads to access the forest for subsistence land (Amor

and Pfaff 2008). The negative consequences of these developmental

projects apart from deforestation also include destruction of livelihoods of

the host communities unfortunately there is no guarantee that significant

benefits or compensation will accrue to them.

iii. Logging and Fuel wood Collection

 Sawn timber is imperative in construction activities for residential,

recreational and industrial development. In many cases in Nigeria, trees

are felled and sawn without any commensurate effort to replant them, for

instance, Ekinta forest reserve (104km2) in Cross river state has been

transformed from tropical high forests into grassland as a result of

unsustainable logging (Mfon et al 2014). Depletion of unreserved forests

has also resulted in the concentration of logging activities within protected

forest reserved in Nigeria, for instance in 1960 Western Nigerian, the areas

outside the forest reserves, amounted to 52% of the total timber volume

output, but five years later, this had fallen to just 16% (Areola 1987). In

Nigeria as in most third world countries, firewood constitutes the major

source of fuel. This is as a result of the rampant, usual and high cost of

kerosene and cooking gas leading to a lot of pressure on the forests. It

becomes difficult to prevent people from cutting down the forest for

firewood when there are no cheap and available alternatives. The country

substantial gas reserve is under developed and mismanaged. Hence, it

flares constantly causing serious economic and environmental problems

iv. Bush burning

 Fires are a major tool used in clearing the forest for shifting and

permanent and for developing pastures. Fire used responsibly can be

available tool in agricultural and forest management but if abused it can be

a significant cause of deforestation (Rowe Sharma, and Bowder, 1992).

The rainforest of Nigeria is relatively immune to fire than the Savanna in

the wet season. However, in the dry season, the rainforest is very much

prone to fire, continuous burning of the rain forest leads to derived

grassland as most the trees including their seedlings are destroyed. The

herdsmen and hunters do set fire to forest in order to have fresh shoots for

their animals and in order to drive out wild animals respectively. Taking

into consideration the fact that it take years for forest to reach its climax,

therefore, bush burning should be avoided.

v. Overgrazing

Overgrazing is more common in drier areas of the tropics where pastures

degraded by overgrazing are subject to soil erosion. Stripping trees to

provide fodder for grazing animals especially in the dry season can also be

a problem. It is a well established fact that over grazing leads to a gradual

change in vegetation from derived Savannah to Sudan Savannah as the

animals feed on tree seedling especially in the dry season when there is

little grass to sustain them (NEST, 1992).

Aliyu, Modibbo, Medugu and Ayo (2014) said that most Fulani nomads in

Akwanga area of Nassarawa State practice random grazing where most of

the grasses are set on fire so that new ones could grow for their cattle to

feed on, making it difficult for other plants to sprout this practice

accordingly has led to the extinction of various plants and thereby

introducing foreign species that further impoverish the soil.

vi. Mining

Nigeria mineral potential is very high. Every day, new mineral resources

are being discovered. Mining sector is very intensive and very lucrative

(Sands, 2005). It is a lucrative activity which promotes development booms

which may attract population growth with consequent deforestation. The

swamp forest of Southern Nigeria were previously protected from

destruction or over exploitation due to their relatively inaccessibility as a

result of the swampy nature of the environment. However, today, these

forests are being destroyed as a result of petroleum exploration,

exploitation and spillage (Akachuku, 2006). Mining of several minerals in

Nigeria such as bayrite, tin, coal etc has led to the destruction of the forest

and scarification of the landscape.

vii. Tourism

National parks and sanctuaries without doubt protect the forest, but

uncaptioned and improper opening of these areas to the public for tourism

is damaging. Unfortunately, the national governments of tropical and sub-

tropical countries Nigeria inclusive adopt tourism for easy way of making

money sacrificing stringent management strategies. Further many

companies and resorts who advertise themselves as eco-tourist

establishments are in fact exploiting the forests for profit. Similarly, most

staff of the resorts allowed poachers and loggers who depleted the forests

for stipends.

viii. Corruption and political cause

The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) (2015) reports identified

forest crime and corruption as one of the main causes of deforestation and

warned that immediate attention has to be given to illegal activities and

corruption in the world’s forests in many countries (Chakravarty et al

2014). Illegal forest practices may include the approval of illegal contracts
with private enterprises by forestry officers, illegal sale of harvesting

permits, under-declaring volumes cut in public forest, under pricing of

wood in concessions, harvesting of protected free by commercial

corporations, smuggling of forest products across borders and allowing

illegal logging, processing forest raw materials without a license.

(Chakravarty et al 2014). In Nigeria poaching in the forests is corruptly

allowed by forest guards.

Other causes of deforestation as identified by Mfon et al (2014)

include climatic agents

(sunlight, water, wind) and biotic agents (microbes, animals and plants)

4.2 Effect of Deforestation in Nigeria

i. Decreased biodiversity and habitat loss

Forest especially those in the tropics serve as storehouses of biodiversity

and consequently deforestation, fragmentation and degradation destroy

the biodiversity as a whole and habitat for migratory species including the

endangered ones. Tropical forests support about two thirds of all known

species and contain 65% of the worlds 10,000 endangered species (Myers

and Mihermeier, 2000). In Nigeria, many trees, shrubs, herbs and assorted
animals have been depleted while some are endangered. Mfon et al (2014)

reported that several plant species have been over exploited especially

those with edible seeds, nuts and kernels are now endangered. Most

primates such as guenons, mangabeys, drills, chimpanzees and gorillas are

now endangered (Akachuku, 2006). In fact, the lowland gorilla which is

endemic to the Cross River National Park at Mbe Mountain is seriously

endangered through hunting and habitat destruction. Numerous elephants

that were found in our ecosystems have disappeared while the number of

other mammals such as hippopotamus, manatees and leopards has

decreased tremendously. Reptiles such as crocodiles, monitor lizards,

alligators, royal python and boar constrictor are very few. Also, several

species of amphibians, fruit bats, fishes, snails, birds e.t.c are threatened,

endangered or extinct. (Mfon et al 2014).

ii. Climate change

Forests play significant role in sequaration of carbon dioxide one of the

greenhouse gases that cause global warning and global climate change but

when forest are depleted lot of process resulting into global warming

resulted. Deforestation disrupts normal weather pattern creating hotter and

driver weather thus increasing drought and desertification, crop failures,

melting of the polar ice caps, coastal flooding and displacement of major

vegetation regimes. In the dry forest zones, land degradation has become

an increasingly serious problem resulting in extreme cases of

desertification. Degradation is the consequences of extremes in climatic

variation and unsustainable land use practices including over cutting of

forest cover (Chakravarty et al 2014). The baseline scenario in Nigeria

shows that at the current deforestation rate of 1.3%, emissions of

greenhouse gases are expected to increase from 9.5 MtC/year in 1990 to

about 15.5 MtC/year in 2030. (Federal Ministry of Environment, 2010).

Though, most of the activities leading to global climate change have been

attributed mostly to the developed nations of the world. Evidences of the

scourge have been noticed in Nigeria, these are reflected in extreme

weather conditions inform of irregular rain, high temperature, and

incursion of desert like conditions into the country from the Sahara desert,

among others.

iii. Loss of Water and Soil Resources

Deforestation also disrupts the global water cycle. Deforested area cannot

hold as much water hence, a drier climate is created. The following water

resources elements are said to be affected by deforestation; drinking

water, fisheries and aquatic habitats, flood/drought control and damage to

crops and irrigation systems from erosion and turbidity (Bruijnzeel et al.,

2005). Forests serve as natural filter by filtering runoff and at the same

time regulate water flow to check flooding. Deforestation on the other

hand results into downstream flooding, which may lead to disaster. A

number of flooding incidences have been recorded in Nigeria, especially in

the Northern, South western and the Eastern parts, these incidences have

resulted to loss of properties and life. The long term effect of deforestation

on the soil resource can be severe. Clearing the vegetative cover for slash

and burn farming exposes the soil to the intensity of the tropical sun and

torrential rains. rainfall runs-off soil that have been hardened by exposure

much faster than before, the most fertile top layer of soil that can support

forest regeneration is therefore greatly reduced and this may persists for

so many years since rapidly eroded soil is not replaced within a human

generation.

iv. Economics Losses

The global tropical forests destroyed each year amounts to a loss in forest

capital valued at US $ 45billion (Hansen, 1997). In Nigeria the value of lost

forest cover has been estimated at US$750 million annually at 1989 prices.
(Federal Ministry of Environment, 2010). The remaining forest area in

Nigeria will likely disappear by 2020 if the current rate of forest depletion

continues unabated. Going with the forests are all potential future

revenues and future employment that could be derived from their

sustainable management.

v. Social Consequences

Deforestation, in other words, is an expression of social injustice

(Colchester and Lohmann, 1993). The most immediate social impact of

deforestation occurs at the local level with the loss of ecological services

provided by the forests. Forests afford humans valuable services such as

erosion prevention, flood control, water treatment, fisheries protection and

pollination functions that are particularly important to the world’s poorest

people who rely on natural resources for their everyday survival.

(Chakravarty et al 2012)

By destroying the forests these services disappeared. Attempt by the

government to replace traditional life styles, customs and religious beliefs

associated with forest resources with developmental projects are always

resisted by the native land owners. This often leads to social and land
conflicts especially where government refuse to pay compensation or

suggest resettlement. For instance the conflict generated on the proposed

site of Ekiti state international airport between the government and the

host communities comes to mind.

4.3 CONTROL STRATEGIES FOR DEFORESTATION

i. Promotion of Sustainable Forest Management

Sustainable forest management entails that the forest must be

ecologically, economically and socially sustained. Ecologically, values of the

forest can only be maintained when actions that lead to forest depletion

are guided against. In other words silviculture and management should not

reduce biodiversity, soil erosion should be controlled, soil fertility should

not be lost, water quality on and off site should be maintained and that

forest health and vitality should be safeguarded. (Chakravarty et al 2012).

However, management for environmental services alone is not

economically and socially sustainable. The implication of this is that the

cost of maintaining sustainable forest management has to be met by the

government. For instance, a study carried out by the Federal Ministry of

Environment in 2010 suggested that the capital need for afforestation,

agro- forestry and establishment of more forest reserves over a forty year

plan would be $3.8 billion, $2.4 billion ,and $758.4 million respectively.

How to meet this substantial budget remain a mirage especially in a face of

dwindling oil revenue and mono economic debacle. This notwithstanding,

the federal government National Forest Policy is geared towards ensuring

sustainable forest management, promoting participatory process of

development, facilitating private sector – forestry development and

adopting an integrated approach to forestry development. Government is

currently embarking on a number of afforestation programmes. Under the

guidance of the African Union Commission, Nigeria is keying into the

project on the “Green Wall Initiative” in which a “green wall” of trees (40

million trees annually) will be planted across the dry-land area of Nigeria to

not only push back deforestation and secure agriculture and livelihoods

across the Sudano-Sahelian zone of the country, but also enhance the

carbon sequestration of biological diversity resources in the region for

climate change mitigation.

ii. Substitution for Forest Resources

Presently, Nigeria lacks adequate substitution for most forest products, for

instance access to affordable cooking energy is beyond the reach of many

Nigerians. The high cost and scarcity of kerozene and cooking gas

encourage massive consumption of fuel wood and charcoal with their

attendant forest depletion. Similarly, there are no alternative for timber and

wood consume in paper manufacturing. For all purpose where forest

products are been used there is need for substitution, otherwise forest

harvesting has to be commensurate with sustainable forest management

especially afforestation.

iii. Increase Area for Forest Plantation and Area Permanently

Reserve for Timber Production.

Forest plantation can be increase by using most of the vacant or unused as

well as waste lands to plant trees. Large expanse of deforested land scatter

all over the country especially in the south western Nigeria and the derived

savanna of the North-Central part can be used for this purpose. There is no

doubt that afforestation programme outside forest area would ease

pressure on forests and make wood available for timber, fuel wood and
charcoal productions which are the leading agents of deforestation in the

country.

iv. The Need for Enforcement of Policies, Legislature Regulatory

Measures.

There is no doubt that Nigeria has over the years spelt out a series of

policy statements, law and regulatory measures towards ensuring

sustainable forest management. However, most of these laudable steps are

not properly implemented nor sincerely pursued; hence, the advantages

inherent in them are not achieved. Apart from this most of these policies

and regulations need modifications and adjustments. Of equal importance

is the need for the policies and regulations to take into consideration the

customs, norms and right of the people especially forest dwellers and those

who depend on the forest, such actions would encourage the people and

even institutions to participate effectively in sustainable forest

management.

v. Massive Research in Forestry Education and Creation of

Awareness
Due to high level of illiteracy in the country, most of the populace lack an

in-depth knowledge on the needs for sustainable forest management and

mostly the evils of deforestation. Training and education equips the

stakeholders on how to prevents or reduce the adverse effects associated

with deforestation and forestry activities. (Chakravarty et al 2012).

Researches on forestry provide information on the nature of the problems,

causative factors and how to ameliorate them. The general findings are

then communicated to the general public through mass media, focus group

discussion, and town hall meetings among others agents of information

dissemination. Similarly, forestry policies makers also need to be educated

enormously on the complexity of the interacting ecological, economical,

social, cultural and political factors involved in sustainable forest

management.
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

Deforestation in Nigeria has been mainly attributed to the grassroots poor

people who means of survival were basically embedded in the forests but

on the other hands are been denied access to these resources. Other

agents of forest depletion are mainly developmental projects oriented.

Persistent deforestation is further compounded by the fact that majority of

the Nigerian populace lacked in-depth knowledge of the consequences of

deforestation. Ways of reducing deforestation must therefore go hand in

hand with improving the welfare and environmental knowledge of the

populace otherwise they would fail. General or permanent solutions and

strategies would remain elusive since these will vary with region and will

change over time. Notwithstanding, all strategies require cooperation and

good will. Effectives implementation is essential, including stakeholders

participation, development of management plans, monitoring and

enforcement of the strategies should be such that on one hand they should

recognize the critical roles of governments at the three levels of

administration and on the other hand empower the civil society and the

private sector to take a pro-active role in reducing deforestation, and

should always work in conjunction with government.

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