Slavic Languages - West Slavic

7/29/2019 Slavic languages - West Slavic | Britannica.
com
Introduction
Languages of the family
South Slavic
The Eastern subgroup: Bulgarian and Macedonian

The Western subgroup: Serbian, Croatian, and Slovene
West Slavic
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Polish and other Lekhitic languages
Sorbian
West Slavic
Czech-Slovak
Polish and
East Slavic: other
Russian, Lekhitic
Ukrainian, languages
and Belarusian
Historical survey
To the West Slavic branch belong Polish and other Lekhitic languages (Kashubian
Proto-Balto-Slavic
and its archaic variant Slovincian), Upper and Lower Sorbian (also called Lusatian
Innovations
orHypothetical
Wendish),origins
Czech, and Slovak. In the early 21st century more than 40 million
people
The lossspoke Polish
of reduced not only in Poland and other parts of eastern Europe (notably
vowels
in what
The earlyare now Lithuania,
development the Czech
of the Slavic Republic, and Belarus) but in France, the
languages
United States, and
The emergence Canada
of the asSlavic
individual well. languages
The modern Slavic languages

The main Polish dialects are Great Polish (spoken in the northwest), Little Polish
Linguistic characteristics
(spoken in the southeast), Silesian, and Mazovian. The last dialect shares some
Common features
features with Kashubian. The remaining speakers of Kashubian live west of
Phonological characteristics
Gdańsk near the Baltic Sea. Slovincian—now extinct—belonged to the Northern
Palatalization
group of Kashubian dialects, which is distinguished from a Southern group.
Stress accents
Kashubian dialects (including Slovincian) are considered to be the remnants of a
Grammatical characteristics
Pomeranian subgroup within the Lekhitic group. Lekhitic also included Polabian,
Cases
which was spoken up to the 17th–18th century by the Slavic population of the Elbe
Noun forms
(Labe) River region. (At that time a dictionary and some phrases in the language
Verb tenses
were written down.)
Syntax
Vocabulary
Sorbian
Writing systems
The Polabian language bordered the Sorbian dialects, which are still spoken by
inhabitants of Lusatia in eastern Germany. There are two literary languages:
Upper Sorbian, used around Bautzen (Budyšin), and Lower Sorbian, used around
Cottbus.
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7/29/2019 Slavic languages - West Slavic | Britannica.com
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Sorbian
Czech-Slovak
East Slavic: Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian

Czech-Slovak
Historical survey
Proto-Balto-Slavic
In the early 21st century Czech was spoken by some 12 million people in the Czech
Innovationsits dialects are divided into Bohemian, Moravian, and Silesian groups.
Republic;
Hypothetical origins
The literary language is based on the 16th-century form of the Central Bohemian
The loss of reduced vowels
dialect of Prague. The Slovak literary language was formed on the basis of a
The early development of the Slavic languages
Central Slovak dialect in the middle of the 19th century. Western Slovak dialects
The emergence of the individual Slavic languages
are similar to Moravian and differ from the Central and the Eastern dialects, which
have features in common with Polish and Ukrainian. In the early 21st century
some six million people spoke Slovak; most lived in Slovakia.
Common features
East Slavic:
Phonological Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian
characteristics
Palatalization
Stress accents
Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian constitute the East Slavic language group. In
the early 21st century Russian was spoken as a native language by some 160
Cases
million people, including many inhabitants of countries that formerly were part of
Noun forms
the Soviet Union. Its main dialects are a Northern Great Russian group, a Southern
Verb tenses
Great Russian group, and a transitional Central group, including the dialect of
Syntax
Moscow, on which the literary language is based.
Vocabulary
Writing systems
Introduction
Ukrainian dialects are classi ed into Northern, Southeastern, Southwestern, and
South Slavic
Carpathian groups (the last having features in common with Slovak); the literary
language is based on the Kiev-Poltava dialect. In the early 21st century more than
37 million people spoke Ukrainian in Ukraine and neighbouring countries, and
West Slavic
there were more than 350,000 Ukrainian speakers in Canada and the United
States. Carpathian, also called Carpatho-Rusyn, has sometimes been considered a
Sorbian
language apart. In 1995 a codi ed form of it (Rusyn) was presented in Slovakia,
Czech-Slovak
thus enabling
East Slavic: the Ukrainian,
Russian, teachingand
of Rusyn in schools.
Belarusian
Historical survey
In the early 21st century some seven million people spoke Belarusian in Belarus.
Proto-Balto-Slavic
Its main dialectal groups are Southwestern Belarusian, some features of which
Innovations
may be explained by contact with Polish, and Northeastern Belarusian. The
dialect of Minsk, which served as a basis for the literary language, lies near the
border between those two groups.

Historical Survey
Proto-Balto-Slavic
Common features
Innovations
Palatalization
Stress accents
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Cases
Noun forms
Verb tenses
Syntax
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Each branch of Slavic originally developed from Proto-Slavic, the ancestral parent
language of the group, which in turn developed from an earlier language that
was also the antecedent of the Proto-Baltic language. Both Slavic and Baltic share
Introduction
with the eastern Indo-European languages (called satem languages) the same
Languages of the family palatal ḱ and ǵ sounds (consonants produced by
change of Indo-European
South Slavic
bringing the blade, or front, of the tongue up to or toward the hard palate, as in
The Eastern
English cue,subgroup:
argue)Bulgarian and Macedonian
into spirants of the s and z type (for example, in Proto-Slavic
*sŭto ‘hundred’ has an s sound contrasting with the k sound in Latin centum). (An
West Slavic
asterisk indicates a reconstructed rather than an attested form.) The Slavic and
Baltic branches are characterized by several innovations—including the change of
Sorbian
the old Indo-European syllabic r and l (which functioned as vowels) to ir or ur, il or
Czech-Slovak
ul—and similar patterns of stress in nouns and verbs.
Historical survey
Proto-Balto-Slavic
Innovations
Some scholars believe that, after the common Indo-European area had divided
into different dialect zones (after approximately 3000 BCE), a protodialect
developed in the Baltic and Slavic areas that had many features peculiar to only
those two branches of Indo-European. At the same time, that protodialect was
connected with certain western Indo-European protodialects called Old European
that are identi ed as the source of a number of river names. The ancient Baltic
Linguistic
and Slaviccharacteristics
names of rivers (hydronyms), such as the Russian Oka, are of the same
Common
type features
as the hydronyms found in central Europe.
The dialects of the Slavic protolanguage spoken near the Carpathian Mountains
Palatalization
inStress
the upper
accents Vistula River area may have been part of the intermediate zone
situated between
Grammatical the western Indo-European dialects (Germanic, Celtic, Italic,
characteristics
and so on) and the eastern Indo-European ones. In addition to Baltic and Slavic in
Cases
the north,
Noun formsthat intermediate zone included the ancient Indo-European languages
ofVerb
thetenses
Balkans (Illyrian, Thracian, and Phrygian). The domain of the Proto-Balto-
Syntaxdialect may have been situated to the east of the Germanic and other Old
Slavic
Vocabularydialects, to the north of Ancient Balkanic, and to the west of Tocharian.
European
Writing systems
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Introduction

South Slavic
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Sorbian
Czech-Slovak

The exact geographic borders of the Balto-Slavic domain appear impossible to
Historical survey
determine, but they may well have been located in eastern Europe around
Proto-Balto-Slavic
present-day Lithuania and to the east and south of it. The later diffusion of Slavic
Innovations
languages southward into the Carpathian region may represent the spread of one
of the dialects of that Old Baltic domain. The oldest Slavic protolanguage could
be described as the result of further changes acting on the Baltic protolanguage
(but not vice versa).

Until the middle of the 1st millennium CE, the Slavs were known to other peoples
as the inhabitants of the vast territories between the Dnieper and Vistula rivers. In
Common
the featuresCE the Slavs expanded to the Elbe River and the Adriatic Sea and
6th century
Phonological
across characteristics
the Danube River to the Peloponnese (southern Greece). In that period,
according to the oldest Greek and Latin writings about the Slavs, they were
Palatalization
Stress accents
already divided into several groups. The Slavic language, however, was uniform in
Grammatical
its characteristics
phonological and grammatical structure, with important dialectal variations
Cases
occurring only in the vocabulary. The main phonological difference between the
Noun forms
oldest pattern common to Baltic and Slavic and the later one that characterized
Verb tenses
Slavic alone was that in Slavic all syllables became open (i.e., a syllable could end
Syntax
only in a vowel). Thus, all consonants at the end of a syllable were lost. That led to
Vocabulary
a reshuf ing of most of the in ectional endings.
Writing systems
An important clue to the date of the dissolution of Slavic unity is the separate
development in different Slavic dialects of the name of the emperor Charlemagne
(747?–814). That name must have entered into Slavic in the postulated form *korljĭ
‘Karl’ before the dissolution took place. Subsequently the proper name became
the generic term for ‘king.’ The segment -or- in the postulated form appears
differently in the modern Slavic languages—compare Bulgarian kral, Serbian and
Croatian kralj, Slovene králj (i.e., South Slavic -ra-), Russian korol’ (i.e., East Slavic -
Introduction
oro-), Czech král, Polish król.
Southloss
The Slavic of reduced vowels

The next period in Slavic linguistic history began with the loss of the “reduced”
West Slavic
vowels ŭ and ĭ, called yers, that resulted from Indo-European short u and i; that
loss caused a wide-ranging change in many words and forms. Although that
Sorbian
process was common to all the Slavic dialects, which were still connected with
Czech-Slovak
each other at that period, it took place slowly and at different rates in different
dialects, beginning in the 10th to the 12th century and expanding from the
Historical survey
southwest to the northeast. With the loss of the yers, which gave different results
Proto-Balto-Slavic
in different dialectal groups, the uniformity of the Slavic language area nally
Innovations
disappeared, and separate branches and languages emerged.
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Introduction
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Historical survey
The separate development of South Slavic was caused by a break in the links
Proto-Balto-Slavic
between the Balkan and the West Slavic groups that resulted from the settling of
Innovations
the Magyarsorigins
Hypothetical in Hungary during the 10th century and from the Germanization of
the
TheSlavic regions
loss of reduced of Bavaria and Austria. Some features common to Slovak and
vowels
Slovene
The earlymay have developed
development before
of the Slavic the West-South break. The eastward
languages
expansion of dialects
The emergence of Balkan
of the individual Romanian
Slavic (a Romance language) led to a break in
languages
the
The connection
modern Slavicbetween the South and the East Slavic groups about the 11th–12th
languages
century. The
Linguistic history of the Balkan Slavs was closely connected with Byzantium, in
characteristics
contrast to that of the Lekhitic and Sorbian subgroups of the Western Slavs,
Common features
which was connected with western European culture.
Palatalization
An effort on the part of the Slavs to counteract the in uence of the Western
Stress accents
Christian church (which was associated with the German empire) was the motive
behind the introduction of the Old Church Slavonic language into the liturgy in
Cases
Great Moravia, the rst Slavic national state. Founded in the 9th century, Great
Noun forms
Moravia united different groups speaking West Slavic dialects. In 863 its prince,
Verb tenses
Rostislav, invited St. Cyril and his brother St. Methodius to create a national church
Syntax
with a language and writing of its own. Prior to that time some Christian texts in
Vocabulary
Moravia might have been translated into Slavic from Latin (and partly perhaps
Writing systems
from Old High German); those have been preserved only in later copies.
The disciples of Cyril and Methodius were soon forced to leave Moravia, and
mostly they went south. The second period in the history of the Old Church
Slavonic language (893–1081) occurred in the Bulgarian kingdoms of Symeon
(893–927) and Peter (927–969) and in the kingdom of Samuel (997–1014). It was
connected with the literary activity of many Bulgarian scholars who translated
numerous Greek texts into Slavic and also produced a small number of original
Introduction
works. In the writings of the period of Symeon and Peter, Western (Macedonian)
Languages of the
features were familyby Eastern (Bulgarian) ones.
replaced
South Slavic
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Historical survey
Proto-Balto-Slavic
Innovations
Both the Western

Hypothetical origins and Eastern variants (recensions) of the Old Church Slavonic
The loss of reduced

language vowels
are preserved in manuscripts of the 11th century, whereas the East
The early
Slavic development
(Russian) of the
variant is reSlavic languages
ected in the oldest dated Slavic manuscript, The
The emergence
Ostromir of the
Gospel individual
(1056–57), andSlavic languages
in many later texts. The Moravian variant must be
The modern Slavic
reconstructed onlanguages
the basis of some later texts (such as the Kiev fragments from
the beginning of the 11th century), which were written after the break with the
Great
CommonMoravian
featurestradition.
In some documents of the 10th and 11th centuries, the Bohemian variant (which
Palatalization
shares some West Slavic peculiarities with Moravian) has been preserved. Several
Stress accents
features are common to the Moravian and Bohemian varieties of the Old Church
Slavonic
Cases
language, to the Slovene (Pannonian) variant re ected in the Freising
fragments
Noun forms (late 10th century), and to the Croatian Old Church Slavonic tradition
that
Verbistenses
attested from the 12th century as well as to the Serbian tradition. All those
variants
Syntax of Old Church Slavonic have some peculiarities that are to be explained
as the result of the interaction of the original system with that of a local dialect. In
Vocabulary
approximately1000
Writing systems CE all Slavic languages were so similar to one another that
such interaction was possible.
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Introduction

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West Slavic Available on these voice-enabled devices
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Czech-Slovak

From those local variants of Old Church Slavonic that are preserved in the
Historical survey
manuscripts of the 10th–12th century, one should distinguish the later local
Proto-Balto-Slavic
Church Slavonic languages (Russian, with its variants; Middle Bulgarian; Serbian,
Innovations
which in the 18th century was replaced in Serbia by the Russian variant; Croatian;
and the Romanian variant of Church Slavonic, which was used as a literary and
church language in Romania from the 14th to the 18th century). From the
linguistic point of view, those later Church Slavonic literary languages differ from
the earlier varieties chie y in their systems of vowels; the early nasalized vowels
were replaced by different later re exes, and the reduced vowels (yers), with the
exception of those followed by a syllable containing another yer, were generally
Common
lost. Suchfeatures
changes in the sound pattern were accompanied by a number of
Phonological
culturally characteristics
determined changes in vocabulary.
Palatalization
Stress accents
Cases
After the schism between the Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Roman) Christian
Noun forms
churches in the 11th century and the beginning of the Crusades, the Church
Verb tenses
Slavonic language fell out of use in all West Slavic countries and in the western
Syntax
part of the Balkan Slavic region. The only exception was the renaissance of
Vocabulary
Croatian Church Slavonic in the 13th century. At the end of the same century, the
Writing systems
rst Czech verses in the local dialect were written; they were the precursors of the
rich poetic literature in the Old Czech language that appeared in the 14th century.
The early Czech literary language was marked by the in uence of Latin, which had
replaced the Bohemian variety of Old Church Slavonic as a literary language.
In the earliest period of its development, the Polish literary language was
modeled on the Czech pattern. After the Christianization of Poland, Latin (and
later German) loanwords entered the Polish language in their Czech form. The
Introduction
Czech in uence is seen in the Polish literary language until the 16th century (the
Languages of the
“Golden Age”), family
when Renaissance tendencies resulted in the creation of genuinely
South Slavic
literary works more closely re ecting everyday speech. Later, the Polish literary
language was enriched by cross-fertilization with Ukrainian and Belarusian.
In theSlavic
West 16th century in Dalmatia, poets who were in uenced by the Italian
Renaissance (and
Polish and other who
Lekhitic also wrote in Italian and Latin) created a rich poetic
languages
literature
Sorbian in Croatian. A Slovene translation of the Bible was published in 1575–84,
Czech-Slovak
and Kashubian and Sorbian religious texts were also produced during that period.
Eastcomparatively
The Slavic: Russian, Ukrainian,
early riseand Belarusian
of the West Slavic (and the westernmost South Slavic)
Historical
languages survey
as separate literary vehicles was related to a variety of religious and
political factors that resulted in the decline of the western variants of the Church
Proto-Balto-Slavic
Slavonic language.
Innovations
InThe
contrast, the continuing
loss of reduced vowels use of Bulgarian Church Slavonic and different variants
of
TheRussian Church Slavonic
early development made
of the Slavic it dif cult to construct literary languages for
languages
Bulgarian and Russian
The emergence that were
of the individual Slavicbased on everyday speech. Bulgarian texts were
languages
written in Bulgarian
The modern Church Slavonic until the 16th century. After that the so-
Slavic languages
called Damaskin
Linguistic religious literature developed, closer to the popular speech; its
characteristics
development, however, was hampered under Turkish rule. Most of the Old East
Common features
Slavic (Old Russian) literary texts were written in a mixture of Russian Church
Slavonic and the Old Russian vernacular language; only a few documents,
Palatalization
particularly some parts of the chronicles (annals), were written entirely in Old
Stress accents
Russian. The proportion of South Slavic (Church Slavonic) and East Slavic (Old
Russian)
Cases
elements in each text is different depending on its stylistic peculiarities.
Noun forms
In the middle of the 17th century, the old Great Russian variant of the Church
Verb tenses
Slavonic language in the of cial Orthodox Church was replaced by a new variant
Syntax
taken from the southwestern East Slavic tradition, a form that incorporated some
Vocabulary
Ukrainian and Belarusian elements. That development was connected with a split
Writing systems
in the Russian Orthodox Church. The Old Believers, who split off from the main
body of the church, continued to use the archaic Great Russian variant, whereas
Patriarch Nikon’s new variant, based on the southwestern tradition, was adopted
by the of cial church and is used in it to this day. Because the Ukrainian tradition
includes many West Slavic elements, that reform, which occurred after the
incorporation of Ukraine into the Russian Empire, was a step in the direction of
the Westernization of the Russian language that took place about 1700, when Tsar
Peter I the Great began his attempts to reconstruct and Westernize the whole
Introduction
Russian way of life.
In the Slavic
South 18th and 19th centuries, many waves of loanwords from different Western
languages enteredBulgarian
The Eastern subgroup: the Russian language. During an earlier period Russian
and Macedonian
sentence structures
The Western had been
subgroup: Serbian, formed
Croatian, on Germanic and Latin patterns; the
and Slovene
intensive
West SlavicFrench-Russian bilingualism of the Russian elite in the 18th and 19th
centuries
Polish and not
otheronly in languages
Lekhitic uenced syntax but also brought a shift in the range of
meanings
Sorbian of Russian words as the elite came into contact with western European
Czech-Slovak
concepts. The great Russian literature of the 19th and early 20th centuries (from
East Slavic: Russian,
Aleksandr PushkinUkrainian, and up
[1799–1837] Belarusian
until Leo Tolstoy’s death in 1910) created a
Historical survey close to everyday speech, especially to that of the villages. In the
literary language
of cial style of Russian, however, Church Slavonic elements are still widespread, as
Proto-Balto-Slavic
can be seen even in general newspaper articles.
Innovations
The
Theconcept of avowels
loss of reduced language that would unite all the Slavs has remained in the back
of
Thethe Slavic
early consciousness,
development not languages
of the Slavic as a real aim but rather as an important symbol.
An
Theearly interesting
emergence of the attempt
individual to unite
Slavic different chronological and local Slavic strata
languages
was carried Slavic
The modern out by the 17th-century Croatian traveler to Russia Juraj Križanić. In
languages
modern literature one might cite the experiments at uni cation of Velimir
Khlebnikov, a Russian Futurist poet, and of the Polish poet Julian Tuwim, who
Common features
invented words based on Russian and other Slavic roots in some of his poems.
Palatalization
The
Stress modern
accents Slavic languages
Among
Cases the Slavic languages that attained their standard literary form at a later
stage
Nounin Slavic history than those mentioned above is Ukrainian. It was used in
forms
some literary texts in the late 18th century and in turn in uenced the language of
Verb tenses
Nikolay
Syntax Gogol, one of the greatest Russian writers of the 19th century. In the 19th
Vocabulary
century and especially in the rst decades of the 20th century, a number of great
poets wrote
Writing in Ukrainian, notably Taras Shevchenko (1814–61) and Lesya Ukrainka
systems
(1871–1913). The movement toward national liberation led to the introduction of

many neologisms into the language, which persisted even after the advent of
Russian pressure to bring the languages closer again. After World War I the
Belarusian language became a standard language in the Belorussian Soviet
Socialist Republic (now Belarus).
Since the breakup of the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia, all the
Introduction
Slavic languages have acquired the status of the main language of an
Languages
independentof the family
state. Only the minor languages are exceptions: e.g., Kashubian is
Southof
used Slavic
cially only in some cultural performances, and Upper and Lower Sorbian
The
are Eastern subgroup:
taught Bulgarian and
in local schools Macedonian
in eastern Germany. The extent of dialectal variation in
the different languages ranges from a very great degree in Slovene to a much
West Slavic
smaller degree in Polish and Russian. Radio and other mass media have been
among the main in uences leading to linguistic consolidation. Languages such
Sorbian
as Polish, Czech, and Russian, which have served as a basis for great literatures,
Czech-Slovak
have become models for others that are only now being put to literary use
(although for such languages as Kashubian and, to some degree, for Sorbian, the
Historical survey
folk literature remains much more important as a model than individual literary
Proto-Balto-Slavic
works and translations of past centuries).
Innovations
Common features
Palatalization
PART 1: PATH TO THE MOON
Stress accents
Take A Year-Long
Grammatical characteristics Journey
Cases
To Examine Space.
Noun forms
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Verb tenses
Syntax
Vocabulary
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Introduction

South Slavic
West Slavic
Sorbian
Czech-Slovak
Historical survey
Proto-Balto-Slavic
Innovations
Common features
Palatalization
Stress accents
Cases
Noun forms
Verb tenses
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Syntax
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Vocabulary
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©2019 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Historical survey
Proto-Balto-Slavic
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Common features
Palatalization
Stress accents
Cases
Noun forms
Verb tenses
Syntax
Vocabulary
Writing systems

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The modern Slavic languages

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East Slavic: Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian

The emergence of the individual Slavic languages

Languages of the family

Take A Year-Long Journey

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The modern Slavic languages

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such interaction was possible.

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West Slavic Available on these voice-enabled devices

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East Slavic: Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian

(1871–1913). The movement toward national liberation led to the introduction of

The loss of reduced vowels

The early development of the Slavic languages

The emergence of the individual Slavic languages

The modern Slavic languages

Languages of the family

The Western subgroup: Serbian, Croatian, and Slovene

East Slavic: Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian

The loss of reduced vowels

The early development of the Slavic languages

The emergence of the individual Slavic languages

The modern Slavic languages

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The loss of reduced vowels

The early development of the Slavic languages

The emergence of the individual Slavic languages

The modern Slavic languages

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