Rain Water Harvesting

The Potential

The total amount of water that is received in the form of rainfall

over an area is called the rainwater endowment of that area. Out of this, the
amount that can be effectively harvested is called the water harvesting potential.

Influencing factors

Among the several factors that influence the rainwater harvesting potential
of a site, eco-climatic conditions and the catchment characteristics are
considered to be the most important.

a. Rainfall
i)Quantity: Rainfall is the most unpredictable variable in the calculation and
hence, to determine the potential rainwater supply for a given catchment, reliable
rainfall data are required, preferably for a period of at least10 years. Also, it
would be far better to use rainfall data from the nearest station with comparable
conditions.

ii) Pattern: The number of annual rainy

days also influences the need and design
for rainwater harvesting. The fewer the
annual rainy days or longer the dry period,
the more the need for rainwater collection
in a region. However, if the dry period is
too long, big storage tanks would be
needed to store rainwater. Hence in such
regions, it is more feasible to use
rainwater to recharge groundwater
aquifers rather than for storage.

b. Catchment area characteristics

Runoff depends upon the area and type of the catchment over which it
falls as well as surface features.
All calculations relating to the performance of rainwater catchment
systems involve the use of runoff coefficient to account for losses due to spillage,
leakage, infiltration, catchment surface wetting and evaporation, which will all
contribute to reducing the amount of runoff. (Runoff coefficient for any catchment
is the ratio of the volume of water that runs off a surface to the volume of rainfall
that falls on the surface).
 Runoff coefficients for various catchment surfaces:

Type of Catchment Coefficients

Roof Catchments
- Tiles 0.8- 0.9
- Corrugated metal sheets 0.7- 0.9
Ground surface coverings
- Concrete 0.6- 0.8
- Brick pavement 0.5- 0.6
Untreated ground catchments
- Soil on slopes less than 10 per cent 0.0 - 0.3
- Rocky natural catchments 0.2 - 0.5
Untreated ground catchments
- Soil on slopes less than 10 per cent 1.0 - 0.3
- Rocky natural catchments 0.2 - 0.5

Source : Pacey, Arnold and Cullis, Adrian 1989, Rainwater Harvesting: The collection of
rainfall and runoff in rural areas, Intermediate Technology Publications, London

Based on the above factors the water harvesting potential of a site could
be estimated using the formula given below.

Water harvesting potential = Rainfall (mm) x Area of catchment x Runoff coefficient

Harvesting System
Broadly rainwater can be harvested for two purposes
 Storing rainwater for ready use in containers above or below ground
 Charged into the soil for withdrawal later (groundwater recharging)

Source: A Water Harvesting Manual For Urban Areas

From where to harvest rain

Rainwater harvesting can be harvested from the following surfaces

 Rooftops: If buildings with impervious roofs are already
in place, the catchment area is effectively available free of charge and
they provide a supply at the point of consumption.

Paved and unpaved areas i.e., landscapes, open

fields, parks, stormwater drains, roads and pavements and other open
areas can be effectively used to harvest the runoff. The main advantage in using ground
as collecting surface is that water can be collected from a larger area. This is particularly
advantageous in areas of low rainfall.

Waterbodies: The potential of lakes, tanks and

ponds to store rainwater is immense. The harvested rainwater
can not only be used to meet water requirements of the city, it
also recharges groundwater aquifers.

Stormwater drains: Most of the residential colonies have proper

network of stormwater drains. If maintained neatly, these offer a simple and cost
effective means for harvesting rainwater.

Whether to store rainwater or use it for recharge:

The decision whether to store or recharge water depends on the rainfall pattern
and the potential to do so, in a particular region. The sub-surface geology also plays an
important role in making this decision.

For example, Delhi, Rajasthan and Gujarat where the total annual rainfall occurs
during 3 or 4 months, are examples of places where groundwater recharge is usually
practiced. In places like Kerala, Mizoram, Tamil Nadu and Bangalore where rain falls
throughout the year barring a few dry periods, one can depend on a small sized tank for
storing rainwater, since the period between two spells of rain is short. Wherever sub-
strata is impermeable recharging will not be feasible. Hence, it would be ideal to opt for
storage.

In places where the groundwater is saline or not of potable standards, the

alternate system could be that of storing rainwater.

Beyond generalisations, it is the requirement that governs the choice of water

harvesting technique. For example, in Ahemadabad, which has limited number of rainy
days as that of Delhi, traditional rainwater harvesting tanks, known as tankas, are used
to store rainwater even today in residential areas, temples and hotels.
 COMPONENTS OF A RAINWATER HARVESTING
SYSTEM

A rainwater harvesting system comprises components

of various stages - transporting rainwater through pipes
or drains, filtration, and storage in tanks for reuse or
recharge. The common components of a rainwater
harvesting system involved in these stages are
Source: A water harvesting manual
illustrated here.
for urban areas
1. Catchments: The catchment of a water harvesting
system is the surface which directly receives the rainfall and provides water to the
system. It can be a paved area like a terrace or
courtyard of a building, or an unpaved area like
a lawn or open ground. A roof made of
reinforced cement concrete (RCC), galvanised
iron or corrugated sheets can also be used for
water harvesting.

2. Coarse mesh at the roof to prevent the

passage of debris

3. Gutters:
Channels all around the edge of a sloping roof to Source: A water harvesting manual for urban areas
collect and transport rainwater to the storage
tank. Gutters can be semi-circular or rectangular and could be made using:
 Locally available material such as plain galvanised iron sheet (20 to 22 gauge),
folded to required shapes.
 Semi-circular gutters of PVC material can be readily prepared by cutting those
pipes into two equal semi-circular channels.
 Bamboo or betel trunks cut vertically in half.

The size of the gutter should be according to the flow during the highest
intensity rain. It is advisable to make them 10 to 15 per cent oversize.

Gutters need to be supported so they do not sag or fall off when loaded
with water. The way in which gutters are fixed depends on the construction of the house;
it is possible to fix iron or timber brackets into the walls, but for houses having wider
eaves, some method of attachment to the rafters is necessary.

Conduits
Conduits are pipelines or drains that carry rainwater from the catchment or rooftop area to
the harvesting system. Conduits can be of any material like polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or
galvanized iron (GI), materials that are commonly available.

The following table gives an idea about the diameter of pipe required for draining out
rainwater based on rainfall intensity and roof area:

Sizing of rainwater pipe for roof drainage

 Diameter
Of pipe Average rate of rainfall in mm/h
(mm)
50 75 100 125 150 200
50 13.4 8.9 6.6 5.3 4.4 3.3
65 24.1 16.0 12.0 9.6 8.0 6.0
75 40.8 27.0 20.4 16.3 13.6 10.2
100 85.4 57.0 42.7 34.2 28.5 21.3
125 - - 80.5 64.3 53.5 40.0
150 - - - - 83.6 62.7
mm/ h - millimeters per hour; m - meters

Source: National Building Code

5. First-flushing
A first flush device is a valve that ensures that runoff from the first spell of rain is
flushed out and does not enter the system. This needs to be done since the first spell of
rain carries a relatively larger amount of pollutants from the air and catchment surface.

Source: A water harvesting manual for urban areas

6. Filter
The filter is used to remove suspended pollutants from rainwater collected over roof. A
filter unit is a chamber filled with filtering media such as fibre, coarse sand and gravel
layers to remove debris and dirt from water before it enters the storage tank or recharge
structure. Charcoal can be added for additional filtration.

(i) Charcoal water filter

A simple charcoal filter can be made in a drum or an
earthen pot. The filter is made of gravel, sand and
charcoal, all of which are easily available.

Source: A water harvesting manual

for urban areas
(ii) Sand filters
Sand filters have commonly available sand as filter media. Sand filters are easy and
inexpensive to construct. These filters can be employed for treatment of water to
effectively remove turbidity (suspended particles like silt
and clay), colour and microorganisms.

In a simple sand filter that can be constructed

domestically, the top layer comprises coarse sand
followed by a 5-10 mm layer of gravel followed by
another 5-25 cm layer of gravel and boulders. Source: A water harvesting
manual for urban areas
(ii. a) Dewas
filters
Most residents in Dewas, Madhya Pradesh,
have wells in their houses. Formerly, all that
those wells would do was extract groundwater.
But then, the district administration of Dewas
initiated a groundwater recharge scheme. The
rooftop water was collected and allowed to pass
through a filter system called the Dewas fillter,
designed by Mohan Rao , district collecter of
Dewas, and engineers of the rural engineering services. The water thus filtered is put
into the service tubewell.

The filter consists of a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe 140 mm in diameter

and 1.2m long. There are three chambers. The first purification chamber has pebbles
varying between 2-6 mm, the second chamber has slightly larger pebbles, between 6
and 12 mm and the third chamber has the largest - 12-20 mm pebbles. There is a mesh
at the outflow side through which clean water
flows out after passing through the three
chambers. The cost of this filter unit is Rs 600.

Filter for large rooftops:

When rainwater is harvested in a large rooftop
area, the filtering system should accommodate the
excess flow. A system is designed with three
concentric circular chambers in which the outer
chamber is filled with sand, the middle one with
coarse aggregate and the inner-most layer with
pebbles.

This way the area of filtration is increased

for sand, in relation to coarse aggregate
and pebbles. Rainwater reaches the
centre core and is collected in the sump
where it is treated with few tablets of
chlorine and is made ready for
consumption. This system was designed
by
R Jeyakumar
(Source: Jeyakumar; Rain water Harvest
Manual P-21)
Varun:
S Vishwanath, a Bangalore water harvesting expert, has developed a rainwater filter
"VARUN". According to him, from a decently clean roof 'VARUN' can handle a 50 mm per
hour intensity rainfall from a 50 square metre roof area. This means the product is
relatively standardised. For new house builders we therefore can recommend the
number of downpipes they have to optimise on and the number of filters they will need.

'VARUN' is made from a 90 litre High Density

Poly Ethylene (HDPE) drum. The lid is turned over and holes
are puched in it. This is the first sieve which keeps out large
leaves, twigs etc. Rainwater coming out of the lid sieve then
passes through three layers of sponge and a 150 mm thick
layer of coarse sand. Presence of sponge makes the cleaning
process very easy. Remove the first layer of sponge and soak /clean it in a bucket of
water (which you then don't waste but use it for plants). The sand needs no cleaning at
all. The basic cost of the filter is about Rs 2250/-

ii. b. Horizontal roughing filter and slow sand filter

The introducton of horizontal roughing filter and
slow sand filter (HRF/SSF) to treat surface water
has made safe drinking water available in
coastal pockets of Orissa. The major
components of this filter are described below.

1) Filter channel : One square metre in cross-

section and eight m in length, laid across the
tank embankment, the filter channel consists of
three uniform compartments, the first packed
with broken bricks, the second with coarse sand,
followed by fine sand in the third compartment.
The HRF usually consists of filter material like gravel and coarse sand that successively
decreases in size from 25 mm to 4 mm. The bulk of solids in the incoming water is
separated by this coarse filter media or HRF. At every outlet and inlet point of the
channel, fine graded mesh is implanted to prevent entry of finer materials into the sump.
The length of a channel varies according to the nature of the site selected for the sump.

2) Sump: A storage provision to collect filtered water from the tank through the filter
channel for storage and collection. While HRF acts as a physical filter and is applied to
retain solid matter, SSF is primarily a biological filter, used to kill microbes in the water.
Both filter types are generally stable, making full use of the natural purification process
of harvested surface water and do not require any chemicals. For more details: Making
Water Everybody's Business
 iii. Rain PC
AcquaSure, a consortium of three specialist Netherlands-
based companies, has developed a system for the
conversion of rainwater to drinking water in the form of a
Rainwater Purification Centre (RainPC).

RainPC is developed by scaling down the

multi-staged water treatment method (MST), which
involves screening, flocculation sedimentation and
filtration and incorporating existing technologies like
upward flow fine filtration, absorption and ion exchange.
Coming in a small compact 26 kg unit, the RainPC offers
an affordable solution by converting rainwater into
drinking water.

RainPC is made of ultra violet resistant poly-ethylene housing and cover, stainless steel
rods and bolts, a nickel-brass valve and an adapter for maintaining constant volume.
Xenotex-A and activated carbon catridges along with ultra membrane filtration or micro-
membrane filtration modules incorporated in the RainPC has the capacity to deal with E-
coli and the potential of meeting the Dutch as well as World Health Organisations (WHO)
water regulation standards. The components can also be transported individually to be
assembled at the site. Three product types are available based on their microbial
contaminant removal capacity. This technology is ideally suited for virtually any situation
and is a blessing particularly for those who have little or no access to regular safe
drinking water.

The salient features of Rain PC are:

 Simple straight-forward installation

 Easy to operate and maintain
 Needs no power and operates at low gravity
pressure (0.1 bar upward).
 The system is capable of providing a constant
flow of about 40 liters of rainwater per hour,
enough for a family of five for drinking, cooking
and bathing purposes.
 Maintains nearly constant volume irrespective of
water pressure.
 The Xenotex-A and activated carbon cartridge
processes up to 20,000 liters and can be
regenerated up to 10 times.

 Cost per 1000 litres is as low as US$ 2 to 3.

(The above information is as per the manufacturers' claims and not based on any study
by CSE.) For further information Email: cleanwater@aquasure.nl

iv. Rainwater harvester

EA Water Pvt Ltd has launched a unique Rainwater Harvester, which filters runoff
Construction of a masonry tank under
water from roads, which generally contains oil and grease. This system has been
progress
installed in the Gymkhana club, Sector-15, Faridabad, Haryana. Rajit Malohtra, project in
charge, of this company explained that the water harvesting system installed at the club
has a sand filter, which filters silt from runoff harvested from roof, lawns and parking
area. The cost of the filter is around Rs 60,000.
For more details, contact
EA Water PVT Limited,
504 empire apartments,
Mehrauli-Gurgaon Road,
Sultanpur
New Delhi-110 030
Phone: 011-2680062
Website: www.eawater.com

Filters available in the German Market

According to Wessels (1994), concerns over the possible negative health
effects of rainwater utilisation led to some opposition. The Federal Office of Health, for
example, intially objected to its use for washing clothes, personal hygiene and even for
toilet flushing, due to possible risks of infection and allergic reactions. Long-term
investigations by the health offices in Hamburg and Bremen, however, have yielded
positive results with respect to the use of water for washing purposes and have
confirmed that rainwater sources do not present a health risk.

(i) Filters developed by WISY

Private companies such as WISY, based in Kefenrod in Germany, are playing an
important role in promoting rainwater use by developing pumps and filter devices to
improve water quality. WISY has developed a simple filter system, which can be
attached to a standard household downpipe. Under conditions in Germany (assuming a
mean annual rainfall of 650mm/year), this can divert and filter 90 per cent of the runoff
from a roof area of up to 200 square metre.

(fig a). A filter collector diverts 90 per cent of

rainwater to a storage tank
through a 0.17 mm stainless
steel mesh filter.

(fig b). A larger vortex fine

filter can cope with run-off
from roof areas of up to 500
square metre.

(b)
(fig c). A floating fine
suction filter for ensuring
(a) that the water pumped from
the tank is extracted from
the cleanest part of the tank and is free of particulates
has also been developed.

For details contact:

WISY (Winkler system)
(c)
OT Hitzkirchen, Oberdorfstrasse 26,
D-63699, Kefendrod-Hitzkirchen
Germany; fax:+60-54-912129
Wisyag@t-online.de
(Source: John Gould and Erik Nissen-Petersen, 1999: Rainwater Catchment Systems for Domestic
Supply - Design, Construction and Implementation , Intermediate Technology Group)

(ii) Filters developed by MALLBETON

Another company, MALLBETON, a manufacturer of concrete tanks and filters, based in
Germany, is marketing a tank design which manages any overflows (Konig, 1998). This
is done by constructing the top half of a sub-surface tank from a porous concrete ring,
which allows water to gradually seep into the ground. While this reduces the volume of
water available, it does make householders eligible for waivers on their rainwater
drainage fees. These fees are already applied to householders and businesses in about 25
per cent of Germany. The charges that are levied on each square metre of roof area and
sealed surroundings can be substantial, such as in Bonn, so waivers often provide
significant savings.
(Source: John Gould and Erik Nissen-Petersen, 1999:
Rainwater Catchment Systems for Domestic Supply -
Design, Construction and Implementation , Intermediate
Technology Group)

Storage facility A storage tank made of galvanised iron

sheets
There are various options available for the construction
of these tanks with respect to the shape, size and the material of construction.

Shape: Cylindrical, rectangular and square.

Material of construction: Reinforced cement concrete, (RCC), ferrocement, masonry,
plastic (polyethylene) or metal (galvanised iron) sheets are commonly used.
Position of tank: Depending on space availability these tanks could be constructed
above ground, partly underground or fully underground. Some maintenance measures
like cleaning and disinfection are required to ensure the quality of water stored in the
container.

8. Recharge structures
Rainwater may be charged into the groundwater aquifers through any suitable
structures like dugwells, borewells, recharge trenches and recharge pits. Various
recharge structures are possible - some which promote the percolation of water through
soil strata at shallower depth (e.g., recharge trenches, permeable pavements) whereas
others conduct water to greater depths from where it joins the groundwater (e.g.
recharge wells). At many locations, existing structures like wells, pits and tanks can be
modified as recharge structures, eliminating the need to construct any structures afresh.
Here are a few commonly used recharging methods:

1. Recharging of dugwells and abandoned tubewells.

In alluvial and hard rock areas, there are thousands of wells which have
either gone dry or whose water levels have declined considerably. These can be
recharged directly with rooftop run-off. Rainwater that is collected on the rooftop of the
building is diverted by drainpipes to a settlement or filtration tank, from which it flows into
the recharge well (borewell or dugwell).

If a tubewell is used for recharging, then the casing (outer pipe) should
preferably be a slotted or perforated pipe so that more surface area is available for the
water to percolate. Developing a borewell would increase its recharging capacity
(developing is the process where water or air is forced into the well under pressure to
loosen the soil strata surrounding the bore to make it more permeable).

If a dugwell is used for recharge, the well lining should have openings
(weep-holes) at regular intervals to allow seepage of water through the sides. Dugwells
should be covered to prevent mosquito breeding and entry of leaves and debris. The
bottom of recharge wells should be desilted annually to maintain the intake capacity.

Providing the following elements in the system can ensure the quality of
water entering the recharge wells:
1. Filter mesh at entrance point of rooftop drains
2. Settlement chamber
3. Filter bed

2. Settlement tank
Settlement tanks are used to remove silt and other
floating impurities from rainwater. A settlement tank is
like an ordinary storage container having provisions
for inflow (bringing water from the catchment),
outflow (carrying water to the recharge well) and
A settlement chamber overflow. A settlement tank can have an unpaved
bottom surface to allow standing water to percolate into the soil.

In case of excess rainfall, the rate of recharge, especially of borewells,

may not match the rate of rainfall. In such situations, the desilting chamber holds the
excess amount of water till it is soaked up by the recharge structure. Thus, the
settlement chamber acts like a buffer in the system.

Any container, (masonry or concrete underground tanks, old unused

tanks, pre-fabricated PVC or ferrocement tanks) with adequate capacity of storage can
be used as a settlement tank.

3. Recharging of service tubewells.

In this case the rooftop runoff is not directly led into the service tubewells,
to avoid chances of contamination of groundwater. Instead rainwater is collected in a
recharge well, which is a temporary storage tank (located near the service tubewell), with
a borehole, which is shallower than the water table. This borehole has to be provided
with a casing pipe to prevent the caving in of soil, if the strata is loose. A filter chamber
comprising of sand, gravel and boulders is provided to arrest the impurities.

4. Recharge pits
A recharge pit is 1.5m to 3m wide and 2m to 3m deep. The excavated pit
is lined with a brick/stone wall with openings (weep-holes) at regular intervals. The top
area of the pit can be covered with a perforated cover. Design procedure is the same as
that of a settlement tank.
5. Soakaways / Percolation pit

Percolation pits, one of the easiest and

most effective means of harvesting rainwater, are
generally not more than 60 x 60 x 60 cm pits, (designed
on the basis of expected runoff as described for
settlement tanks), filled with pebbles or brick jelly and
river sand, covered with perforated concrete slabs Filter materials in a soakaway
wherever necessary.

6.Recharge trenches
A recharge trench is a continuous trench excavated in the ground and
refilled with porous media like pebbles, boulders or broken bricks. A recharge trench can
be 0.5 m to 1 m wide and 1 m to 1.5 m deep. The length of the recharge trench is
decided as per the amount of runoff expected. The recharge trench should be
periodically cleaned of accumulated debris to maintain the intake capacity. In terms of
recharge rates, recharge trenches are relatively less effective since the soil strata at
depth of about 1.5 metres is generally less permeable. For recharging through recharge
trenches, fewer precautions have to be taken to maintain the quality of the rainfall runoff.
Runoff from both paved and unpaved catchments can be tapped.

7.Recharge troughs

Source: A water harvesting manual for urban areas

To collect the runoff from paved or unpaved areas draining out of a

compound, recharge troughs are commonly placed at the entrance of a
residential/institutional complex.These structures are similar to recharge trenches except
for the fact that the excavated portion is not filled with filter materials. In order to facilitate
speedy recharge, boreholes are drilled at regular intervals in this trench. In design part,
there is no need of incorporating the influence of filter materials.
This structure is capable of harvesting only a limited amount of runoff because of the
limitation with regard to size.

8. Modified injection well

In this method water is not pumped into the aquifer but allowed to
percolate through a filter bed, which comprises sand and gravel. A
modified injection well is generally a borehole, 500 mm diameter,
which is drilled to the desired depth depending upon the geological
conditions, preferably 2 to 3 m below the water table in the area.
Inside this hole a slotted casing pipe of 200 mm diameter is
inserted. The annular space between the borehole and the pipe is
filled with gravel and developed with a compressor till it gives clear
water. To stop the suspended solids from entering the recharge
tubewell, a filter mechanism is provided at the top .
Do you want your rainwater harvesting system to crack and collapse;
leak and flood the surrounding areas?

If not, then ensure that the design is proper.

Effectiveness of the rainwater harvesting depends on appropriate design of the systems.
Be it storage or a recharge structure, an improperly designed system will lead to
operational problems, thereby raising the operation and maintenance costs. It may even
lead to the abandoning of the structure put in place. A few design tips to put the right
water harvesting system at the right place.

Design of a rainwater harvesting storage tank

Design of a recharge structures

Design of storage tanks

The volume of the storage tank can be determined by the following factors:
 Number of persons in the household: The greater the number of persons, the
greater the storage capacity required to achieve the same efficiency of fewer
people under the same roof area.
 Per capita water requirement: This varies from household to household based on
habits and also from season to season. Consumption rate has an impact on the
storage systems design as well as the duration to which stored rainwater can
last.
 Average annual rainfall
 Period of water scarcity: Apart from the total rainfall, the pattern of rainfall
-whether evenly distributed through the year or concentrated in certain periods
will determine the storage requirement. The more distributed the pattern, the
lesser the size.
 Type and size of the catchment:Type of roofing material determines the selection
of the runoff coefficient for designs. Size could be assessed by measuring the
area covered by the catchment i.e., the length and horizontal width. Larger the
catchment, larger the size of the required cistern (tank).

Dry season demand versus supply approach

In this approach there are three options for determining the volume of storage:
1. Matching the capacity of the tank to the area of the roof
2. Matching the capacity of the tank to the quantity of water required by its users
3. Choosing a tank size that is appropriate in terms of costs, resources and
construction methods.

In practice the costs, resources and the construction methods tend to

limit the tanks to smaller capacities than would otherwise be justified by roof areas or
likely needs of consumers. For this reason elaborate calculations aimed at matching
tank capacity to roof area is usually unnecessary. However a simplified calculation
based on the following factors can give a rough idea of the potential for rainwater
colection.

Illustration
Suppose the system has to be designed for meeting drinking water
requirement of a five-member family living in a building with a rooftop area of 100 sq.
m. The average annual rainfall in the region is 600 mm (average annual rainfall in Delhi
is 611 mm). Daily drinking water requirement per person (drinking and cooking) is 10
litres.

Design procedure:

Following details are available:

Area of the catchment (A) = 100 sq. m.
Average annual rainfall (R) = 611 mm (0.61 m)
Runoff coefficient (C) = 0.85 1. Calculate the maximum
amount of rainfall that can be harvested from the rooftop:
Annual water harvesting potential = 100 x 0.6 x 0.85
= 51 cu. m. (51,000 litres)
2. Determine the tank capacity: This is based on the dry
period, i.e., the period between the two consecutive rainy
seasons. For example, with a monsoon extending over four
months, the dry season is of 245 days.
3. Calculate drinking water requirement for the family for the
dry season
= 245 x 5 x 10
= 12,250 litres

As a safety factor, the tank should be built 20

per cent larger than required, i.e., 14,700 litres. This tank can
meet the basic drinking water requirement of a 5-member
family for the dry period. A typical size of a rectangular tank
constructed in the basement will be about 4.0 m x 4.0 m x 1.0
m

Salient features of this approach:

1. Simplest approach to system design but is relevant only in areas where distinct
dry seasons exist
2. Provides a rough estimate of storage volume requirements
3. This method does not take into account variations between different years, such
as the occurrence of drought years. It also entirely ignores rainfall input and the
capacity of the catchment to deliver the runoff necessary to fill the storage tank.
4. This technique can be used in the absence of any rainfall data and is easily
understandable to the layperson.These points are especially relevant when
designing systems in the remote areas of developing countries where obtaining
reliable rainfall data can be difficult.

Design of groundwater recharge structures

Recharge of aquifers
In places where the withdrawal of water is more than the rate of recharge
an imbalance in the groundwater reserves is created. Recharging of aquifers are
undertaken with the following objectives:
 To maintain or augment natural groundwater as an economic resource
 To conserve excess surface water underground
 To combat progressive depletion of groundwater levels
 To combat unfavourable salt balance and saline water intrusion

Design of an aquifer recharge system

To achieve the objectives it is imperative to plan out an artificial recharge
scheme in a scientific manner. Thus it is imperative that proper scientific investigations
be carried out for selection of site for artificial recharge of groundwater.

The proper design will include the following considerations:

Selection of site: Recharge structures should be planned out after conducting proper
hydro-geological investigations. Based on the analysis of this data (already existing or
those collected during investigation) it should be possible to:

 Define the sub-surface geology.

 Determine the presence or absence of impermeable layers or lenses that can
impede percolation
 Define depths to water table and groundwater flow directions
 Establish the maximum rate of recharge that could be achieved at the site.

Source of water used for recharge: Basically the potential of rainwater harvesting and
the quantity and quality of water available for recharging, have to be assessed.

3. Engineering, construction and costs

4. Operation, maintenance and monitoring

Design of recharge structures and settlement tank

For designing the optimum capacity of
the tank, the following parameters need to be
considered:

1.) Size of the catchment

2.) Intensity of rainfall

3.) Rate of
recharge, which depends
on the geology of the site

The capacity of the tank should be enough to retain

the runoff occurring from conditions of peak rainfall
intensity. The rate of recharge in comparison to
runoff is a critical factor. However, since accurate
recharge rates are not available without detailed geo-hydrological studies, the rates have
to be assumed. The capacity of recharge tank is designed to retain runoff from at least 15
minutes rainfall of peak intensity. (For Delhi, peak hourly rainfall is 90 mm (based on 25
year frequency) and 15 minutes peak rainfall is 22.5 mm/hr, say, 25 mm, according to
CGWB norms).

Illustration
For an area of 100 sq. m.,
volume of desilting tank required in Delhi = 100 x 0.025 x 0.85
= 2.125 cu. m. (2,125 litres)

Design of a recharge trench

The methodology of design of a recharge trench is similar to that for a settlement tank.
The difference is that the water-holding capacity of a recharge trench is less than its
gross volume because it is filled with porous material. A factor of loose density of the
media (void ratio) has to be applied to the equation. The void ratio of the filler material
varies with the kind of material used, but for commonly used materials like brickbats,
pebbles and gravel, a void ratio of 0.5 may be assumed.
Using the same method as used for designing a settlement tank:
Assuming a void ratio of 0.5, the required capacity of a recharge tank
= (100 x 0.025 x 0.85)/0.5 = 4.25 cu. m. (4,250 litres)

In designing a recharge trench, the length of the trench is an important

factor. Once the required capacity is calculated, length can be calculated by considering
a fixed depth and width.

Construction
Procedures and specifications for construction
of storage and recharge tanks are explained
below. There are a lot of similarities in the
construction steps of both storage and recharge
structures.

I. Masonry Tanks:
 When building brick walls for water tanks,
Construction of a masonry tank under
both horizontal and vertical joints are filled progress
with mortar of a ration of 1:4. For obtaining
maximum strength, lay out a circle of bricks or blocks on the foundation without
mortar, with such spacing that no brick or block is cut to fit into the circle. A
proper foundation of cement concrete will also have to be provided.
 Each brick or block should be dipped in water to saturate and make it waterproof.
Thereafter these bricks are laid upon the cement mortar.
 Bricks and blocks in walls should be sprinkled with water just before plastering
for bonding. The right way to apply plaster is to throw a thin coat of mortar (1:3)
on to the inner wall and then a thin coat of 1:4 mortar on the outer wall while the
first coat settles, and so on until the required thickness of plaster is reached. The
 surface of each coat of plaster, except the final one, is made rough to make sure
there is good bonding between coats.
 For simplicity and maximum strength, walls built of burnt bricks, or blocks made
from compressed sandy soil and cement, rubble stones and concrete are
reinforced after they have been built to their final height.
 Plaster on the walls of water tanks must not be allowed to dry or be exposed to
sunshine for the first three weeks. The process of keeping the mortar wet is
called curing. Covering the walls with polythene sheeting or plastic sacks, which
must be properly secured against the walls using the sisal strings, does this.
Water is poured between the wall and the sacks or polythene morning and
evening for three weeks. The external wall can be made weather proof (if the
tank is above the ground level) with two coats made of 1 part cement to 10 parts
lime.

II. Reinforced Cement Concrete Tank (RCC)

Reinforced concrete tanks can be built above or below the ground.
Concrete is durable and long-lasting, but is subject to cracking. An advantage of
concrete cisterns is their ability to decrease the corrosiveness of rainwater by allowing
the dissolution of calcium carbonate from the walls and floors. Each tank must have an
overflow system for situations when excess water enters the tank. The overflow can be
connected to the drainage system.

Design and construction of reinforced cement concrete tanks shall

comply with the requirements of IS 3370 (part-I)-1965 and IS 456-1964. Accordingly the
mix of cement concrete shall not be leaner than 1:2:4 ( 1 part cement: 2 parts of coarse
sand and 4 parts of stone aggregates of 20 mm nominal
size)

When constructing water tanks it is essential to adhere

to a few basic yet critical rules with respect to correct mixtures and applications of
concrete and mortar. These include:
 Mixing cement, aggregate and water properly, and not adding too much water
 Applying the mortar or concrete within a maximum of half an hour of mixing
 Curing cement work properly by keeping it moist and under shade for at least
three weeks after its application.

III. Ferro Cement Jars:

Ferrocement consists of a thin sheet of cement mortar which is reinforced
with a cage made of wire mesh and steel bars. Because ferrocement is structurally more
effectient than masonry, the thickness of the walls of the container are as low as 10 to 15
mm. Ferrocement components can be casted in any shape using suitable moulds. The
technology is extremely simple to implement, and even semi-skilled workpersons can
learn it with ease. Ferrocement requires only a few easily available materials - cement,
sand, galvanized iron (GI) wire mesh, and mild steel (MS) bars - in small amounts
compared to masonry and RCC.

a. Pot shaped container:

The process of construction of a pot shaped ferro cement container is
quite simple. The only materials required are hessian cloth, chaff (waste from agricultural
produce), GI wire mesh, MS bars, cement and sand.
 Preparation of mould: The hessian cloth is first stiched into a sack
resembling the shape of a container. It is then filled with chaff that is compacted in
layers. Dry leaves or dry grass can also be used in place of chaff. Once the sack is filled
with the filler material, it is beaten into the required shape by a wooden bat.

Source: Catchwater

Laying of reinforcement: A GI wire mesh (22-26 guage - see table) is

tied around the mould leaving sockets at suitable locations for inlet, over flow and
cleaning pipes. Tying 6 mm diameter MS bars at wide intervals both horizontally and
vertically strengthens the reinforcement cage.

Preparation of cement mortar for plastering: Cement mortar of

suitable proportion (see table) is prepared, having water content equal to 0.45 times the
volume of cement.

Capacity of Thickness of Ratio Cement: Thickness of GI

containerLitres the walls sand wire (guage)
400 10 1:3 26
600 10 1:3 24
900 12 1:2:5 24
1500 15 1:2:5 22

Plastering: The mortar is plastered in two layers along the wall

thickness, the second layer being applied 24 hours after the first. The ferro cement wall
normally has a thickness of 10 to 15 mm, depending on the volume of the container. The
cement mortar is applied ensuring a minimum clearance (cover) 3 mm between the
reinforcement mesh and the outer surfaces of the wall.

Removal of mould: The mould of the container is removed 24 hours

after casting of the wall is completed, by removing the filler material. The container can
be brought into use after 10 days of wet curing.

b. Ferrocement Tank using Skeletal Cage:

Phases of construction

i Selection of site
ii Marking for circular foundation:
Choose the diameter of foundation (Df) for required storage capacity from the table

Capacity of
9,000 and
storage tank 5,000 and 6,000 7,000 and 8,000
10,000
(litres)
Df 2.40 m 2.70 m 3.00 m

iii Excavation for foundation

iv Compacting the excavated pit
v Placing cement concrete in foundation:
Prepare Plain Cement Concrete of 1:4:8 mix ( 1 cement: 4 sand: 8 stone
aggregate of 40mm size)
vi Erection of mould/ Preparation of elements of skeletal cage
vii a. Preparation of Elements of Skeletal Cage:

Source: Action for food Production and United Nations Children's Fund,
Rooftop rainwater harvesting systems

Skeletal cage is an assembly of 4 types of elements (of different shapes)

made from mild steel rods. They are

 'U' shaped elements

 'L' shaped elements
 'ë' shaped elements
 'O' shaped elements

Dimensions of elements
for tank capacities 5,000 litres to 10,000
litres

Element No. Dimensions Capacity of Storage Tank (in litres)

5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000
u 2 H 1.8 2.1 1.9 2.1 1.9 2.1
W1 2.05 2.05 2.35 2.35 2.65 2.65
4 H 1.8 2.1 1.9 2.1 1.9 2.1
L W2 0.82 0.82 0.95 0.95 1.05 1.05
8 H 1.8 2.1 1.9 2.1 1.9 2.1
L W3 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.65 0.65
D1 9Nos 11Nos 10Nos 11Nos 10Nos 11Nos
 2.05 2.05 2.35 2.35 2.65 2.65
1 D2 1.25 1.25 1.41 1.41 1.60 1.60
1 D3 0.62 0.62 0.71 0.71 0.84 0.80
Source: Action for food Production and
United Nations Children's Fund,
Rooftop rainwater harvesting systems

Notes:
* Refer to above table for
Source: Making Water Everybody's business
dimensions and number of each of
these elements for 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000 and 10,000 litres capacity system
* Use 6 mm diameter rods for preparing 'U', 'L' and 'ë' shaped elements. Use 4 mm
diameter GI wire for "O" shaped elements (Circular rings)
* Straighten, cut and bend the mild steel rods to form these elements
* Adopt an overlap length of 10 cm in forming the circular elements.

b. Assembling the elements:

 Place the two 'U' shaped rods vertically over the foundation, perpendicular to
each other
 Place the outer, middle and inner rings over the two 'U' shaped rods, coinciding
with the circular marking and tie the intersections with binding wires
 Place and tie 4 'L' shaped elements on the center marking of each quarter, each
rod extending upto the inner most ring
 Place and tie 8 'ë' shaped elements on the
remaining markings, each element extending to
the middle ring
 Place and tie all the rings of diameter 'D1" over
the vertical reinforcement at a uniform spacing
of 20 cm
 For providing cylindrical shape to the skeletal
cage, fix cross bars at the top of skeletal cage Source: Making Water Everybody's business
and ie with ropes, 3-4 vertical rods to wooden
pegs pegged to the ground.

c. Tying of mesh over skeletal cage:

Select the reinforcement mesh that suits the capacity of the tank from the table below:
Capacity of Tank
5,000 & 6,000 7,000 & 8,000 9,000 & 10,000
(Lt)

Chicken wire mesh Chicken wire mesh Chicken wire mesh

Specification of wire
of 22 gauge and 12 of 20 gauge and 25 of 20 gauge and 25
mesh
mm (1/2") opening mm (1") opening mm (1") opening

Source: Action for food Production and United Nations Children's Fund,
Rooftop rainwater harvesting systems

Note: Woven wire mesh of rectangular opening, of same specifications

mentioned above, can be used if chicken wire mesh is not available

Wrap two layers of selected mesh, one layer on the outer side and one
layer on the inner side of the skeletal cage. Tie the mesh with binding wire to the skeletal
cage at all intersections of elements
Provide a tucking length of 30 cm (1 foot) at the base
Project the mesh 10 cm above the top of the skeletal cage
Cut the skeletal cage and insert pipe fixtures such as overflow pipe, drain
pipe and tap at appropriate places as given in table

Over flow pipe 10 cm below the top of cage

Drain pipe 5 cm above the foundation
Tap 10 cm above the foundation

viii. Plastering the tank's outside wall

 Prepare cement slurry (cement mixed with water) and add anti-rust agent
(chrometrioxide tablets)
 Apply one coat of cement slurry (mix of cement and water) over the mesh using a
painting brush
 Prepare cement mortar of depending on capacity of tank
 Apply the first coat of cement mortar on the outer surface at a thickness of 1 cm.
Care has to be taken to fill the space between the two layers completely. This
could be done by using a GI sheet, slightly curved in shape to be held close to
the skeletal cage from inside by a person, while cement mortar is applied by
another from outside
 Leave 10 cm of mesh projected above the cage unplastered in order to join the
skeletal dome to the tank
 After two hours, apply a second coat of mortar of a thickness of 1 cm.

ix. Plastering the tank's inside wall

 After two hours of outside plastering, apply cement slurry to the inner surface of
the tank wall
 Prepare cement mortar of 1: 3 mix and add waterproof compound in liquid form
 Apply first coat of cement mortar of 1 cm thickness on the inner surface, starting
from bottom of the tank moving laterally and progressing towards the top
 After two hours, apply second coat of mortar to attain a total wall thickness of 2
cm
 Apply cement slurry as final coat on outer and inner surfaces of tank and
smoothen using coir brush.

x. Removal of mould

xi. Casting of tank floor:

 Sprinkle cement slurry over the foundation concrete

 Prepare plain cement concrete of 1:2:4 mix ( 1 cement: 2 sand: 4 stone
aggregate of 12 mm size), pour it over the base and compact to a thickness of 50
mm (2 inch)
 Finish the floor base using cement mortar keeping the slope towards the drain
pipe
 Finish the wall and base joints (inner and outer) with cement mortar
  Twelve hours after setting the tank floor, add waterproof compound (liquid form)
with cement slurry and apply it over inside surface of the tank and smoothen with
coir brush

xii. Curing the tank

 Cure the tank for 14 days by pouring water thrice a day or covering the tank with
wet gunny bags
 In coastal areas, after curing for 14 days, apply rust proof paint over the outer
surface of tank wall

xiii. Construction of roof for the tank

 An assembly of mild steel elements is prepared as a skeletal frame for the roof.
Chicken wire mesh is tied over it and plastered in cement mortar
 The roof is provided with two openings. One is an opening of diameter 35 cm for
accommodating the filter container. Another is a manhole with a 60 cm opening.
The opening for the filter will be on one side of the roof. The manhole is provided
at the centre of dome

Recharge well
a) Construction of a new recharge well

Step 1: Excavating the earth Step 2: Making a borehole to

facilitate groundwater recharging
 Step 3: Providing masonry or RCC
Step 4: Covering the tank made with
walls in the excavated portion and
a RCC or stone slab provided with a
thereafter providing the filter
manhole.
materials.

b) Conversion of a dried up tube well into a recharge well

Step 1: Replace top few metres of

Step 2: Wrap the perforations with a
the cast iron casing pipe of the dried
screen-made of either coir screen or
tubewell with a perforated poly Vinyl
closely knit nylon mesh.
chloride (PVC) pipe.

Quality of stored water

To prevent leaves and debris from entering the system, mesh filters should be provided
at the mouth of the drainpipe. Further, a first-flush device should be provided in the
conduit before it connects to the storage container.

If the stored water is to be used for drinking purposes, a sand filter should also be
provided. Methods to protect rainwater quality include appropriate system design, sound
operation and maintenance and use of first flush devices and treatment. Treatment is
mainly appropriate as a remedial action if contamination is expected. First flush devices
can be effective in reducing levels of contamination if properly maintained. Good system
design, operation and maintenance are generally the simplest and most effective means
of protecting water quality.

a. System design: The best initial step to protecting water quality is to ensure
good system design. Water quality will generally improve during storage provided
sunlight and living organisms are excluded from the tank and fresh inflows do not stir up
any sediment. The design should include
 Clean impervious roof made from smooth, clean non-toxic material. Over
hanging branches above the catchment surface should be removed
 Taps or draw-off pipes on tanks should be atleast five centimeters above the tank
floor (more if debris accumulation rates are high). A tank floor sloping towards the
sump can greatly aid tank cleaning as will a well-fitting access manhole.