PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Big Bang Theory – the expansion of the universe fastly expanded and holted after exploisioon
Key Stages of the Big Bang Model
 Singularity
 Inflation
 Nucleosynthesis
 Recombination
Singularity
- 1st key stage
- A point with all space, time, matter, and energy
*No explosion since there was no medium
Inflation
- 2nd key stage
- All of it began to rapidly expand
Nucleosynthesis
- 3rd key stage
- Formation of the elements
Types of Nucleosynthesis
 Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
 Stellar Nucleosynthesis
 Supernova Nucleosynthesis
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
- Big Bang Cooling and Expansion First Elements formed
- Not full atoms
- First elements: HYDROGEN & HELUIM
- 3 minutes after the Big Bang the nucleus of the hydrogen and helium formed
Formation of the Neutral Atom
- 300,000 years after inflation
- Full atoms
- 75% hydrogen, 25% helium – evidences of the Big Bang
Stellar Nucleosynthesis
- Two nuclei of two elements smashed in the core of the star
- Two protons = HELUIM
 - Called fusion
- Heluim(He) Iron(Fe) – heaviest elements
*Helium can also be created from stars
Fusion
- Happening inside the star
- - high temperature, high pressure – needed to create stars
Helium to Iron
- 15m C high temperature is required to create heavy elements
- No more fuel = star will collapse
- Following this collapse star can now fuse heavier elements
- Construction of Supernova
Supernova Nucleosynthesis
- Formation of heavier elements
- More energy will form (after collapse) = more elements
Key Characteristics:
 Extreme Temperatures
- 100 billion 600 x Sun
 Abundant Neutrons
Remaining naturally occurring elements
- Except 43 and 61 ( some are present in small quantities) TECHNETIUM& PROMETHIUM
- 93 and above are created in the laboratory
Recombination
- 4th key stage
- Process where electrons started to bind into ionized protons and nuclei forming neutral atoms
Evidences of the Big Bang:
 Red Shift
 Relative abundance
 Cosmic microwave background
Doppler Effect
- Proves inflation
- Drifting of other galaxies away from us
Relative Abundance
- 74% hydrogen, 24% helium, 2% other elements
Proton Neutron Balancing
Mass Number
- Number of protons ans neutrons
Electrons
- Negatively charged
- Positively charged
Isotopes
- Atoms with the same number of portons but have different number of neutrons
Isotopes of Hydrogen:
PROTIUM, DEUTIRIUM, TRITIUM
P – Proton
N – Neutron
E – Electron
Deuteron
- Nucleus of Deuterium

Important Isotopes
P= 1p, 0n
D (Deuterium) = 1p, 1n
T (Tritium) = 1p, 2n
3He (Helium 3) = 2p, 1n
4He (Helium 4) = 2p, 2n
7Li (Lithium) = 3p, 4n
7Be (Beryllium) = 4p, 3n
Gamma
-y (energy) = 0p, 0n0
Balancing of Elements: 1. 3He +D ___ + p
 3. ____ + D T + p+

2. 7LI+ __ 2 4He
4. __ + D 4He

Important Terms:
1. Fusion
2. Stellar Nucleosynthesis
-Gravity is the sculptor of the universe
CNO Cycle
-Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Cycle
-happens inside the star
LIGO
-Detection for gravitational waves

Main Sequence Stars

-fuse hydrogen atoms to form helium atoms in their cores
-90% of the stars in the universe including the Sun are the main sequence stars

Fusion
- one larger elements splits into smaller fragments
*Both releases a tremendous amount of energy

Goal: H He
1. H – p+ = p(nucleus)
1H + 1H 2H + V+e+
Main Branch Proton-Proton Chain
D = 2H
1. Beta Plus Decay
pt+p+ 2H + v + e+
where:
v = neutrino
e+ = positron (anti-matter of electron)

4H + 3HE 4HE + 2p+

*A star with a very dense helium core and hydrogen shell expands and hydrogen shell expands into red
giant due to increased radiation pressure
CNO Cycle

Notes:
Supernova Explosion – reduce of tremendous energy
Uranium – heaviest elements
r–process – rapid capture
s-process – slow capture
Iron – peak of stability
Main sequence stars – hydrogen; CNO Cycle
Gravity – main force of forming stars
George Lemaitre – priest scientist
Inflation – expansion faster than light
Recombination – forms neutral elements
Red shift – expansion of space in all directions
Alpha Ladder – that in which stars converts helium to heavier elements
r-process – in which it is responsible for the creation of half; generates heavier elements; heavier than
iron
Cosmology – study of universe
Step 1 - Gather Information

The first thing you will need to do is find some information about your element. Go to the Periodic Table of Elements
and click on your element. If it makes things easier, you can select your element from an alphabetical listing.

Use the Table of Elements to find your element's atomic number and atomic weight. The atomic number is the
number located in the upper left corner and the atomic weight is the number located on the bottom, as in this
example for krypton:

Krypton's data from the Table of Elements

Step 2 - The Number of Protons is...

The atomic number is the number of protons in an atom of an element. In our example, krypton's atomic number is
36. This tells us that an atom of krypton has 36 protons in its nucleus.

The interesting thing here is that every atom of krypton contains 36 protons. If an atom doesn't have 36 protons, it
can't be an atom of krypton. Adding or removing protons from the nucleus of an atom creates a different element. For
example, removing one proton from an atom of krypton creates an atom of bromine.

Step 3 - The Number of Electrons is...

By definition, atoms have no overall electrical charge. That means that there must be a balance between the
positively charged protons and the negatively charged electrons. Atoms must have equal numbers of protons and
electrons. In our example, an atom of krypton must contain 36 electrons since it contains 36 protons.

Electrons are arranged around atoms in a special way. If you need to know how the electrons are arranged around
an atom, take a look at the 'How do I read an electron configuration table?' page.

An atom can gain or lose electrons, becoming what is known as an ion. An ion is nothing more than an electrically
charged atom. Adding or removing electrons from an atom does not change which element it is, just its net charge.

For example, removing an electron from an atom of krypton forms a krypton ion, which is usually written as Kr+. The
plus sign means that this is a positively charged ion. It is positively charged because a negatively charged electron
was removed from the atom. The 35 remaining electrons were outnumbered by the 36 positively charged protons,
resulting in a charge of +1.

Step 4 - The Number of Neutrons is...

The atomic weight is basically a measurement of the total number of particles in an atom's nucleus. In reality, it isn't
that clean cut. The atomic weight is actually a weighted average of all of the naturally occurring isotopes of an
element relative to the mass of carbon-12. Didn't understand that? Doesn't matter. All you really need to find is
something called the mass number. Unfortunately, the mass number isn't listed on the Table of Elements. Happily, to
find the mass number, all you need to do is round the atomic weight to the nearest whole number. In our example,
krypton's mass number is 84 since its atomic weight, 83.80, rounds up to 84.

The mass number is a count of the number of particles in an atom's nucleus. Remember that the nucleus is made up
of protons and neutrons. So, if we want, we can write:

Mass Number = (Number of Protons) + (Number of Neutrons)

For krypton, this equation becomes:

84 = (Number of Protons) + (Number of Neutrons)

If we only knew how many protons krypton has, we could figure out how many neutrons it has. Wait a minute... We
do know how many protons krypton has! We did that back in Step 2! The atomic number (36) is the number of
protons in krypton. Putting this into the equation, we get:

84 = 36 + (Number of Neutrons)

What number added to 36 makes 84? Hopefully, you said 48. That is the number of neutrons in an atom of krypton.

The interesting thing here is that adding or removing neutrons from an atom does not create a different element.
Rather, it creates a heavier or lighter version of that element. These different versions are called isotopes and most
elements are actually a mixture of different isotopes.

If you could grab atoms of krypton and count the number of neutrons each one had, you would find that most would
have 48, others would have 47, some would have 50, some others would have 46, a few would have 44 and a very
few would have 42. You would count different numbers of neutrons because krypton is a mixture of six isotopes.

In Summary...

For any element:

Number of Protons = Atomic Number

Number of Electrons = Number of Protons = Atomic Number

Number of Neutrons = Mass Number - Atomic Number

For krypton:

Number of Protons = Atomic Number = 36

Number of Electrons = Number of Protons = Atomic Number = 36

Number of Neutrons = Mass Number - Atomic Number = 84 - 36 = 48