Design and fabrication of water desalination mini plant for

developing countries by using solar energy

Literature Review by

Talha Malik
2014-ME-357

Shahzaib Khan
2014-ME-369

Dawar Azhar
2014-ME-385

Shahram Aslam
2014-ME-386

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of

the Degree of Degree Name at

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore

April 2018

1
Declaration

We, Talha, Shahzaib, Dawar, Shahram, confirm that the research included within this

thesis is our own work or that where it has been carried out in collaboration with, or

supported by others, that this is duly acknowledged below and our contributions

indicated. Previously published material is also acknowledged below.

We attest that we have exercised reasonable care to ensure that the work is original, and

does not to the best of my knowledge infringe any third party’s copyright or other

Intellectual Property Right, or contain any confidential material.

We accept that the University has the right to use plagiarism detection software to

check the electronic version of the thesis.

We confirm that this thesis has not been previously submitted for the award of a degree

by this or any other university.

The copyright of this thesis rests with the authors and no quotation from it or

information derived from it may be published without the prior written consent of the

author.

Print Name: Talha, Shahzaib, Dawar, Shahram

Signature: .....................................................................

Date: ..................................................................................

2
Preface

The work presented in this dissertation was undertaken at the Department of

Mechanical Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore between

October 2014 and June 2017. This dissertation is the result of our own work and

includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaboration except where

specifically indicated in the text. Neither the present dissertation, nor any part thereof,

has been submitted previously for a degree to this or any other university. The main

text of this dissertation-chapters one through eight-including appendix, bibliography,

tables, and equations contains approximately words. Additionally, equations, figures

and tables are included.

3
Abstract

Desalination using renewable energy is catching momentum. The production rate of

drinkable water using solar energy is improved by utilizing a focused beam of sunlight

instead of flat plate collector. This thesis is dependent on experimental study of

utilizing parabolic trough collector and condenser along with a pre-heater installed

before parabolic trough. Pre-heater increases the efficiency of system by already

providing the parabolic trough collector with heated water up to 70 °C which leads to

less time taken to produce steam at 110 °C which is then condensed to produce distilled

water. Parabolic trough collector is made of reflective glass and heat pipe is of copper

covered with transparent glass. Right proportions of necessary nutrients like calcium

and magnesium are added to convert distilled water to potable water.

Keywords: Solar desalination, pre-heater, parabolic trough collector, flat plate

collector, condenser, heat pipe, reflective glass, distilled water, potable water.

4
Acknowledgements

Foremost, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to our advisor Mr. Mujtaba

Abbas for the continuous support of our bachelor study and research, for his patience,

motivation, enthusiasm, and immense knowledge. His guidance helped us in all the

time of research and writing of this thesis. We could not have imagined having a better

advisor and mentor for our study.

Besides our advisor, we would like to thank the rest of our department thesis

committee. Dr. Shahid Imran, Dr. Zahird Anwar, Dr. Fahad Noor, Dr. Rabia, Dr.

Maryam, Dr. Farhan, Mr. Adeel Munir, Mr. Sheeraz Ali, Mr. Adnan, Mr. Tahir Asif

and rest of the faculty for their encouragement, insightful comments and hard

questions.

We thank our fellow batch mates Mr. Hassan Raza, Mr. Aytazaz Ali, Mr. Umair

Rasheed and Mr. Ubaid for their continuous encouragement and support who helped us

in refining the idea and improving the study.

Last but not the least, we would like to thank our family: our parents for supporting us

spiritually throughout our lives.

5
 Table of Contents
Abstract.............................................................................................................................4

Acknowledgements ..........................................................................................................5

Chapter 1 ........................................................................................................................14

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................14

1.1. Motivation ........................................................................................................14

1.2. Aims and Objectives ........................................................................................15

1.2.1. Purification of saline water:......................................................................16

1.2.2. Use of a preheater: ....................................................................................16

1.2.3. Coupling of ETC and PTC: ......................................................................16

1.2.4. Use of a separate condenser: ....................................................................16

1.2.5. Production rate of fresh water: .................................................................16

1.3. Organisation of the Dissertation ......................................................................16

Chapter 2 ........................................................................................................................18

2. Literature Review ...................................................................................................18

2.1. Flat plate collectors: .........................................................................................18

2.2. Concentrated solar power collectors: ...............................................................18

2.3. Flat plate solar heater with solar still: ..............................................................19

2.4. Use of ETC in solar desalination system: ........................................................22

2.5. Use of PTC and ETC in solar desalination: .....................................................26

2.6. Use of condenser in solar desalination: ...........................................................30

6
 2.7. Addition of nutrients: .......................................................................................30

Chapter 3 ........................................................................................................................31

3. Materials and Methodology:...................................................................................31

3.1. Pre-heater: ........................................................................................................31

3.1.1. Construction: ............................................................................................31

3.2. Parabolic trough collector (PTC): ....................................................................33

3.2.1. Construction: ............................................................................................33

3.3. Condenser: .......................................................................................................35

3.3.1. Construction: ............................................................................................35

3.4. Schematics: ......................................................................................................36

3.5. Simulation: .......................................................................................................37

3.5.1. Pre-heater simulation: ...............................................................................37

3.5.2. PTC simulation: ........................................................................................37

3.6. Assembly: ........................................................................................................38

3.7. Working: ..........................................................................................................38

Chapter 4 ........................................................................................................................41

4. Results and Discussions .........................................................................................41

4.1. Simulation results: ...........................................................................................41

4.1.1. Pre-heater:.................................................................................................41

4.1.2. PTC simulation: ........................................................................................41

4.2. Results:.............................................................................................................43

7
 4.2.1. Relation between solar intensity and days: ..............................................43

4.2.2. Relation between ambient temperature and days: ....................................44

4.2.3. Relation between ambient temperature and solar intensity: .....................45

4.2.4. Relation between days and pre-heater temperature: .................................46

4.2.5. Relation between days and PTC temperature: ..........................................47

4.2.6. Relation between ambient temperature and PTC temperature: ................48

Chapter 5 ........................................................................................................................50

5. Conclusions and Future Work ................................................................................50

5.1. Conclusions:.....................................................................................................50

5.2. Future work: .....................................................................................................50

References ......................................................................................................................51

8
List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Sketch of a solar still (single basin type) coupled with FPC [26]. ................19

Figure 2.2 Change in solar intensity and atmospheric air temperature in an hour [26]. 20

Figure 2.3 Change in temperature of water and basin made of glass [26]. ....................20

Figure 2.4 Change in production of distilled water per unit area per unit time [26]. .....21

Figure 2.5 Comparison of coupled and non-coupled solar still [27]. .............................21

Figure 2.6 Showing the TETC coupled solar desalination system [3]. ..........................22

Figure 2.7 Effect on the rate of production by water fraction [3]. .................................23

Figure 2.8 TETC with SSW and without SSW [3]. .......................................................23

Figure 2.9 Effect of inclination angle on production rate [3]. ........................................24

Figure 2.10 Effect of mass flow rate of on water temperature [32]. ..............................24

Figure 2.11 Effect of inclination angle on production rate [32]. ....................................25

Figure 2.12 Schematic of a PTC [33]. ............................................................................26

Figure 2.13 Relation between angle of incidence and hour angle [33]. .........................28

Figure 2.14 Relation between temperature and time [35]. .............................................28

Figure 2.15 Relation between efficiency and time [36]. ................................................29

Figure 2.16 Change in heat and solar irradiation with time [36]....................................29

Figure 2.17 Variation of efficiency with mass flow rate [36]. .......................................30

Figure 3.1 Pre-heater. .....................................................................................................33

Figure 3.2 Parabolic trough collector. ............................................................................34

Figure 3.3 Condenser......................................................................................................36

Figure 3.4 Schematics of the whole system. ..................................................................36

Figure 3.5 Simulation results for pre-heater. ..................................................................37

Figure 3.6 Simulation results for PTC. ...........................................................................38

Figure 3.7 Full assembly of a mini solar desalination plant. ..........................................38

9
Figure 4.1 Simulation results of pre-heater. ...................................................................41

Figure 4.2 Simulation results for PTC. ...........................................................................42

Figure 4.3 Relation between design points temperature and PTC average temperature.

........................................................................................................................................43

Figure 4.4 Relation between days and solar intensity. ...................................................44

Figure 4.5 Relation between days and ambient temperature. .........................................45

Figure 4.6 Relation between ambient temperature and solar intensity...........................46

Figure 4.7 Relation between days and pre-heater temperature. .....................................47

Figure 4.8 Relation between days and PTC temperature. ..............................................48

Figure 4.9 Relation between ambient temperature and PTC temperature. .....................49

10
List of Tables

Table 2.1 Showing the relation between hour angle, angle of incidence and zenith angle

[35]. ................................................................................................................................27

Table 2.2 Variation in temperature with respect to time [35]. .......................................28

Table 3.1 Dimensions for frame of pre-heater. ..............................................................31

Table 3.2 Dimensions for aluminium plate. ...................................................................32

Table 3.3 Dimensions for copper pipe. ..........................................................................32

Table 3.4 Dimensions for angle frame of PTC. ..............................................................33

Table 3.5 Dimensions for PTC. ......................................................................................34

Table 3.6 Dimensions for shell of condenser. ................................................................35

Table 3.7 Dimensions for helical shaped copper coil.....................................................35

Table 3.8 Parametric study results..................................................................................42

List of Equations

Equation 1 .......................................................................................................................19

Equation 2 .......................................................................................................................27

11
Important Nomenclature

Roman Letters

h Hour

𝐴𝑐 Collector area, 𝑚2

𝐹𝑅 Heat removal factor of absorber of flat plate collector

𝐻𝑠 Solar insulation on glass cover per unit area per unit time, 𝑊/𝑚2

𝑈𝑙 Collector overall loss coefficient , 𝑊/𝑚2 ͦ𝐶

𝑇𝑤 Basin water temperature, ͦ𝐶

𝑇𝑎 Ambient temperature,

𝐴𝑎 Area, 𝑚2

𝐺𝑏 Solar direct beam irradiation, 𝑊/𝑚2

Greek Symbols

α Absorption Coefficient

𝑔 Transmittance of glass cover

Abbreviations

RO Reverse Osmosis

VP Vapour Compression

ED Electrodialysis

PTC Parabolic Trough Collector

ETC Evacuated Tube Collector

MSFD Multi-Stage Flash Distillation

PPM Parts Per Million

FPSC Flat Plate Solar Collector

VMED Vertical Multiple Effect Diffusion

12
CSP Concentrated Solar Power

LFC Linear Fresnel Collector

TETC Twin Glass Evacuated Tube Collector

SSW Stainless Steel Wool

FPC Flat Plate Collector

PV Photovoltaic

FC Forced Convection

PF Parallel Flow

13
Chapter 1

1. Introduction

Potable water is becoming a scarce source on earth with the passage of time and as it

has become a global concern it more severely effects the nations which do not have

adequate resources to deal with this problem. Long periods of droughts and limited

access to fresh water further exaggerate this issue. The water makes up 71% of the

earth’s surface and of which 97.5% is salty water while 2.5% is only fresh water.

As, fresh water is a critical part of a human life. The limit allowed of dissolved salts in

water is 500 ppm and at most 1000 ppm which is in contradiction to 10,000 ppm which

is found in earth water and 35,000-45,000 ppm which is found in seawater [1]. Some

techniques are being used to provide the drinkable water include RO, VP, MSFD and

ED [2]. Whereas, Solar Distillation is basically an uncomplicated and an inexpensive

approach [3]. Greater the water evaporates and greater the steam condenses, the output

of the solar still to produce fresh water increases leaving behind the impurities [3]. This

experimental study uses the preheater, PTC, ETC and an external condenser combined

to increase the production of fresh water double the existing systems do.

1.1. Motivation

The research area in solar energy sector is being revolutionized due to increasing

amount of thermal applications which have high capacity to store energy and to utilize

this energy in many new ways [4]. Two types of solar stills are mainly in function:

Passive and Active solar stills, passive solar still is completely dependent on direct

solar radiation while in active some extra thermal energy sources are required to raise

the temperature of water [2]. FPC which was the idea proposed by Rai and Tiwari

enhanced the rate of production by increasing the level of thermal energy being

14
received by the basin of the solar still [5]. An experiment was done by Badran and Al-

Tahaineh who coupled solar still with a FPSC which enhanced the productivity by

36%. Depth of water in basin, number of FPSC and inclination of the glass also

affected the performance of the solar distillation [6] [7]. Preheating the water by

passing over a glass cover before increased the efficiency and performance of active

solar still as per findings of Singh and Tiwari [8]. The solar still design coupled with a

PV system presented by Kumar and Tiwari increased the efficiency over 20% [9].

Solar stills coupled with solar collectors other than FPSC further improved the solar

desalination. Concave reflectors focusing solar light on water source having depth of 3

cm had the production rate as 4.3 kg/(m2 .day) of fresh water [10]. Use of VMED still

alongside a heat solar collector pipe was predicted to have a production rate of 21.8

kg/(m2 .day) [11]. Also the use of wick materials of different kind in basin type double

slope solar distillation system effected the performance [12]. Solar still equipped with

ETC had a thermal efficiency of 21.3% and it increased the efficiency as compared to a

passive solar still [13] [14].Moreover, utilizing a heater having pulsating heat pipes in

solar heater enhanced the performance of the system [15].

CSP collectors mainly of two types: Line focus and point focus collectors have

redefined how efficient a solar desalination system could be [16]. PTC is one of the

CSP collector which is more efficient than the LFC played a critical role in the

improvement [17]. This experimental study setup relies on the use of solar water

heater(preheater), parabolic trough collector, evacuated tube and condenser to enhance

the productivity rate.

1.2. Aims and Objectives

This study focuses on to use the desalination technique which is to purify

saline/brackish water using the solar thermal energy at its full potential [18].

15
1.2.1. Purification of saline water:

Saline water contains the dissolved salts in it. The chemical ion contribution in

seawater salinity is by: Chloride, Sodium, Sulphate, Magnesium, Potassium,

Bicarbonate, Bromide, Borate, Strontium, Fluoride and other minute quantities [19].

The major contribution is of chloride and sodium which make up NaCl [19]. So, this

experimental study objective is to purify the saline water by removing the dissolved

salts components especially NaCl.

1.2.2. Use of a preheater:

The objective is to utilize the pulsating heat pipes over an aluminium sheet to preheat

the water before sending it towards CSP collector as it is hypothesized that preheating

would lessen the stress on main CSP collector.

1.2.3. Coupling of ETC and PTC:

The PTC will be serving as the main solar collector. Coupling the ETC is thought to

double the production rate as compared to only use the PTC when water comes always

preheated from the preheater.

1.2.4. Use of a separate condenser:

A parallel flow heat exchanger utilizing the source water and forced air condenser is

thought to increase the condensation process.

1.2.5. Production rate of fresh water:

The aim is to produce at least 25 litres of water a day.

1.3. Organisation of the Dissertation

Chapter 1 outlines the background of this study: the problem, outline of research work

and experimental work been done prior to this study. Chapter 2 includes the detailed

16
context of this study in which all the research work done on the topic is discussed in

chronological order. Chapter 3 discusses the materials and methods being used for this

experimental study, which include materials for PTC, ETC, condenser and preheater, it

also discusses the solar radiation concentration technique being used. Chapter 4

solemnly focuses on the results and their detailed discussion. Chapter 5 layouts the

future work that could be done in this field.

17
Chapter 2

2. Literature Review

Solar Desalination is the technique to remove the dissolved salts from saline water. The

factors affecting how much clean water is produced by a solar still solemnly depends

on location, environment temperature, wind speed, inclination of the solar collectors,

how deep water is in a basin, how intense the solar radiations are and material of the

glass being used, speed of the wind and how much heat a still can store [20].

2.1. Flat plate collectors:

It is a type of non-concentrated type solar collector [21]. The flat plate collector

consists of black flat plate absorber, a transparent cover, heat-transferring fluid and an

insulating case [22] [23]. According to a report of Solar Collector field in Taars,

Denmark; FPC increases the temperature of the water to about 70oC [24]. FPC’s are

used for lower and moderate temperatures and therefore are used in applications like

warming the apartment or house, heating the cold water in winter, cooking etc. [25].

2.2. Concentrated solar power collectors:

As, explained CSP collectors include linear and point focused type. All CSP

technology can be coupled with the storage units of thermal energy, also, CSP

technology can be operated with the help of fossil fuel backup to ensure the 24 h

operation [17]. Lined focused parabolic trough and linear Fresnel lens can be controlled

by tracking system which tracks the sunlight or these can be operated manually, these

systems can reach the temperature up to 400ºC [17]. Thermal contribution is found to

be greater for PTC than LFC [17].

18
2.3. Flat plate solar heater with solar still:

A solar still has a glass cover which is inclined over a wooden box having a basin

which collects the water. When a single basin solar still is not coupled the output

becomes very small but can be increased by using a coupling such as a flat plate solar

heater [26]. This flat plate collector can also be termed as the preheater [27]. Insulating

material used and blackening the surface of flat plat collector enhanced the heat

absorptivity in this system [26] [27]. The optimum angle found to be for flat plate

collector is 35º [27]. The insulation has to be formed very carefully so that the heat

losses can be controlled [27].

The use of

The analysis done by Rai and Tiwari used the useful energy equation derived for flat

plate collector as [28].

𝑸𝒘 = 𝑨𝒄 𝑭𝑹 [(𝛂 𝒈 )𝑯𝒔 − 𝑼𝑳 (𝑻𝒘 − 𝑻𝒂 )] Equation 1

Arrows drawn in Figure 1 represent the directional heat flux and basic layout of a flat

plate solar still [26].

Figure 2.1 Sketch of a solar still (single basin type) coupled with FPC [26].

19
Variation of solar intensity with time has been plotted in Figure 2.2 [26]. While the

Figure 2.3 shows the change of temperature of glass cover over time [26]. Figure 2.4

shows the change in production of distilled water per unit surface area per unit time for

both the conditions that is coupled and uncoupled [26].

Figure 2.2 Change in solar intensity and atmospheric air temperature in an hour [26].

Figure 2.3 Change in temperature of water and basin made of glass [26].

20
Figure 2.4 Change in production of distilled water per unit area per unit time [26].

One of the most important conclusion drawn was that the production rate was 24%

higher for the coupled solar still than that of uncoupled one. Increasing the thickness

increases the distillate output.

As of the experimental study done by O.O. Badran, H.A. Al-Tahaineh showed that the

output of the coupled solar still increased by 36 %, the comparison is shown in Figure

2.5 as [27]:

Figure 2.5 Comparison of coupled and non-coupled solar still [27].

21
2.4. Use of ETC in solar desalination system:

Evacuated tube collectors are designed in a way so that to entrap the solar energy by

not giving it the way out, there is a vacuum between inner and outer side of the glass

tube, also, the inner surface is black in colour to entrap more heat energy. ETC have

more benefits and are more efficient than FPC [29]. Solar still coupled with ETC

increased the efficiency up to 33.8%. ETC combined with sun-tracking PTC increased

the efficiency up to 65.2% [30]. Thermal efficiency was found to be 16.2% more of

ETC with tracking system than without tracking system [31].

TETC having no thermal resistance between the collector and basin, combined with

stainless steel wool gave higher production rates [3]. Experiments done on TETC

coupled desalination system were performed in Tehran, Iran [3]. The design included

two sections: the first section (as show in Figure 2.6) included the vacuum tube, while,

the second section consisted of the condenser which was a parallel flow type heat

exchanger [3].

Figure 2.6 Showing the TETC coupled solar desalination system [3].

22
Volume fraction of water in the tube played a critical role in potable water production.

With 80% volume fraction the production rate was 0.83 kg/(m2 .h) and with 20% it was

0.42 kg/(m2 .h), it is also shown in Figure 2.7 [3]. The rate of production was increased

by 21% by using SSW as conductive heat transfer was increased as shown in Figure 2.8

[3]. The inclination angle defines the exposed area to the solar radiation, higher the

inclination angle more the buoyancy effect and for lower inclination angle more the

exposed area. The highest rate 0.83 kg/(m2 .h) was achieved at 35º as shown in Figure

2.9 [3]. Thus the use of ETC increased the solar radiation input and hence the overall

performance of the desalination system.

Figure 2.7 Effect on the rate of production by water fraction [3].

Figure 2.8 TETC with SSW and without SSW [3].

23
Figure 2.9 Effect of inclination angle on production rate [3].

The daily yield is also effected by the variations in temperature brought about by the

flow rate as shown in Figure 2.10 with basin water depth of 0.01 m [32]. The daily

energy and exergy efficiency is a function of mass flow rate and is 30% at 0.006kg/s

mass flow rate as shown in Figure 2.11 [32].

Figure 2.10 Effect of mass flow rate of on water temperature [32].

24
Figure 2.11 Effect of inclination angle on production rate [32].

25
2.5. Use of PTC and ETC in solar desalination:

Parabolic trough comprises of a reflector and an absorber. The reflector is made up of

mirror finished steel, fine glass with silver coating or any other material having very

good reflectivity, the schematics is shown in Figure 2.12 [33]. As, the design discussed

by Jafari, Jahangiri, Shafil and Hakim [33] the working is as when solar radiations

impact on the parabolic trough, it gets reflected to the evacuated tube which is placed at

the focus of parabolic trough. It enters the tube and gets trapped by the vacuum created

in between the tubes. On the inner tube, an absorber material is coated which absorbs

these radiations and transforms them into the thermal energy.

Figure 2.12 Schematic of a PTC [33].

The heat flux designing equation [34] for parabola is as:

26
 𝑸𝒔 = 𝑨𝒂 . 𝑮𝒃 Equation 2

Optical performance of the whole system can be determined by hour angle, Angle of

incidence and zenith angle. Given below is the table which clearly defines the relation

of hour angle with angle of incidence and zenith angle. The typical values are given in

Table 2.1 [35]. This relationship is also shown with the help of a graph which is plotted

between angle of incidence and hour angle shown by Figure 2.13 [33].

Table 2.1 Showing the relation between hour angle, angle of incidence and zenith

angle [35].

Hour angle Angle of incidence Zenith angle

-90 3.892 91.6158
-75 9.6077 77.8675
-60 15.0209 64.3875
-45 19.7795 51.4611
-30 23.528 39.6491
-15 25.9392 30.52386
0 26.7728 26.7728
15 25.9392 30.52386
30 23.528 39.6491
45 19.7795 51.4611
60 15.0209 64.3875
75 9.6077 77.8675
90 3.892 91.6158

Variation of water temperature with respect to time is shown in Table 2.2 [35]. Also,

the graphical presentation is given in Figure 2.14 [35].

27
 Figure 2.13 Relation between angle of incidence and hour angle [33].

Table 2.2 Variation in temperature with respect to time [35].

Time Final Temperature of water (ºC)

10 a.m. 28

11 a.m. 33

12 a.m. 41

13 p.m. 48

14 p.m. 43

15 p.m. 39

Figure 2.14 Relation between temperature and time [35].

28
Graph given in Figure 2.15 shows that at 8:00 A.M, thermal efficiency of the PTC was

minimum of approximately 40%. As DNI increases with time, thermal efficiency of the

fluid also increased and so did mass flow rate of the water. Efficiency was higher at

13:00 which showed that there was maximum DNI at that time and after that efficiency

begins to descend down up to 16:00 and so on [36]. Figure 2.16 shows thermal energy

produced by PTC with respect to time. Maximum thermal energy was obtained at 12:00

with a value of 930 W/m2 due to this thermal efficiency also became maximum [36].

Figure 2.17 shows that at maximum thermal efficiency flow rate is also maximum

which is 100 kg/hr [36].

Figure 2.15 Relation between efficiency and time [36].

Figure 2.16 Change in heat and solar irradiation with time [36].

29
Figure 2.17 Variation of efficiency with mass flow rate [36].

2.6. Use of condenser in solar desalination:

Solar desalination plants that do not use any type of condenser alongside with them

have steam condensed on the inner side of the transparent surface [37]. Coating can be

cooled on transparent surfaces to enhance the condensation process [38] [39]. The use

of a separate condenser with steam generation unit enables to have more intense

evaporation [37]. FC heat exchanger and PF heat exchanger using the water are found

to have increased the condensation process [18] [37].

2.7. Addition of nutrients:

Distilled water is not considered as drinkable. In order to make it drinkable nutrients

are added, this process in general is known as remineralisation which basically adds up

the required minerals which are crucial to healthy and active human body [40]. 15 mg/l

of Mg and 5 mg/l of calcium is required [40]. This can be done either by percolation

through lime stones or adding these nutrients in a very controlled manner [40].

30
Chapter 3

3. Materials and Methodology:

In this solar water desalination plant, there are three main components which we

choose to get the job done and these are:

 Pre-heater

 Parabolic trough collector

 Condenser

3.1. Pre-heater:

3.1.1. Construction:

The pre-heater is divided into four parts. Frame, aluminium sheet, covering and

helically bended copper pipe. The details are written below.

3.1.1.1. Frame:

The frame is made of plywood. The dimensions are shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Dimensions for frame of pre-heater.

Sr. # Dimension Units

1. Length 36 inch

2. Width 24 inch

3.1.1.2. Sheet:

Aluminium sheet is fixed on base of frame. This aluminium sheet fixed inside the

wooden frame by cutting and bending it. As the aluminium sheet is fixed inside the

31
wooden frame, it is painted. Matt black colour was chosen because it is an excellent

absorbent of solar radiations. The dimensions are shown in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2 Dimensions for aluminium plate.

Sr. # Dimensions Units

1. Height 48 inch

2. Width 36 inch

3. Thickness 0.039 inch

3.1.1.3. Pipe:

In this whole frame, we use ½ inch diameter of copper pipes of 24 ft. length to preheat

the saline water coming from the reservoir. Copper pipes are then bend into U-shaped

with a distance between the pipes is 3 inches and the radius of the U-shaped bend is 1½

inch. It is also painted with a matt black paint spray used for cars. It is fitted into the

frame by drilling and pass the ends of the U-shape bended copper pipes through these

drilled holes of ½ inch diameter.

The whole assembly is then covered with a fibre glass assembly which is used to

generated greenhouse effect inside the frame which will raises its temperature to about

70 oC approximately. The dimensions are shown in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3 Dimensions for copper pipe.

Sr. # Dimensions Units

1. Pipe diameter ½ inch

2. Pipe length 288 inch

32
Figure 3.1 Pre-heater.

3.2. Parabolic trough collector (PTC):

3.2.1. Construction:

Parabolic trough collector has four main parts as: angle frame, parabolic trough and

copper pipe. The details are discussed below.

3.2.1.1. Angle frame:

Angle frame is made of iron to support parabolic trough and pipe assembly. The

dimensions are shown below in Table 3.4.

Table 3.4 Dimensions for angle frame of PTC.

Sr. # Dimensions Units

1 Horizontal length 19 inch

2 Vertical length 21 inch

33
3.2.1.2. Parabolic trough:

Parabolic trough is made of glass. The focus is 6 inches from the centre of parabolic

trough. The detailed dimensions are mentioned in Table 3.5.

Table 3.5 Dimensions for PTC.

Sr.# Dimensions Units

1. Aperture 28 inch

2. Focus 6 inch

3. Length 72 inch

4. Thickness 0.157 inch

5. Horizontal length 19 inch

6. Vertical length 21 inch

The manufactured compenent is shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2 Parabolic trough collector.

34
3.3. Condenser:

3.3.1. Construction:

The type of condenser which we are using is parallel flow heat exchanger type as

shown in Figure 3.3. The condenser is divided in two parts that are shell and tube.

Shell is made up of cast iron while the copper tubing is used in helical shape. The

dimensions for shell are given in Table 3.6 while for copper tubing in

Table 3.7.

Table 3.6 Dimensions for shell of condenser.

Sr. # Dimensions Units

1. Width 24 inch

2. Height 30 inch

Table 3.7 Dimensions for helical shaped copper coil.

Sr. # Dimensions Units

1. Pipe diameter ½ inch

2. Pipe length 240 inch

3. Shape Helical shaped coil

Casing of the condenser of the dimensions given above contains cold water inside it.

Two holes are bored onto the casing. One hole on the top of one of the side of the

condenser casing while the other on the bottom of the opposite side. Copper Pipe is

35
bend in the helix-shaped coil which is then welded with shell with its own inlet and

outlet.

Figure 3.3 Condenser.

3.4. Schematics:

For this experimentation setup water is first stored in a tank which is then sent towards

the pre-heater where it is heated up to the required preliminary temperature and then

that heated water is sent to main heater or PTC which raises temperature up to boiling

point where steam starts forming and then that steam is sent towards parallel flow heat

exchanger or PTC which condenses the steam into water.

36
Figure 3.4 Schematics of the whole system.

3.5. Simulation:

As, this project is solemnly dependant on the amount of heat absorbed by the water.

First, the pre-heater and PTC were designed on SolidWorks and the simulations were

run using Flow Simulation feature of SolidWorks. For simulation the inlet temperature

was given at 20.47 °C. The latitude of 31º7’ N was chosen. The location selected was

Lahore.

3.5.1. Pre-heater simulation:

The simulated pre-heater is shown in Figure 3.5. The dimensions mentioned in Table

3.1, Table 3.2 and Table 3.3 were used.

Figure 3.5 Simulation results for pre-heater.

37
3.5.2. PTC simulation:

The model was created and simulated using the dimensions mentioned in Table 3.4 and

Table 3.5.

Figure 3.6 Simulation results for PTC.

3.6. Assembly:

All the components are fixed together using copper piping and required instrumentation

like valves, pressure gauge and thermometer.

Figure 3.7 Full assembly of a mini solar desalination plant.

3.7. Working:

38
As the inlet valve is opened, saline water begins to flow through the pipes. At first, it

passes through the pre-heater. Pre-heater is used to increase the temperature of saline

water from ambient temperature to about 70 ºC.

Pre-heater is inclined at angle between 35º- 45º to receive maximum amount of solar

radiations imminent from the sun. Since, aluminium is a good conductor of heat and

black is an excellent absorbent of solar radiations. The plastic sheet which is used to

cover pre-heater entraps the radiations inside and generates greenhouse effect. Due to

this at the outlet, temperature escalate to about 82 °C at 38 °C ambient temperature. The

outlet valve of pre-heater which is inlet to the PTC is closed till the target temperature

is achieved.

After pre-heating the inlet valve to PTC is opened and as PTC is exposed to sunlight, it

reflects light at an angle equal to the angle of incidence on the trough. The reflected

radiations from parabolic trough collector meet up at the focus point of PTC. PTC

having the length of 6 ft and aperture of 28 in. will form a linearly focused beam on

heat pipe which is of copper having length of 6 ft. and painted matt black to increase its

heat absorbing characteristics. Until the steam is made the outlet valve of PTC is closed

which also increases the pressure of steam. The temperature at average rose to 98 °C

with being maximum 110 ºC at ambient temperature of 39 °C, which is optimum for

steam production.

Steam produced in the PTC has to be converted to liquid water. For this purpose,

parallel flow type heat exchanger is used as a condenser at the end of PTC. Cold water

flows through the shell of the condenser and copper pipes are dipped into the cold

water. The outlet valve of parabolic trough is opened as the pressure reaches to range

from 8 bar to 10 bar. As steam passes through the helical arrangement of copper piping

the temperature of the steam decreases tremendously and which in turn converts it into

39
distilled water which is taken out the outlet point of the condenser. Converting the

saline water to steam leads to formation of solid salts. These salts are then drained into

the drain tank with the help of a special path given.

The water produced at the outlet is free of all the salts and required nutrients which

form the composition of drinkable water. These nutrients are then added up to convert

distilled water into fresh drinkable water.

40
Chapter 4

4. Results and Discussions

4.1. Simulation results:

4.1.1. Pre-heater:

When water was given an entry to the pre-heater at 28.77 °C the temperature rose to

around 90 °C. Solar Irradiance of 900 W/m2 was used and effects of wind were

ignored. The graphical result is shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1 Simulation results of pre-heater.

4.1.2. PTC simulation:

It can be seen from the results as shown in Figure 4.2 that maximum temperature of

177.87 °C was achieved using this PTC while an average of 120 °C was achieved.

41
Figure 4.2 Simulation results for PTC.

A parametric study was also run. Range of temperature was defined from 20 °C to 45

°C as design points and then average temperature results of PTC were taken which are

shown in Table 4.1 and almost a linear relation was point between design points

temperature and PTC average temperature which shows that as the ambient temperature

increases the temperature of PTC also increases which increases the efficiency of

overall system. .

Table 4.1 Parametric study results.

Sr. # Design points temperature PTC average temperature

°C °C

1 20 126.29

2 25 128.57

3 30 131.05

4 35 133.73

5 40 136.44

6 45 138.96

42
Figure 4.3 Relation between design points temperature and PTC average temperature.

4.2. Results:

4.2.1. Relation between solar intensity and days:

Solar intensity was measured using pyrometer installed in University of Engineering

and Technology, Lahore, Kala Sha Kaku Campus. On 6th of April, we started recording

the readings but at that date solar intensity was very low to about 640 W/m2. Then,

graph continued to escalates from 6th to 9th of April. On 9th of April, solar intensity

became maximum and value was about 930 W/m2.

After 9th of April, there was some kind of zig-zag pattern in the graph shown above. On

15th of April, solar intensity reached to its 2nd minimum value of about 680 W/m2. Solar

intensity again reached to its maximum value of 930 W/m2 on 24th of April. It

continues its zig-zag pattern until the end which was at 26th of April. On 26th of April,

solar intensity was about 805 W/m2. The relation is shown in Figure 4.4.

43
Figure 4.4 Relation between days and solar intensity.

4.2.2. Relation between ambient temperature and days:

Figure 4.5 represents the relationship between ambient temperature and days of the

month of April. At start which was at 6th of April, solar intensity was minimum. So we

got 25 °C ambient temperature. As soon as the days passed, ambient temperature also

escalated before 15th of April and then decreases a little bit. On 15th of April, ambient

temperature was about 40°C.

After 16th of April, graph shows a zig-zag pattern till the ambient temperature reaches

its maximum value. Maximum value of ambient temperature was on 20th of April and

its value was about 44°C. Then it declined gradually to about 31 °C on 22nd of April.

After this ambient temperature value increases until it reached the end which was 26th

of April. On 26th of April, ambient temperature escalated to about 37 °C when solar

intensity was about 805 W/m2.

44
Figure 4.5 Relation between days and ambient temperature.

4.2.3. Relation between ambient temperature and solar intensity:

Figure 4.6 represents the relationship between ambient temperature and solar intensity

of the sun. On 625 W/m2, ambient temperature was about 25 ºC. Then, it continued to

escalate to about 935 W/m2 and ambient temperature reached to about 30 ºC. This

smaller change in the ambient temperature was due to high wind speed which caused

some heat and temperature loses.

Then, it continued its zig-zag pattern. Solar intensity again reached to its maximum

value to about 935 W/m2 and ambient temperature reached to about 42 °C. This

occurred because wind speed was quite low which reduced heat and temperature loses.

Then, it declined till line reached the end. At the end point, solar intensity is about 810

W/m2 and ambient temperature reaches to 44 ºC which was due to low speed of the

wind blowing at that time

45
Figure 4.6 Relation between ambient temperature and solar intensity.

4.2.4. Relation between days and pre-heater temperature:

Pre-heater sole purpose is to give pre-heated water to the PTC to increase efficiency.

Pre-heater was attached to the system on 19th April. Initially the temperature was not

getting high, it was around 55 ºC and as the solar intensity increased in next couple of

days the temperature rose to 60 ºC but still it was not enough according to proposed

idea of utilizing a pre-heater. Then the pre-heater was covered with a plastic transparent

sheet which increased the temperature up to 70 ºC and as the ambient temperature rose

to around 40 ºC the temperature rose to 84 ºC. Also, covering reduces the convention

losses which are induced due to direct contact with air. As, this much heated water is

sent to parabolic trough it took very less time to convert it to steam.

46
Figure 4.7 Relation between days and pre-heater temperature.

4.2.5. Relation between days and PTC temperature:

Figure 4.8 represents the relationship between PTC Temperature and days of the month

of April. The PTC was rotated to an angle of 35º. We started to record the readings of

PTC Temperature on 6th of April. On 6th of April, temperature reached to about 66 ºC.

Then, on the next day, 7th of April temperature reached to about 72 ºC.

On the next two days, 8th to 9th of April, we also recorded readings of PTC Temperature

which came out to be 6 5ºC and 70 ºC respectively. Then after a week break, we again

continued to record readings. On 17th of April, PTC Temperature was about 70 ºC

again. After that, we changed orientation and inclination angle of PTC. We observed

that the temperature was increasing continuously and better results were achieved.

On 22nd April, we got the maximum value of PTC Temperature which was about

110ºC. At the end, on 25th of April, temperature which we achieved on PTC was 98 ºC.

47
Wind also plays a crucial role with increased wind speed up to 7 m/s the major and

minor losses increased mostly due to surface convection.

Figure 4.8 Relation between days and PTC temperature.

4.2.6. Relation between ambient temperature and PTC temperature:

Figure 4.9 epitomises relationship between Parabolic trough collector Temperature and

Ambient temperature. At 25 ºC, PTC Temperature reached to about 67ºC. Then at 29

ºC, PTC Temperature reached to about 72 ºC.

After this it decreased, then increased and escalated gradually until PTC Temperature

stretched to its maximum value. At 34 ºC, PTC Temperature stretched to about 110 ºC

when the wind was blowing with its moderate speed.

Then it declined linearly to 40 ºC ambient temperature and 72 ºC PTC Temperature

point. After this, it escalated and reached the end. At the end, ambient temperature is 43

ºC while PTC achieved 85 ºC temperature. This small change in PTC Temperature was

48
due to high wind speed which intensified the convective losses in the copper pipe and

hence lessened its temperature.

Figure 4.9 Relation between ambient temperature and PTC temperature.

49
Chapter 5

5. Conclusions and Future Work

5.1. Conclusions:

The output through solar desalination system utilizing parabolic trough is possible

when the solar intensity kept in range between 600 W/m2 and 900 W/m2. The effective

time when most of the solar intensity absorbed by the system is from 12:00 PM to 3:00

PM while being maximum around 1:00 PM. Moreover, parabolic trough made of

stainless steel has poor efficiency as compared to trough made of reflective glass. Also,

copper pipe used without glass covering can lead to convective and conductive losses,

so, pipe should be covered with transparent glass which entraps the heat inside.

Covering the pre-heater lead to increment in temperature of feed water towards PTC.

Also, to get the maximum yield the flow rate should be restricted to 1 l/m2 to 2 l/m2.

5.2. Future work:

The future work possible on this project is as below:

 The aperture of PTC can be increased to gather more solar radiation and focus

them linearly.

 An ETC can be used to increase the efficiency.

 Automatic sun tracking system can be implemented to make sure maximum

daytime solar irradiance can be utilized.

 Flow of saline water can be electronically controlled to account for optimum

fresh water production.

 Fresnel lens can also be used for point focusing to increase steam production

and hence more fresh water production.

50
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