Cooperative Control of Regenerative Braking

and Antilock Braking for a Hybrid Electric

Vehicle
A Thesis
Presented to the
School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
Mapua Institute of Technology

In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree of
Bachelor of Science in Manufacturing Engineering

By:
Jakobsen, Camilla
2018160204
Lunar, Menric G.
2014150319
Infante, Andrew Ray U.
2016280003

<Month Year (of presentation or submission of hardbound)>

 ABSTRACT

A  new   cooperative   braking control  strategy (CBCS)  is  proposed for  a   parallel

hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) with both a regenerative braking system and an antilock

braking   system   (ABS)   to   achieve   improved   braking   performance   and   energy

regeneration.   The   braking  system   of   the   vehicle   is   based  on  a   new   method   of   HEV

braking torque distribution that makes the antilock braking system work together with the

regenerative braking system harmoniously. In the cooperative braking control strategy, a

sliding mode controller (SMC) for ABS is designed to maintain the wheel slip within an

optimal   range   by   adjusting   the   hydraulic   braking   torque   continuously;   to   reduce   the

chattering   in   SMC,   a   boundary­layer   method   with   moderate   tuning   of   a   saturation

function is also investigated; based on the wheel slip ratio, battery state of charge (SOC),

and   the   motor   speed,   a   fuzzy   logic   control   strategy   (FLC)   is   applied   to   adjust   the

regenerative braking torque  dynamically.  In order to evaluate  the performance of the

cooperative   braking   control   strategy,   the   braking   system   model   of   a   hybrid   electric

vehicle   is   built   in   MATLAB/SIMULINK.   It   is   found   from   the   simulation   that   the

cooperative braking control strategy suggested in this paper provides satisfactory braking

performance, passenger comfort, and high regenerative efficiency.

2
3
APPROVAL SHEET

4
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The paper is supported by NSFC (no. 51105074) and Foundation of State Key Laboratory of

Mechanical Transmission (SKLMT-KFKT-201206).

5
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................ii
APPROVAL SHEET......................................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..............................................................................................................iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................................................v
LIST OF FIGURES.......................................................................................................................vii
LIST OF TABLES........................................................................................................................viii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................1
1.1. Overview and Background......................................................................................1
1.2. Statement of the Problem.........................................................................................3
1.3. Objectives of the Study............................................................................................3
1.3.1. General Objectives......................................................................................3
1.3.2. Specific Objectives.....................................................................................3

1.4. Significance of the Study.........................................................................................3

1.5. Scope and Limitation...............................................................................................3
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW...................................................................................4
2.1. <Study 1>................................................................................................................4
2.2. <Study 2>................................................................................................................4
2.3. <Study 3>................................................................................................................5
2.4. <Study 4>................................................................................................................5
2.5. <Study 5>................................................................................................................6
2.6. <Study 6>................................................................................................................6
CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL CONSIDERATION...............................................................7
3.1. Vehicle dynamics.....................................................................................................7
3.2. the tire......................................................................................................................9
CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY..........................................................................................14
4.1. <Elaboration of Methodology Step 1>..................................................................15
4.2. <Elaboration of Methodology Step 1>..................................................................15

6
 4.2.1. <Subheading level 3>................................................................................15
4.2.2. <Subheading Level 3>..............................................................................15

4.3. <Elaboration of Methodology Step 1>..................................................................15

4.3.1. <subheading level 3>................................................................................15
4.3.2. <subheading level 3>................................................................................15

CHAPTER 5: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION......................................................................17

5.1. <Result elaboration 1>...........................................................................................17
5.2. <Result elaboration 2>...........................................................................................17
5.3. <Result elaboration 3>...........................................................................................17
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION...............................................18
6.1. Conclusion.............................................................................................................18
6.2. Recommendation...................................................................................................18
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................19
APPENDIX A. DETAILED CALCULATIONS...........................................................................20
APPENDIX B. MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION................................................................21

7
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1. Sample Figure...............................................................................................................4

Figure 2.2. Sample Figure...............................................................................................................5

Figure 2.3. Sample Figure...............................................................................................................5

Figure 2.4. Sample Figure...............................................................................................................6

Figure 2.5. Sample Figure...............................................................................................................6

Figure 6 - Slip and the friction coefficient relationship based on Pacejka’s nonlinear tire model 10

Figure 7 - Efficiency characteristics of the electric motor.............................................................11

Figure 8 - Charging resistance characteristics of the Ni-MH battery............................................12

Figure 4.1. Sample Figure.............................................................................................................15

8
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 6.1. Sample Table.................................................................................................................17

9
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

The study focuses on the development of a new cooperative braking strategy (CBCS) for

a parallel hybrid electric vehicle having both a regenerative braking system and antilock braking

system to acquire enhanced energy regeneration and braking performance. This chapter discusses

the background, statement of the problem, objectives, significance and scope and limitation of

the study.

1.1. OVERVIEW AND BACKGROUND

In the hybrid electric vehicle, regenerative braking takes place by transforming the

mechanical energy into electric energy via a generator, the electric energy is stored in the energy

storing device such as battery or supercapacitor, and the stored energy is recycled to propel the

vehicle via a motor. Energy regeneration during braking is an effective approach to improve

vehicle efficiency, especially for vehicles in heavy stop and go traffic [1–3].

Generally, in order to ensure appropriate braking performance and energy regeneration,

most HEVs are equipped with both an antilock braking system and a regenerative braking

system. As one of the most popular active systems of vehicles, the antilock braking system

(ABS) helps the driver to maintain control of the vehicle during emergency braking or braking

on a slippery road by preventing wheel lockup; it has dramatically improved vehicle stability

during braking. The regenerative braking system works together with the antilock braking system

for the following reasons: (a) the regenerative braking torque is not large enough to cover the

required braking torque; (b) the regenerative braking cannot be used for many reasons such as a

high state of charge (SOC) or high temperature of the battery to increase the battery life. In these

1
cases, the antilock braking system works to supply the required braking torque. Therefore, the

cooperative control strategy between the antilock braking system and the regenerative braking

system is an important issue to research on HEV.

As for the cooperative control strategy, few investigations have been reported. Present

research mainly focuses on two different braking aspects. One is the regeneration efficiency of

various types of regenerative braking systems for the electric vehicle (EV) and HEV [4, 5].

Wyczalk suggested a mathematical formulation for the regenerative braking energy by

considering the charging and discharging efficiencies and showed that a significant improvement

in the regenerative braking could be achieved [6]. Yeo et al. proposed a regenerative braking

algorithm with CVT ratio control for a parallel HEV equipped with a CVT; the CVT ratio is

controlled to operate the motor on the most efficient region during regenerative braking; the

experiments show that the regenerative braking algorithm offers an improved battery SOC [7].

The optimum control strategy was adopted to improve the regeneration efficiency [8]. The other

focus is the emergency braking process. Taking advantage of the quick response and accurate

control of the motor torque, researchers worldwide have explored a way to introduce the motor

torque into an antilock brake system (ABS) control, expecting a better control effect [9–11].

However, these strategies neglected the cooperative control between the conventional hydraulic

braking system and the regenerative braking system, and it is difficult to achieve good braking

stability and high regenerative braking efficiency simultaneously. Pu et al. and Peng et al.

suggested a combined control algorithm, a logic threshold control strategy to control hydraulic

braking torque and a fuzzy logic control strategy to adjust regenerative braking torque [12, 13].

Nevertheless, the magnitude of the regenerative torque varies also depending on the vehicle

2
velocity, and the problem of fluctuating vehicle velocity (variable motor input speeds) has not

been addressed in the paper. Because of problems such as nonlinearity in the vehicle-braking

dynamics and variations in model parameters over a wide range due to variations in road surface

and vehicle conditions, conventional ABS controller cannot achieve satisfactory performance.

However, sliding-mode control, which is insensitive to parameter variations and external

disturbances and is applicable to nonlinear systems, has become widespread [14, 15]. Therefore,

a sliding mode controller (SMC) for ABS is designed; in order to reduce the chattering, a

boundary-layer method with moderate tuning of a saturation function is also investigated. Based

on the wheel slip ratio, battery state of charge (SOC), and the motor speed, a fuzzy logic control

strategy (FLC) is proposed in this paper.

1.2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

It is difficult to achieve good braking stability and high regenerative braking efficiency

simultaneously. Because of problems such as nonlinearity in the vehicle-braking dynamics and

variations in model parameters over a wide range due to variations in road surface and vehicle

conditions, conventional Antilock braking system controller cannot achieve satisfactory

performance.The regenerative braking torque is not large enough to cover the required braking

torque. The regenerative braking cannot be used for many reasons such as a high state of charge

(SOC) or high temperature of the battery to increase the battery life.

1.3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

This section covers the general and specific objectives of the study.

1.3.1. GENERAL OBJECTIVES

The study aims to improve the braking performance and energy regeneration of

both regenerative braking system and an antilock braking system (ABS).

1.3.2. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

3
 The specific objectives of the study are the following:

1.3.1.1 The antilock braking system must work together with the regenerative braking

system harmoniously.

1.3.1.2 Maintain the wheel slip within an optimal range by adjusting the hydraulic

braking torque continuously.

1.3.1.3 To maintain the wheel slip within an optimal range by adjusting the hydraulic

braking torque continuously.

1.3.1.4 To reduce the chattering in sliding mode controller

1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

For hybrid electric vehicles, under the effect of regenerative braking torque and hydraulic

braking torques, the braking control system must make the two braking torques work together

harmoniously to assure the braking safety of vehicle and maintain comfortable sense for driver.

1.5. SCOPE AND LIMITATION

The study focuses on the new cooperative control braking strategy for parallel hybrid

electric vehicles with both regenerative and anti-lock braking system for the improvement of

braking performance and energy regeneration. The performance shall be evaluated by building

the model of a hybrid electric vehicle in MATLAB/SIMULINK. Identifies the limitation of the

project; how will you know that the project has already been concluded?

4
 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

This part of the report should demonstrate the proponent’s knowledge of the field in

which problem being solved applies; and must address the following concerns:

a. Factors known to contribute to the problem and their effects

b. Methods tried to solve the problem and their results

c. Advantage of the proposed method over the existing methods

2.1. The Magic of Tesla Roadster Regenerative Braking (Solberg 2007) <STUDY 1>

In a battery powered vehicle, kinetic energy can be converted into chemical energy stored

in the battery using regenerative braking (regen), where it can be later used to drive the

vehicle. Instead of energy being converted to heat from the brakes and then released to the

environment – the Tesla Roadster’s regenerative braking recovers some energy that would

otherwise have been wasted in the brakes.

The Tesla Roadster’s advanced algorithms in the motor controller give complete control of

the motor torque for both driving and regenerative braking. Current waveforms are produced

the commanded torque in the motor in the most efficient way when the motor controller

converts the torque command in to the appropriate 3- phase voltage. Energy is returned to the

battery when the torque serves to slow the vehicle.

The amount of energy you can recover depends on how and where you drive. Energy

conversion efficiencies from the battery, inverter, motor, transmission and wheels are all

quite high and work just as efficiently returning energy into the battery. The problem is

aerodynamic losses, higher speeds and rolling friction of the tires. The energy gets converted

twice for a net efficiency of at most 64% when it makes a full circle back into the battery.

5
 2.2. Regenerative Braking Systems (Rbs) (Future Of Braking Systems) (Gupta, Et Al.

2014)<STUDY 2>

With the conventional braking system in vehicles, friction is used as stop/decelerate the

moving vehicle. By this method, much of the energy is converted into heat energy wasted into

the air. By using a regenerative braking system, most of the kinetic energy that makes the vehicle

move forward is recollected and converted into electrical or mechanical energy. By this method,

the efficiency is also increased and is energy saving. Instead of using friction, the deacceleration

of the moving vehicle happens by transforming the energy.

Kinetic energy to mechanical energy:

If the kinetic energy is converted into mechanical energy, it is most common to use a flywheel,

which is a high-speed rotating disc that builds up kinetic energy for storage. The amount of

energy depends on weight and speed. The energy storaged is already mechanical now and can be

transferred to the vehicle without transmission loses.

Kinetic energy to electrical energy:

To use the regenerative braking system in an electric car, the electric motor is used as a

generator in the reversed process. When the brake is pushed, it is an external force applied to the

motor and then it acts like a generator and generates electricity to storage in the battery instead of

creating mechanical energy by an electric current passing through.

With a higher efficiency of a fuel reduction of 10 to 25 percent, it is concluded that the

regenerative system saves energy that would have been lost when braking. Around 30 percent of

the energy used to brake can be recovered by using this system, why it saves both money and

fuels.

6
 Figure 2.1. Sample Figure

2.3. How Regenerative Braking Works (Lampton 2009)<Study 3>

A vehicle always has a significant amount of kinetic energy when it is moving. But

when a vehicle in motion suddenly hits the brakes, it impede its own movement making the

kinetic energy slowly disappear and transforming into heat which is pointless and

unnecessary. Rather than wasting such energy by turning it into heat, recapturing it and

turning it to useful energy is the best option. This is where regenerative braking works

comes in.
Regenerative Braking is a system that converts some parts of kinetic energy of a

decelerating vehicle into electrical energy. This system not just convert dissipating kinetic

energy into electricity, it can also recapture it and store that energy which can later be

reused as horsepower or can powered an electrical equipment. Applying this system in a

vehicle will change its electric motor so that stepping on the brakes will put the electric

motor in reverse mode therefore making it run backwards causing the wheels to slow down.

Due to the vehicle running backwards, the motor will act as an electric generator that will

produce electricity that is then stored in the battery.

7
 In conclusion, Regenerative Braking can save a significant amount of electrical energy

which can be reusable. This system is not only applicable to automotive vehicles like cars or

bus, but also on nonautomotive vehicles like bikes.

2.4 Investigation of Regenerative And Anti-Lock Braking Interaction (Oleksowicz 2013)Figure

2.2. Sample Figure

8
 The use of a regenerative braking mode can reduce overall vehicle energy usage for most

of the most common drive cycles. However, a number of technical issues restrict the use of

regenerative braking for all possible braking situations. These issues are concerned with two key

limitations. The first is related to physical limitations of the applied regenerative braking system,

e.g. Electric Motor (E-Motor) power limits; energy storage device capacity and vehicle load

transfer etc. The second limitation results from the potentially detrimental interaction between

regenerative braking and the Anti-locking Braking System (ABS). The first type of limitation

can, to some extent, be alleviated by suitable choice of hardware and, as a consequence, will not

be discussed further in this paper. The second type of limitation concerns the regenerative

braking strategies during an ABS event. Some of the regenerative braking strategies designed

and investigated within the Low Carbon Vehicle Technology Project (LCVTP) will be described

and analyzed in this paper. A comparison of competing strategies is made and conclusions are

drawn together with suggestions for further research. The work has been progressed as a part of a

major research program; namely the LCVTP, which has been conducted within an extensive

industrial and academic partnership, mutually funded by the European Regional Development

Found and Advantage West Midlands.

<Study 4>

9
Figure 2.3. Sample Figure

10
 2.5 Design of Regenerative Anti-Lock Braking System Controller For 4 In-Wheel-Motor

Drive Electric Vehicle With Road Surface Estimation (Aksjonov 2018)<STUDY 5>

Vehicle body longitudinal deceleration is used to estimate a road surface. Based on the

estimation results, the controller generates an appropriate braking torque to keep an optimal for

various road surfaces wheel slip and to regenerate for a given motor the maximum possible

amount of energy during vehicle deceleration. A fuzzy logic controller is applied to fulfill the

task. The control method is tested on a four in-wheel-motor drive sport utility electric vehicle

model. The model is constructed and parametrized according to the specifications provided by

the vehicle manufacturer. The simulation results conducted on different road surfaces, including

dry, wet and icy, are introduced. Figure 2.4. Sample Figure

2.6 Design of An Anti-Lock Regenerative Braking System For A Series Hybrid Electric

Vehicle (Tehrani 2011)<STUDY 6>

In this paper, an adaptive rule based controller for an anti-lock regenerative braking system

(ARBS) of a series hybrid electric bus (SHEB) has been proposed. The proposed controller

integrates the regenerative braking and wheel antilock functions by controlling the electric

motor of the hybrid vehicle, without using any conventional mechanical antilock braking

11
system. The performance of the proposed system is evaluated by a comprehensive vehicle

dynamics model in MATLAB/Simulink. Using the designed ARBS, the braking and

regenerative performances of SHEB have significantly improved in slippery roads while the

slip ratios are kept between 0.15 and 0.20.

Figure 2.5. Sample Figure

12
 CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL CONSIDERATION

Simulation is a crucial step of research and development nowadays. In order to test and

verify the cooperative braking control strategy and to evaluate the control effect, simulation is

required. To carry out the simulation, appropriate models including those of the vehicle (overall

dynamics), the tire, the electric motor, the battery, and the hydraulic system were built.

3.1. VEHICLE DYNAMICS

Since only a straight-line braking maneuver is considered, the vehicle model takes

into account only longitudinal movement. For a straight-line braking motion, that is, the

movement does not include lateral and vertical motions, and the effect of the slight

vibration of suspension system, yaw movement can be neglected, as the effect is very

small. Therefore, a typical three degrees of freedom vehicle dynamic model, which

possesses the fundamental characteristics of an actual system and sufficient accuracy, is

used in this paper. These 3-DOF include the longitudinal velocity, the front-wheel angular

speed, and the rear-wheel angular speed of the vehicle. In the hybrid electric vehicle, the

regenerative braking torque works often only on the front axle of the vehicle; considering

this and the normal force transfers, by making use of Newton’s second law and law of

rotation, the vehicle dynamic model is built; the dynamic equations are therefore derived

as follows:

m v́=F x −F a−F f =μ F ( λ ) F zF + μ R ( λ ) F zR−F a−fmg

I ω ώ F =F xF R−T hF−T fF −T m=μ F ( λ ) F zF R−T hF−T fF −T m

I ω ώ R =F xR R−T hR −T fR =μR ( λ ) F zR R−T hR −T fR

13
 mg v́
F zF= (
l + h
L R g g )
mg v́
F zR=
L (
l F + hg
g )
Where:

m is the vehicle mass

v is the longitudinal velocity of the vehicle

F x is the longitudinal force

F a is the air resistance

Ff is the rolling resistance

f is the coefficient of the rolling resistance

F zF is the front tire normal force

F zR is the rear tire normal force

μF ( λ ) is the friction coefficient of the front tires

μR ( λ ) is the friction coefficient of the rear tires

I ω is the moment of the inertia of the wheel

F xF is the longitudinal tire force on the front wheel

F xR is the longitudinal tire force on the rear wheel

T hF is the hydraulic braking torque on the front wheel

T hR is the hydraulic braking torque on the rear wheel

T fF is the rolling resistance torque on the front wheel

T fR is the rolling resistance torque on the rear wheel

T m is the regenerative braking torque on the front wheel

14
 lF is the distance from vehicle center of gravity to front axle center line

lR is the distance from vehicle center of gravity to rear axle center line

L is the wheel base

h g is the height of the center of gravity

The friction coefficients will be described later ((6) and (7)); the friction coefficient is a

nonlinear function of some physical variables, including the velocity of the vehicle and wheel

slip.

3.2. THE TIRE

The tire model is a very essential part in vehicle simulation research. The Pacejka nonlinear

tire model “Magic Formula” is a widely used tire model in automotive industry, which possesses

a high fitting accuracy and was first proposed by Pacejka in 1991. In this paper, Pacejka’s

nonlinear tire model “Magic Formula” is used. In the tire model of the mathematical

descriptions, a set of trigonometric formulas is used to describe the mathematical relation of the

athletic parameters of tire. The magic formula tire model is presented by

( B λi )
−1
Cta n {B λ i−E ¿
μi ( λ )=θDsin ¿

v−ω i R
λi =
v

15
 Where:

μ is the friction coefficient related to

λ , the longitudinal slip ratio

i is the rear wheel or the front wheel

θ is the TRFC

The (maximum) TRFC has been widely explored and estimated in recent decades. The meanings

of the parameters B ,C , D , and E can be easily found in the paper by Pacejka and Bakker

[16]. Tire models with both high μ and low μ are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 6 - Slip and the friction coefficient relationship based on Pacejka’s nonlinear tire model

3.3. ELECTRIC MOTOR

The motor is used for tractive effort when the battery is discharged and is used as a generator

when the battery is charged, in other words in the regenerative braking mode. Based on the test

date, an experimental motor model of the mathematical descriptions of the 20 kW PMSM motor

is used in this paper, which emphasizes the mathematical relation between inputs and outputs and

16
neglects the complicated physical and electrodynamic movements in electricmotor. The

efficiency and torque characteristics of the electric motor are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 7 - Efficiency characteristics of the electric motor

3.4. THE BATTERY

An experimental battery model of the mathematical descriptions is built, which focuses on

the mathematical relation between the charge resistance and the state of charge (SOC). The

original capacity of Ni-MH battery is 80 Ah and the nominal voltage is 336 V. In the charging or

discharging process, the inner resistance of the battery changes depending on the battery’s SOC.

The characteristics of SOC and the charging resistance of the battery being tested are shown in

Figure 3. In the simulation, look-up tables are compiled on the basis of SOC and temperature of

the battery, producing its charging-discharging internal resistance.

17
 Figure 8 - Charging resistance characteristics of the Ni-MH battery

3.5. HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

According to the theory of hydrokinetics and lab tests, the ABS hydraulic system model is

described as pressure increasing, pressure holding, and pressure dumping processes, which also

uses the mathematical descriptions and neglects the complicated physical process and movement.

The theory diagram of the hydraulic pressure increase/decrease is shown in Figure 4. In this

paper, the hydraulic system is described by the following equation

37.54164 ( pm −p ωi )0.59 pressure increasing

d pωi
={ 0 pressure holding
dt 0.93
−38.3128 ( pωi− pm ) pressure decreasing
Where:

pωi is the wheel cylinder pressure

pm is the main cylinder pressure

18
Figure 9 - Increasing and decreasing pressure theory diagram of the ABS hydraulic braking
system

19
 CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY

For hybrid electric vehicles, under the effect of regenerative braking torque and hydraulic

braking torques, the braking control system must make the two braking torques work together

harmoniously to assure the braking safety of vehicle and maintain comfortable sense for driver.

In this paper, the cooperative braking control strategy is divided into two parts: the first part is

used to adjust the antilock braking torque in the conventional hydraulic braking system using a

sliding mode controller that is based on the target slip ratio to control the braking pressure

increase, holding, and decrease; the second part is used to adjust the regenerative braking torque

from the electric motor using a fuzzy logic control strategy that is based on the target slip ratio,

battery state of charge (SOC), and the motor speed to adjust the regenerative braking torque

dynamically. In the cooperative braking control strategy, the wheel slip ratio is the control

common variable; the regenerative braking torque and the hydraulic braking toque should be

adjusted (increased or decreased) harmoniously based on the changes of slip ratio to assure the

braking stability of vehicle.

In the control strategy, the required braking torque of driver T r can be expressed as

T r=T h + β·T mm
Where:

T r is the required braking torque

T h is the hydraulic braking torque

β is the maximum regenerative braking torque

T mm is the load signal of motor

20
4.1. SLIDING MODE CONTROLLER (SMC)

The design procedure of sliding mode control methodology consists of two main

steps: first, a sliding surface that models the desired closed­loop performance is chosen,

and then, the control law, such that the system state trajectories are forced towar ❑
´❑´ d

the   sliding   surface,   is   derived.   Once   the   sliding   surface   is   reached,   the   system   state

trajectories should stay on it. In this paper, SMC is used to track the target slip ratio.

Hence, the switching function is defined as 

  s= λ−λ r , (10)

Where:

λr is the target wheel slip.

The sliding motion occurs when the state ( λr , λ r ¿  reaches the switching subspace (a

point in this case) defined by s = 0. The control that keeps the state on the switching

subspace is called the equivalent control. In this paper, it is called equivalent control

hydraulic braking torque  T h−eq . The dynamics in sliding mode can be written as

s = 0, ś=0 (11)

<ELABORATION OF METHODOLOGY STEP 1>

4.1.1. <SUBHEADING LEVEL 3>

4.1.2.

21
4.1.3. <SUBHEADING LEVEL 3>
4.1.3.1. <level 4 subheading>

4.1.3.2. <level 4 subheading>

4.2. <ELABORATION OF METHODOLOGY STEP 1>

4.2.1. <SUBHEADING LEVEL 3>

4.2.2. <SUBHEADING LEVEL 3>

22
 CHAPTER 5: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In order to evaluate the performance of the cooperative braking control strategy, the

simulation is implemented in MATLAB/SIMULINK. The simulation parameters of main

components of the vehicle are listed in Table 1. In Table 1, these values of �, �, �, �, and � are

selected from engineers’ experiences and tests; values of the other parameters based on a typical

car of our laboratory are selected. The simulation includes two parts: one part checks the brake

stability during emergency braking, and the other part checks the regenerative efficiency under

the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC).

5.1. SIMULATION FOR EMERGENCY BRAKING<RESULT

ELABORATION 1>

First, the vehicle was brought to a steady longitudinal velocity of 30 m/s along a

straight path. Then, the ABS and the regenerative braking were applied on the front

wheels simultaneously. To increase stability and maneuverability of the vehicle and to

decrease the stopping distance during emergency braking, the CBCS is implemented to

maintain the target slip ratio value of 0.2. The simulation results are shown in Figures 8

and 9.

5.1.1 The wheel speed and slip ratio with conventional control and SMC control are

compared in Figures 8(a) and 8(b), respectively.

As can be seen in Figures 8(a) and 8(b), the conventional controller and

SMC try to stop the car quickly and keep the slip ratio at the optimal value of 0.2;

the initial action of the SMC ABS is similar to conventional braking until the

23
 sliding surface is reached, and then there is a sharp fall in the wheel speed for

SMC, which is due to the hitting control; large oscillations can be observed in the

conventional controller; it may be significantly affected by changes in the

parameters. The oscillation when using the SMC is much smaller than that when

using the conventional controller; perhaps the SMC has more robustness against

parameter variation. The sliding mode ABS control produces smoother variations

in wheel speed and the slip ratio as compared to the conventional ABS system,

thereby improving braking stability and passenger comfort. It can be seen that the

wheels are never locked during the whole braking process and the time taken for

stopping the car is less than 0.2 s when emergency braking with SMC ABS is

used as compared to emergency braking with conventional ABS. Hence, the

control performance of the proposed SMC is far better than that of the

conventional controller.

Figure 8 - Comparison of (a) vehicle speed and wheel speed and (b) slip ratio for conventional
control and SMC control.

24
 5.1.2 Figures 9(a) and 9(b) show the variations in the braking torque and battery

SOC in an emergency braking condition.

The variations of the hydraulic braking torque and regenerative braking

torque are shown in Figure 9(a). Initially, to increase braking stability and

maneuverability of the vehicle, the hydraulic braking torque is much larger than

the regenerative braking torque, and then in order to get more regenerative energy,

the cooperative control strategy depresses the hydraulic braking torque of the

front axle and increases the regenerative braking toque at the same time. The

hydraulic braking torque and regenerative braking torque can cooperate well

under the braking control strategy. In Figure 9(b), the battery SOC shows an

increased value of about 1.6 percent during emergency braking. Note that if the

original battery SOC is small, then braking from the same initial speed to

complete rest produces more change in the battery SOC as compared to the case

when the battery is initially at a higher SOC. For very large battery SOC, no

further charging may be possible and regenerative braking fails.

Figure 9 - (a) Regenerative braking torque and hydraulic braking torque and (b) battery SOC
for CBCS during emergency braking by ABS and regenerative braking.

25
5.2. <SIMULATION FOR THE NEDCRESULT ELABORATION 2>

Table 5.1. Sample Table

Heading Heading

Content 1 Follow significant number of significant figures

Content 2 1.23×10-4

Content 3 Try to compress tables

Content 4 Tables from standards and codes should be re-typed

Simulation results are shown in Figure 10. Figure 10(a) shows the vehicle speed

of the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC). Figure 10(b) shows the variations of the

hydraulic braking torque and regenerative braking torque. As shown in Figure 10(b), in

normal braking process, the electric motor acts as the main braking source, and the

hydraulic braking system works only to ensure the parking; in an emergency braking

condition, to increase braking stability, the hydraulic braking system acts as the main

braking source. The battery current (Figure 10(c)) shows a positive value when the

battery is charged and shows a negative value when the battery is discharged. The battery

SOC (Figure 10(d)) decreases when the motor is used to propel the vehicle and increases

when the motor is used as a generator. The final battery SOC by the FLC control is higher

than that by the conventional control, which implies that more electric energy is stored by

the FCS control. In Figure 10(e), the regenerated energy stored in battery is compared. As

26
shown in Figure 10(e), the stored energy by the FCS control shows a higher value than

that by the conventional control. Since the stored energy can be reused to propel the

vehicle, the vehicle fuel economy can be improved by the amount of increased stored

energy.

Figure 10 – Simulation results for the NEDC

27
5.3. <RESULT ELABORATION 3>

28
 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The last chapter is on the Conclusions and Recommendations of the entire research

project. This is immediately followed by bibliography of the project and any appendix the author

may wish to include.

6.1. CONCLUSION

A new cooperative braking control strategy (CBCS) for a parallel hybrid electric vehicle

is proposed in this paper. The CBCS combines a sliding mode controller and a fuzzy logic

control strategy to ensure the vehicle’s longitudinal braking performance, which keeps the

wheels from being locked and regenerates more energy effectively. The simulation shows that

the model of the HEV’s braking system and the cooperative braking control strategy developed

in this paper are right. It is also found from the simulation that the cooperative braking control

strategy suggested in this paper provides satisfactory braking performance, passenger comfort,

and high regenerative efficiency. Although the simulation results have a certain guiding

significance for real applications, the deviation between the simulation model and the braking

system of actual vehicle is inevitable. Hence, the real vehicle test and a hardware-in-the-loop

simulation with cosimulations between MATLAB/SIMULINK and dSPACE will be researched

to validate the effectiveness of the proposed cooperative braking control strategy in the future.

6.2. RECOMMENDATION

The following recommendations for future researchers who will embark on similar

studies are the following:

29
 The researchers recommend the next conductor of this study to test the cooperative

braking control strategy (CBCS) for a parallel hybrid electric vehicle using actual experiments

rather than using simulators. This shall provide actual guiding significance for real life

applications.

30
REFERENCES

All references must be stated in the review; no report will be accepted without the proper

acknowledgments to the authors referred in the review.

CHAPTER 7: REFERENCES

Aksjonov. 2018. "Design of Regenerative Anti-Lock Braking System Controller For 4 In-Wheel-

Motor Drive Electric Vehicle With Road Surface Estimation."

Latham, Andrew. 2017. How to Calculate a Global Competitiveness Index. Septmember 26.

https://bizfluent.com/how-8369247-calculate-global-competitiveness-index.html.

Oleksowicz. 2013. "Investigation of Regenerative And Anti-Lock Braking Interaction."

Schwab, Klaus. 2017. The Global Competitiveness Report 2017- 2018. Geneva: World Economic

Forum.

Solberg, Greg. 2007. "The Magic of Tesla Roadster Regenerative Braking." Tesla. June 29.

https://www.tesla.com/blog/magic-tesla-roadster-regenerative-braking.

Tehrani. 2011. "Design of An Anti-Lock Regenerative Braking System For A Series Hybrid

Electric Vehicle."

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APPENDIX A. DETAILED CALCULATIONS

32
APPENDIX B. MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION

33