ISO 9000 is a family of standards for quality management systems.

ISO 9000 is
maintained by ISO, the International Organization for Standardization and is
administered by accreditation and certification bodies. The rules are updated, as the
requirements motivate changes over time. Some of the requirements in ISO 9001:2008
(which is one of the standards in the ISO 9000 family) include

• a set of procedures that cover all key processes in the business;

• monitoring processes to ensure they are effective;
• keeping adequate records;
• checking output for defects, with appropriate and corrective action where
necessary;
• regularly reviewing individual processes and the quality system itself for
effectiveness; and
• facilitating continual improvement

A company or organization that has been independently audited and certified to be in

conformance with ISO 9001 may publicly state that it is "ISO 9001 certified" or "ISO
9001 registered". Certification to an ISO 9001 standard does not guarantee any quality of
end products and services; rather, it certifies that formalized business processes are being
applied.

Although the standards originated in manufacturing, they are now employed across
several types of organizations. A "product", in ISO vocabulary, can mean a physical
object, services, or software.

The ISO 9000 family addresses "Quality management".

This means what the organization does to fulfil:

 The customer's quality requirements,

and

 Applicable regulatory requirements,

while aiming to

 Enhance customer satisfaction,

and

 Achieve continual improvement of its performance in pursuit

of these objective
A barcode is an optical machine-readable representation of data, which shows certain
data on certain products. Originally, barcodes represented data in the widths (lines) and
the spacings of parallel lines, and may be referred to as linear or 1D (1 dimensional)
barcodes or symbologies. They also come in patterns of squares, dots, hexagons and other
geometric patterns within images termed 2D (2 dimensional) matrix codes or
symbologies. Although 2D systems use symbols other than bars, they are generally
referred to as barcodes as well. Barcodes can be read by optical scanners called barcode
readers, or scanned from an image by special software.

The first use of barcodes was to label railroad cars, but they were not commercially
successful until they were used to automate supermarket checkout systems, a task in
which they have become almost universal. Their use has spread to many other roles as
well, tasks that are generically referred to as Auto ID Data Capture (AIDC). Other
systems are attempting to make inroads in the AIDC market, but the simplicity,
universality and low cost of barcodes has limited the role of these other systems. It costs
0.5¢ (U.S.) to implement a barcode, while passive RFID still costs about 7¢ to 30¢ per
tag.[1]

What are the Objectives of

Purchasing?
The Objectives of Purchasing.

Progressive organisations recognize purchasing as an important function and

establish a separate purchase department to look after this function. Objectives
of purchasing should be clearly laid down by the organisation for the justification
of the functioning of the purchase department. It should be seen that objective of
purchasing should match with the overall objectives of the organisation.

The objectives of purchasing can be outlined as follows:

• Maintaining continuity of supply: The purchasing function must ensure

the continuous availability of material, supplies and equipments to
maintain production schedule or to avoid disruption in production. The
purchasing function also requires investments in reserve inventories. The
efficiency of purchasing function lies in proper balancing of these factors
which require experience, judgment of future activities and trends and
various other activities on the part of purchasing authority.
• Maintenance standards quality: The purchasing function must ensure
that the material purchased must be of required quality in order to produce
the goods according to specifications and to maintain quality standards.
 • Avoidance of duplication, waste and obsolescence: The purchasing
authority must have the accurate knowledge of the items in hand and the
requirements of materials for a particular period in order to have proper
decision in view of long range and short range plans. This is necessary to
avoid duplication, waste and obsolescence with respect to various items
purchased.
• Maintenance of company's competitive position: The purchasing
authority must constantly examine his specifications for the purchase of
right material. This is necessary to make sure that his company's quality
standards are neither higher nor lower than those of close competitors and
to maintain his company's position in the industry.
• Maintenance of company's good image: The purchasing agent must
create a good image in the minds of suppliers. This will help him in
purchasing operation and to discover new ideas and materials besides
lowering its cost or improving products.
• Developing alternative sources of supply: Alternative sources of supply
should be exposed for increasing the bargaining power of the buyer and
minimizing the cost of purchases. Purchases can be made from
alternative sources if a particular supplier fails to supply the required
items.

Selective inventory control

ABC analysis is a business term used to define an inventory categorization technique
often used in materials management. It is also known as Selective Inventory Control.

ABC analysis provides a mechanism for identifying items that will have a significant
impact on overall inventory cost, [1] while also providing a mechanism for identifying
different categories of stock that will require different management and controls.[2]

When carrying out an ABC analysis, inventory items are valued (item cost multiplied by
quantity issued/consumed in period) with the results then ranked. The results are then
grouped typically into three bands[3]. These bands are called ABC codes.

[edit] ABC codes

1. "A class" inventory will typically contain items that account for 80% of total
value, or 20% of total items.
2. "B class" inventory will have around 15% of total value, or 30% of total items.
3. "C class" inventory will account for the remaining 5%, or 50% of total items..

ABC Analysis is similar to the Pareto principle in that the "A class" group will typically
account for a large proportion of the overall value but a small percentage of the overall
volume of inventory.[4]
Another recommended breakdown of ABC classes[5]:

1. "A" approximately 10% of items or 66.6% of value

2. "B" approximately 20% of items or 23.3% of value
3. "C" approximately 70% of items or 10.1% of value

What are the main Functions of

departmental Store Organisation?
The main functions of departmental Store Organisation.

A departmental store is a large scale retail establishment having a number of

departments housed in the same building and each department deal in one
particular line of products. The type of retail institution which handles a wide
variety of merchandise under one roof and each merchandise is grouped into
well defined departments which is controlled centrally. It is such a type of store
where almost all the requirement of a customer are available in one place.
According to Thomass, "a departmental store is a large retail establishment
having in the same building a number of department each of which confines its
activities to one particular kind of trade and forms a complete unit in itself."
Departmental stores were first started in France. BON MARCHE was the first
departmental store established in 1852.

A departmental store is organized as a limited company. The Board of Directors

is at the helm of affairs who controls the activities of departmental store by
formulating policies and programmes. Then come the managing Director or the
General manager, who is responsible for the efficient running of the stores under
the General Managers, different departmental managers are there who look after
their respective department.

Under each Department Managers, a number of salesmen, assistants and clerks

are there who perform the tasks of their respective departments.

Functions

The main function/Characteristics of a department store are:

• It is a large scale retail organisation.

• It has a wide range of products.
• Each department specializes a particular line of product.
• Its management is centralized.
• It is located in a most central place of big cities.
• It makes extensive use of advertisement to attract people.
• It meets the requirements of generally rich people.
Value engineering (VE) is a systematic method to improve the "value" of goods or
products and services by using an examination of function. Value, as defined, is the ratio
of function to cost. Value can therefore be increased by either improving the function or
reducing the cost. It is a primary tenet of value engineering that basic functions be
preserved and not be reduced as a consequence of pursuing value improvements. [1]

In the United States, value engineering is specifically spelled out in Public Law 104-106,
which states “Each executive agency shall establish and maintain cost-effective value
engineering procedures and processes." [2]

Value engineering is sometimes taught within the project management or industrial

engineering body of knowledge as a technique in which the value of a system’s outputs is
optimized by crafting a mix of performance (function) and costs. In most cases this
practice identifies and removes unnecessary expenditures, thereby increasing the value
for the manufacturer and/or their customers.

VE follows a structured thought process that is based exclusively on "function", i.e. what
something "does" not what it is. For example a screw driver that is being used to stir a
can of paint has a "function" of mixing the contents of a paint can and not the original
connotation of securing a screw into a screw-hole. In value engineering "functions" are
always described in a two word abridgment consisting of an active verb and measurable
noun (what is being done - the verb - and what it is being done to - the noun) and to do so
in the most non-prescriptive way possible. In the screw driver and can of paint example,
the most basic function would be "blend liquid" which is less prescriptive than "stir
paint" which can be seen to limit the action (by stirring) and to limit the application (only
considers paint.) This is the basis of what value engineering refers to as "function
analysis".[3]

Value engineering uses rational logic (a unique "how" - "why" questioning technique)
and the analysis of function to identify relationships that increase value. It is considered a
quantitative method similar to the scientific method, which focuses on hypothesis-
conclusion approaches to test relationships, and operations research, which uses model
building to identify predictive relationships.

Value engineering is also referred to as "value management" or "value methodology"

(VM), and "value analysis" (VA)[4]. VE is above all a structured problem solving process
based on function analysis—understanding something with such clarity that it can be
described in two words, the active verb and measurable noun abridgement. For example,
the function of a pencil is to "make marks". This then facilitates considering what else
can make marks. From a spray can, lipstick, a diamond on glass to a stick in the sand, one
can then clearly decide upon which alternative solution is most appropriate.
The Origins of Value Engineering
Value engineering began at General Electric Co. during World War II. Because of the
war, there were shortages of skilled labour, raw materials, and component parts.
Lawrence Miles, Jerry Leftow, and Harry Erlicher at G.E. looked for acceptable
substitutes. They noticed that these substitutions often reduced costs, improved the
product, or both. What started out as an accident of necessity was turned into a systematic
process. They called their technique “value analysis”.

[edit] The Job Plan

Value engineering is often done by systematically following a multi-stage job plan. Larry
Miles' original system was a six-step procedure which he called the "value analysis job
plan." Others have varied the job plan to fit their constraints. Depending on the
application, there may be four, five, six, or more stages. One modern version has the
following eight steps:

1. Preparation
2. Information
3. Analysis
4. Creation
5. Evaluation
6. Development
7. Presentation
8. Follow-up

Four basic steps in the job plan are:

• Information gathering - This asks what the requirements are for the object.
Function analysis, an important technique in value engineering, is usually done in
this initial stage. It tries to determine what functions or performance
characteristics are important. It asks questions like; What does the object do?
What must it do? What should it do? What could it do? What must it not do?
• Alternative generation (creation) - In this stage value engineers ask; What are the
various alternative ways of meeting requirements? What else will perform the
desired function?
• Evaluation - In this stage all the alternatives are assessed by evaluating how well
they meet the required functions and how great will the cost savings be.
• Presentation - In the final stage, the best alternative will be chosen and presented
to the client for final decision.

[edit] How it works

VE follows a structured thought process to evaluate options as follows.
Gather information

1.What is being done now?

Who is doing it?

What could it do?
What must it not do?

Measure

2.How will the alternatives be measured?

What are the alternate ways of meeting requirements?

What else can perform the desired function?

Analyze

3.What must be done?

What does it cost?

Generate

4.What else will do the job?

Evaluate

5.Which Ideas are the best?

6. Develop and expand ideas

What are the impacts?

What is the cost?
What is the performance?

7.Present ideas

Sell alternatives

Steps involved in Purchasing Process

Steps of the Purchasing Process

1. Purchase Requisition: A form known as Purchase Requisition is commonly used as a formal request to
the purchasing department to buy materials specified therein. The requisition is received from certain
authorised persons. They are storekeeper, purchase planner, plant engineer, department heads.

A purchase requisition has the following purposes:

a. It sets the purchasing process in motion

b. It is a written record of details like quantities, any speciation etc.

c. It provides date for reference i.e., date when materials are required.

Dates are important in case responsibility for stoppage in production due to shortage of materials is to be
determined.

2. Selecting the Supplier: When the purchase department receives a duly authorised purchase requisition,
the department invites tenders for the supply of materials. A comparative statement known, as ‘schedule of
quotation’ should be prepared so that supplier may be selected. The important rule here is to buy best
quality materials at the lowest possible price after giving due consideration to delivery dates and other terms
of purchase.

3. Purchase order: When the supplier is identified, the most common procedure is the preparation of a
purchase order. The purchase order is the form used by the purchase department authorising the supplier to
supply the specified materials at an agreed price and terms.

4. Receipt of Materials: Receiving Department receives all incoming materials. When the packages are
received, the receiving official gets them and makes a detailed verification of the contents. The details of the
materials received are entered in a Goods received note. Five copies of the note are prepared. Receiving
department keeps one copy. The remaining copies are routed to the purchase department, the department
originating the purchase requisition, the stores department and the accounting department.

5. Checking and Passing of Bills for Payment: Invoice gives details of goods supplied and the amount to
be paid. Account department receives the invoice from the purchase department. Then, account department
checks the authenticity as well as the arithmetical accuracy. The quantity and the price mentioned in the
invoice are checked with reference to goods received note and the purchase order respectively. The
inspection report and goods returned note should be compared with the invoice. It is also necessary to
check extensions and totals. After comparing these documents with the invoice, if it is found that the invoice
is in order, the purchase manager will sign it and pass it to the accounts department for payment.